2.

1 Networking EMK Notes

Objective:
 Show understanding of purpose and benefits of networking devices.
 Show understanding of characteristics of a LAN and a WAN.
 Explain client-server and peer-to-peer models of networked computers.
 Roles of different computers within network and subnetwork models. Benefits and
drawbacks of each model. Justify use of a model for a given situation.
 Show understanding of thin-client and thick-client and differences between them.
 Show understanding of bus, star, mesh and hybrid topologies. Understand how packets are
transmitted between two hosts in given topology. Justify use of topology for given situation.
 Show understanding of differences between and implications of use of wireless and wired
networks. Describe characteristics of copper cable, fiber optic cable, radio waves (including
WiFi), microwaves, satellites.
 Describe hardware that is used to support a LAN. Including switch, server, Network Interface
Card, Wireless Network Interface Card, Wireless Access Points , cables, bridge, repeater.
 Describe role and function of a router in a network.

What is Network?
"Network is a linked set of two or more computer systems, which may be capable of
sharing computer resources such as printers, CD-ROM and databases."
Networks may be wired or wireless.

Category of Networks

 Private networks are owned by a single company or organisation (they are LANs or
intranets with restricted user access, for example, passwords and user ids are
required to join network).
 Public networks are owned by a communications carrier company (such as a
telecoms company); many organisations will use network and there are usually no
specific password requirements to enter network – but sub-networks may be under
security management.

Benefit of Networking (Rather than using stand-alone computers)

 Devices, such as printers, can be shared thus reducing costs.

 Licenses to run software on networks are far cheaper than buying licences for an

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equivalent number of stand-alone computers.

 Users can share files and data.
 Access to reliable data that comes from a central source, such as a file server.
 Data and files can be backed up centrally at end of each day.
 Users can communicate using email and instant messaging.
 Network manager can oversee network and apply access rights to certain files, or
restrict access to external networks, such as internet.

Drawback of using Networking

 Cabling and servers can be an expensive initial outlay.

 Managing a large network can be a complex and difficult task.
 A breakdown of devices, such as the file servers, can affect whole network.
 Malware and hacking can affect entire networks.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Wide area networks (WANs) are used when computers or networks are situated a long
distance from each other (e.g they may be in different cities or on different continents). If a
number of LANs are joined together using a router or modem, they can form a WAN.
Example of WAN: Network of automated teller machines (ATMs) used by banks.
Benefits of having Computers connected by a WAN:
 ‘job’ could be run on a remote computer that had the required application software
 Data archive that was stored on a remote computer could be accessed.
 A message could be transmitted electronically to a user on a remote computer.
Characteristic of WAN:
 It will be used by an organization or a company to connect sites or branches.
 It will not be owned by organization or company.
 It will be leased from a public switched telephone network company (PSTN).
 A dedicated communication link will be provided by the PSTN.
 Transmission medium will be fiber-optic cable.
 Transmission within WAN will be from switch to switch.
 Switch will connect WAN to each site.
 There will not be any end-systems connected directly to WAN.
WANS have slowest data communication rates and largest distances could be thousands
of kilometres apart.

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Local Area Network (LAN)

LANs are usually contained within one building, or within a small geographical area. A
typical LAN consists of a number of computers and devices (such as printers) connected to
hubs or switches.

One of the hubs or switches is usually connected to a router and/or modem to allow LAN
to connect to the internet or become part of a wide area network (WAN).

Hub is hardware device used to connect together a number of devices to form a LAN;
directs incoming data packets to all devices on the network (LAN).

Switch is hardware device used to connect together a number of devices to form a LAN;
directs incoming data packets to a specific destination address only.

Router is hardware device which enables data packets to be routed between different
networks (for example, can join LANs to form a WAN).

Modem is modulator demodulator; device which converts digital data to analogue data
(to be sent down a telephone wire); conversely it converts analogue data to digital data
(which a computer can process).

Benefits of connecting PCs in a LAN: M/J 2023-P12

 Expense of installing application software on each individual PC could be saved
by installