IIEE Annual National Convention

November 2018

Source of Photo: Digitalsubstation.com

Overview
Substation Automation System
Jose Mari P. Melendres, PEE
Manila Electric Company
Sub – Transmission Services
Electric Power System Overview
❑ Electricity is generated at power plants and moves through a complex system,
sometimes called the grid, of electricity substations, transformers, and power lines
that connect electricity producers and consumers.
❑ The nodes in the power networks are called substations that perform voltage
transformation and energy routing.

❑ Substations are controlled by the

Substation Automation System
(SAS) which is composed of
electronic equipment that
continuously
✓ Monitor
✓ Protect
✓ Control
The high voltage equipment so as
to avoid unplanned network
outages.
Intelligent Electronic Devices
Role of IEDs. . . .
❑ Microprocessor-based controllers of power
system equipment
– e.g. Bay Control Unit (BCUs), protective
relay
❑ Receive digitalized data from sensors and
power equipment
❑ Issue control commands in case of anomalies
to maintain the desired status of power grid
– e.g. tripping circuit breakers
Substation Automation Computer System

Substation Automation System

- requires powerful front-end controllers in its SCADA system to perform:
▪ data acquisition
▪ protocol conversion
▪ remote supervision and control, especially in an IEC-61850 substation.
 A Glimpse of Substation Automation Evolution
Conventional SAS Proprietary SAS Digital SAS

Switch

Source of Diagram: ABB Review Special Report – IEC 61850

 Comparison of Conventional and Digital
Substation

Digital substation reduces cabling, needs less space and increases safety

Source of Diagram: ABB Grid Automation Systems, Dr. Stephen Clifford

 Digital Substation Building Blocks

Source of Diagram: ABB Grid Automation Systems, Dr. Stephen Clifford

IEC 61850 Smart Substation
A new approach for communication in substation automation and beyond….
IEC 61850 Standard
IEC 61850 is now the dominant worldwide
standard of communications for
substations. It enables integration of all
protection, control, measurement and
monitoring functions within a substation
and provides the means for high-speed
substation protection applications,
interlocking and inter-tripping.

Advantages
▪ Reduced copper wires and cabling.
▪ Easier engineering, commissioning and
maintenance.
▪ Relays and IEDs are interoperable
(almost).
▪ Networked switches and fiber optic
cables replaces the wires through
Process Bus and Station Bus.
Where did IEC 61850 came from…..

UCA – Utility Communication

Architecture
▪ Protocols
▪ Data Models
▪ Abstract Services Definition

UCA and IEC 608705

The international Goal merge to create one
common standard

IEC 608705 – European Experience

▪ A communication profile for sending
basic tele-control message between
two systems
▪ Based on permanent directly
connected data circuits
Global Driver
▪ Necessity to simplify & standardize Substation design,
Construction, commissioning, operation and maintenance
Driven By
▪ Utilities through UCA & IEC standard committees
IEC 61850 Standard
What is IEC 61850?
▪ Not just a communications protocol
▪ A comprehensive standard for the design of
substation automation systems and applications
▪ A collection of multiple protocols, concepts and
component standards
▪ A platform for designing, implementing, and
operating utility automation systems
▪ A method for adding needed context and
structure around what historically was simple,
unformatted data
▪ A “way of life” for utility automation
Objectives of the IEC 61850 Standard

❑ Reduce the number of communication protocols for

Substation Automation application
❑ Easier integration in-between devices from different
manufacturers (interoperability)
❑ Easy access to all the data of the substation:
▪ All data accessible to all the applications.
▪ Make the interchange of data between utilities easier
❑ Agreement between manufacturers and users about the
free interchange of information between units
❑ Communications independence regarding the technology
❑ Communication profiles based on international standards:
▪ IEC / IEEE / ISO / OSI.
▪ I.e. MMS, TCP/IP, Ethernet
❑ Benefits of LAN technology:
▪ Common physical level
▪ Wider communication bandwidth
▪ Incorporation to the enterprise corporative networks
Contents of the IEC 61850 Standard
61850-1 : Introduction and overview

61850-2 : Glossary

61850-3 : General Requirements

61850-4 : System and Project Management

61850-5 : Communication Requirements for
Functions and Device Models
61850-6 : Substation Automation System
Configuration Description Language
61850-7 : Basic Communication Structure
for Substation and Feeder Equipment
61850-8 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM)
61850-9 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM)
61850-10 : Conformance testing
Contents of the IEC 61850 Standard
61850-1 : Introduction and overview

61850-2 : Glossary

61850-3 : General Requirements

61850-4 : System and Project Management Philosophy of the new

architecture and content of the
61850-5 : Communication Requirements for other parts
Functions and Device Models
61850-6 : Substation Automation System
Configuration Description Language
61850-7 : Basic Communication Structure
for Substation and Feeder Equipment
61850-8 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM)
61850-9 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM)
61850-10 : Conformance testing
Contents of the IEC 61850 Standard
61850-1 : Introduction and overview

61850-2 : Glossary

61850-3 : General Requirements

61850-4 : System and Project Management

61850-5 : Communication Requirements for Collection of terms used in the
Functions and Device Models standard
61850-6 : Substation Automation System
Configuration Description Language
61850-7 : Basic Communication Structure
for Substation and Feeder Equipment
61850-8 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM)
61850-9 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM)
61850-10 : Conformance testing
Contents of the IEC 61850 Standard
61850-1 : Introduction and overview

61850-2 : Glossary

61850-3 : General Requirements

61850-4 : System and Project Management

61850-5 : Communication Requirements for
Functions and Device Models Quality requirements
61850-6 : Substation Automation System (reliability, maintenance,
Configuration Description Language security etc)

61850-7 : Basic Communication Structure Environmental conditions

for Substation and Feeder Equipment
Auxiliary services
61850-8 : Specific Communication Service
Other standards and
Mapping (SCSM)
specifications
61850-9 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM)
61850-10 : Conformance testing
Contents of the IEC 61850 Standard
61850-1 : Introduction and overview

61850-2 : Glossary

61850-3 : General Requirements

61850-4 : System and Project Management Engineering requirements

(parameters, tools,
61850-5 : Communication Requirements for
documentation)
Functions and Device Models
61850-6 : Substation Automation System Life cycle of the system
Configuration Description Language (product versions,
discontinuation, support
61850-7 : Basic Communication Structure after the discontinuation)
for Substation and Feeder Equipment
Assurance of the quality
61850-8 : Specific Communication Service (responsibilities, testing unit,
Mapping (SCSM) type tests, system tests,
61850-9 : Specific Communication Service approval in factory, approval
Mapping (SCSM) in field)

61850-10 : Conformance testing

Contents of the IEC 61850 Standard
61850-1 : Introduction and overview

61850-2 : Glossary

61850-3 : General Requirements

61850-4 : System and Project Management

61850-5 : Communication Requirements for
Functions and Device Models
61850-6 : Substation Automation System
Configuration Description Language
61850-7 : Basic Communication Structure Basic requirements (generals)
for Substation and Feeder Equipment
Concept introduction :
61850-8 : Specific Communication Service Logical nodes
Mapping (SCSM) Logical communication links,
61850-9 : Specific Communication Service benefits, functions, etc.
Mapping (SCSM)
61850-10 : Conformance testing
Contents of the IEC 61850 Standard
61850-1 : Introduction and overview Language based on XML
61850-2 : Glossary Describes the configuration
and the parameters of the
61850-3 : General Requirements IEDs, communication
61850-4 : System and Project Management configurations, relationships
between IEDs,
61850-5 : Communication Requirements for etc.
Functions and Device Models
Main objective : Interchange
61850-6 : Substation Automation System of data between engineering
Configuration Description Language tools from different
61850-7 : Basic Communication Structure manufacturers.
for Substation and Feeder Equipment
61850-8 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM)
61850-9 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM)
61850-10 : Conformance testing
Contents of the IEC 61850 Standard
61850-1 : Introduction and overview

61850-2 : Glossary

61850-3 : General Requirements

61850-4 : System and Project Management

61850-5 : Communication Requirements for
Functions and Device Models
7-1 : Principles and models
61850-6 : Substation Automation System
Configuration Description Language 7-2 : Abstract communication
service interface (ACSI)
61850-7 : Basic Communication Structure
for Substation and Feeder Equipment
7-3 : Common data classes
61850-8 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM) 7-4 : Compatible logical node
and data object addressing
61850-9 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM)
61850-10 : Conformance testing
Contents of the IEC 61850 Standard
61850-1 : Introduction and overview

61850-2 : Glossary Introduction to section 7

61850-3 : General Requirements Communication principles and
models
61850-4 : System and Project Management
61850-5 : Communication Requirements for
Functions and Device Models
7-1 : Principles and models
61850-6 : Substation Automation System
Configuration Description Language 7-2 : Abstract communication
service interface (ACSI)
61850-7 : Basic Communication Structure
for Substation and Feeder Equipment
7-3 : Common data classes
61850-8 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM) 7-4 : Compatible logical node
and data object addressing
61850-9 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM)
61850-10 : Conformance testing
Contents of the IEC 61850 Standard
61850-1 : Introduction and overview ACSI description
Specification of the abstract
61850-2 : Glossary communication services

61850-3 : General Requirements Specification of the Model of

the structure of the unit
61850-4 : System and Project Management database
61850-5 : Communication Requirements for
Functions and Device Models
7-1 : Principles and models
61850-6 : Substation Automation System
Configuration Description Language 7-2 : Abstract communication
service interface (ACSI)
61850-7 : Basic Communication Structure
for Substation and Feeder Equipment
7-3 : Common data classes
61850-8 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM) 7-4 : Compatible logical node
and data object addressing
61850-9 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM)
61850-10 : Conformance testing
Contents of the IEC 61850 Standard
61850-1 : Introduction and overview

61850-2 : Glossary
Common Data Classes and
61850-3 : General Requirements related attributes
61850-4 : System and Project Management
61850-5 : Communication Requirements for
Functions and Device Models
7-1 : Principles and models
61850-6 : Substation Automation System
Configuration Description Language 7-2 : Abstract communication
service interface (ACSI)
61850-7 : Basic Communication Structure
for Substation and Feeder Equipment
7-3 : Common data classes
61850-8 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM) 7-4 : Compatible logical node
and data object addressing
61850-9 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM)
61850-10 : Conformance testing
Contents of the IEC 61850 Standard
61850-1 : Introduction and overview

61850-2 : Glossary

61850-3 : General Requirements Logical nodes and data classes

61850-4 : System and Project Management

61850-5 : Communication Requirements for
Functions and Device Models
7-1 : Principles and models
61850-6 : Substation Automation System
Configuration Description Language 7-2 : Abstract communication
service interface (ACSI)
61850-7 : Basic Communication Structure
for Substation and Feeder Equipment
7-3 : Common data classes
61850-8 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM) 7-4 : Compatible logical node
and data object addressing
61850-9 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM)
61850-10 : Conformance testing
Contents of the IEC 61850 Standard
61850-1 : Introduction and overview Profile that uses the MMS
application protocol and
61850-2 : Glossary
Ethernet to implement the
61850-3 : General Requirements communication between the
IED’S (substation bus)
61850-4 : System and Project Management
Defines the messages
61850-5 : Communication Requirements for implemented by the abstract
Functions and Device Models services and the models
61850-6 : Substation Automation System defined in sections 7-2, 7-3
Configuration Description Language and 7-4

61850-7 : Basic Communication Structure

for Substation and Feeder Equipment
8-1 : Mappings to MMS (ISO
61850-8 : Specific Communication Service
9506-1 and ISO 9506-2) and to
Mapping (SCSM)
ISO/IEC 8802-3
61850-9 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM)
61850-10 : Conformance testing
Contents of the IEC 61850 Standard
61850-1 : Introduction and overview
Definition of communications
61850-2 : Glossary for the process bus: between
position and process levels.
61850-3 : General Requirements
Implies the use of Merging
61850-4 : System and Project Management Units or electronic
61850-5 : Communication Requirements for transformers with
Functions and Device Models communication capacities.
61850-6 : Substation Automation System
Configuration Description Language
61850-7 : Basic Communication Structure
for Substation and Feeder Equipment
61850-8 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM) 9-1 : Sampled values over serial
unidirectional multidrop point to
61850-9 : Specific Communication Service point link
Mapping (SCSM)
9-2 :Sampled values over ISO/IEC
61850-10 : Conformance testing 8802-3
Contents of the IEC 61850 Standard
61850-1 : Introduction and overview

61850-2 : Glossary

61850-3 : General Requirements

61850-4 : System and Project Management The test cases are defined, as
well as the testing process,
61850-5 : Communication Requirements for
necessary documentation,
Functions and Device Models
methodology, etc.
61850-6 : Substation Automation System
Configuration Description Language
61850-7 : Basic Communication Structure
for Substation and Feeder Equipment
61850-8 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM)
61850-9 : Specific Communication Service
Mapping (SCSM)
61850-10 : Conformance testing
IEC 61850 Key Concepts (Modelling)

61850-7-3
Common Data

61850-9 V,I, Status

Process Bus

61850 Addresses All Aspects of Substation

Communication and Configuration
IEC 61850 Key Concepts (Modelling)
❑ Physical Device or Server :
▪ The server represents the visible
behavior of a device through the set
of data the clients can get access to.
❑ Logical Device (LD) :
▪ The logical device represents a group
of related functions. Each function is
defined through Logical Nodes (LN)
❑ Logical Node (LN) :
▪ The logical nodes represent specific
functions. It is the smallest part of a
function that interchanges data
❑ Data :
▪ Information of the Logical Nodes.
❑ Data attributes :
▪ Information in the data
Logical Node Information Categories

Common Logical Node Information

- Information independent from the dedicated function
represented by the LN, e.g., mode, health, name plate

Status Information
- Information representing either the status of the
process or of the function allocated to the LN, e.g., switch
type, switch operating capability, etc
Settings
- Information needed for the function of a logical node,
e.g., first, second, and third reclose time, close pulse
time, and reclaim time of an auto reclosing function
Measured Values
- Are analog data measured from the process or calculated in
the functions like current, voltage, power, etc., e.g. total
active power, total reactive power, frequency, net energy
Controls
- Are data which are changed by commands like
switchgear state (trip/close), recloser switch (ON/OFF),
tap changer position, e.g., position, block opening
IEC 61850 Key Concepts (Modelling)
Practically, IEC 61850 defines . . . . . .
• The Semantics (meaning) of information

• The Syntax (structure) of information

• The “Behavior” of the Logical Nodes
 Digital Substation Architecture

❑ The station bus connects the IEDs for protection,

control and monitoring (ie, bay units) with station
level devices (ie, the station computer with HMI
and the gateway)
STATION BUS:

PROCESS BUS:❑ The Process bus is generically defined as the

digital transmission of process measurements
between the substation switchyard and digital
protective relays in the control house
❑ Process bus replaces hard wired connections with
communication lines such as fiber optic cables
❑ "Smart" CT's, PT's and switchgear continuously
transmits data over the process bus and any
upstream devices that wish to use the data for
protection, measurements, metering, or monitoring
Image source:www.think-grid.org
Substation Automation System Architecture

❑ The use of the ethernet network and

switches allow a great variety of
architectures

❑ Typical topologies of the

network:
▪ Bus Configuration
▪ Star Configuration
▪ Ring Configuration
Substation Automation System Network Topology

Bus Architecture

❑ Advantage : Shorter link distance between switches

❑ Disadvantage: Without redundancy, higher latency times
Substation Automation System Network Topology

Star Architecture

❑ Advantage : Lower latency (nº of switches between IEDs)

❑ Disadvantage : Without redundancy, critical head switch
Substation Automation System Network Topology

Ring Architecture

❑ Advantages : Supports a simple failure between switches, shorter

link distances between switches
❑ Disadvantages : Higher latency
Substation Automation System Network Topology

Redundant Ring
Architecture (1)

❑ Advantages : Redundancy between switches

❑ Disadvantages : Higher link cost between switches
Substation Automation System Network Topology

Redundant Ring
Architecture (2)

❑ Advantages : Redundancy between switches + HMI and RTU

redundancy + redundancy of the most critical switches
❑ Disadvantages : Higher cost
Substation Automation System Network
Redundancy

❑ Based on IEC 62439

- Seamless Communication Redundancy Requirement

❑ Proposed network redundancy:

▪ RSTP (Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol)
▪ PRP (Parallel Redundancy Protocol )
▪ HSR (High–availability Seamless Redundancy)

❑ Typical Network Recovery Times:

Protocol Frame Loss Typical Recovery Time
RSTP YES 500 milliseconds
PRP NO 0 milliSeconds
HSR NO 0 milliSeconds

The importance of network communication protocols, as well as

their recovery times against a loss of link, is considered critical in
certain industrial systems
Network Redundancy : RSTP
Single ring topology

▪ Control for ring topologies

▪ The basic function of RSTP is to
prevent loops and the broadcast
radiation that results from them
▪ Detects loops, disables links and leaves
a single active path between any two
network nodes.
Double ring topology
NOTE:
Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol (RSTP)
have time limitations when reconfiguring the
network table, so they are not adequate for
the current demands of critical systems
Network Redundancy : PRP
❑ Each IED has two communication ports
Each network : ❑ Ports are connected to two independent
Star topology networks.
▪ The independent networks can have any
topology (star, ring, etc.)
❑ Each message is sent on both ports
simultaneously:
▪ The receiving IED will receive both
messages via its two ports and will act on
the basis of the first message received.
▪ If one of the messages is lost the other is
received without any delay.
Each network : ❑ Redundancy ‘Red’ Boxes are required to
Ring topology connect IEDs without PRP to both LANs....

PRP is a protocol to ensure high availability and

reduce the network recovery time and, therefore,
the transmission loss to "zero"
Network Redundancy : HSR HSR ensures the high
availability and reduces the
network recovery time and,
therefore, the transmission
to "Zero".

❑ Single ring topology

❑ Each IED has two communication ports.
❑ Each message is sent out on both ports simultaneously and travel around
the ring in different directions.
▪ The receiving IED will receive both messages via its two ports and will
act on the basis of the first message received.
▪ If one of the messages is lost the other is received without any delay.
❑ All IEDs in the ring must support HSR with dual ports.
Network Redundancy : Link Failover

❑ Each IED has two communication

ports.
❑ Only one port is active and if there
is a link failure in that port, the
device switches to the redundant
port.
❑ The two Ethernet ports of the
equipment must be connected to
different network switches, but
must belong to the same network,
so that the switches should be
connected at some point in the
network.
❑ This switching is almost
instantaneous, allowing even
goose redundancy without loss or
minimal loss (1 repetition).
IEC 61850 Transmission The example in the following figure illustrates how
Protocol the three protocols contribute to substation
communication.

MMS Traffic
• Manufacturing Messaging Specification
▪ For monitoring substation status

GOOSE Traffic
Step 1: After sensing that the current in the power
• Generic Object Oriented Substation Events line is too high, a merging unit sends a
message using the SMV protocol to a
▪ For status updates and sending command protection relay.
requests Step 2: The protection relay uses the GOOSE
protocol to notify the intelligent control unit
to trip the circuit breaker.
SMV Traffic Step 3: After switching the power off, the
intelligent control unit uses the GOOSE
• Sampled Measured Values protocol to notify the protection relay that
▪ For transmitting power lines current and the power has been cut.
voltage values Step 4: The protection relay uses the MMS
protocol to notify the power SCADA
server that the power line has been cut.
Step 5: The power SCADA server issues an
alarm.
IEC 61850 – The Meralco Experience
Meralco IEC 61850 – Pilot Substations

The major equipment:

❑ 115KV GIS breakers
❑ 34.5 breakers in Switchgear (1 bus tie, 1 capacitor
bank, 4 feeders, 1 secondary transformer bank)
❑ 83MVA power transformer
❑ Substation Automation System
❑ Transformer Condition-Based Monitoring Devices
(Calisto, Tapcon, Qualitrol, Sel2440)
Meralco IEC 61850 – Pilot Substations

(Conventional to Digital Substation)

The major equipment:

❑ 115KV – SF6 Circuit breakers (outdoor)
❑ 34.5 breakers in Switchgear (1 bus tie, 1 capacitor bank,
4 feeders, 1 secondary transformer bank)
❑ 83MVA power transformer
Integrated Substation Automation
Integrated Solution:
• IEC 61850 protocol
• SCADA Master Station - DNP3
• Protection Management System
(PMS)
• Data Concentrator
• Bay Control Unit
• Switchgear Control Unit
• Transformer Condition Based
Monitoring Devices
Challenges and Learnings in Adopting IEC 61850
1
Technology Adoption

▪ Technology Maturity
▪ Station Bus - Mature
▪ Process Bus – Still Evolving

▪ Scheme, Timing and Applicability

▪ NEW GIS Substation
▪ NEW Conventional Substation
▪ Migration of Existing GIS Substation
▪ Migration of Existing Conventional Substation
Challenges and Learnings in Adopting IEC 61850
2
Technology Transfer

▪ Capacity Building
▪ Knowledge on Networking Principles
▪ Basic Knowledge of MMS and XML
▪ Architecture Designs and Selection
▪ Relay, IEDs and Gateway Configuration
▪ Substation Automation System-HMI/Servers Installation and
Configuration
▪ Integration of SAS with Gateway and IEDs
▪ IED to IED GOOSE Communication
▪ IED and MERGING Units Communication using Sample Values

▪ Turnkey Projects provide limited learning exposure

Challenges and Learnings in Adopting IEC 61850
3
Implementation and Sustainability

▪ Project Governance
▪ Coordination and Monitoring
▪ Documentation

▪ Complexity and Reliability

▪ Large number of switches and IED
▪ Thousands of Alarm Points that need to be understood

▪ Processes and Tools

▪ For FAT, SAT, Commissioning and O&M

▪ Inter-operability
▪ Full or Partial Compliance of vendors to the standard

▪ Vendor Support
▪ Maintenance Support through SLA including Training
Proposed Solution and Recommendation

1. Adapt IEC 61850 Standard for the Protection and Control System
• Take advantage of the benefits offered by the new
standard:
• Less Cabling
• Less Engineering works
• Standardized information across all equipment

• Less exposure to problems with very proprietary systems

inherent on legacy SAS systems. IEC 61850 is supported by
vendors from USA,ASIA and EUROPE.

• IEC61850 is the FUTURE. It is a good example of “Internet

of Things” machine talking to a machine to do protection
and control of the whole substation.
Proposed Solution and Recommendation
2. Recommended IEC 61850 Protection and Control Scheme
• Adapt a Phased Approach in IEC 61850 Implementation
• Apply Station Bus initially going to more advance process bus later

• Once the technology is fully matured, adheres to “open-standard” and

can be tested live
• Apply IEC 61850 on a large scale deployment down to the process
bus system, in a vendor independent approach

Legend: GIS Room SCADA Room

Hard-Wired SCADA Cabinet
Local Control Protection
Fiber Optics Cabinet Cabinet SAS
Proposed Solution and Recommendation

3. Develop Skills And Competencies on IEC 61850 Standard

• Attend formal training modules on IEC 61850.

• Set-up a Substation Automation System in a laboratory

environment using familiar Relays, IED and other equipment

• Engage the services of an Integrator who will help set-up the Lab
for training and testing

• Build the system from “Ground Up”

Proposed Solution and Recommendation

4. Strengthen Project Governance and Technology

Sustainability
• Establish the IEC 61850 Steering Committee and Working Group

• Ensure that policies and other requirements are in place:

• Vendor Engagement – POC, Bidding, Awarding, Kick-OFFs
and Implementation
• Systems, Tools and Equipment Specifications

• Ensure that necessary processes are in place:

• Design
• Testing and Commissioning
• Operation and Maintenance
IEC 61850 Standard
In a nut shell…
❑ Standard is 1200 pages over 10 parts (!!)
▪ Referenced by other standards
▪ Dependent on other standards
❑ The goal of the Standard is to define digital communications
within a substation
▪ Protocols, data types, message formats
▪ Not applications
❑ Long term vision is interoperable devices
▪ Communications only
▪ Interoperable <> interchangeable
Thank you!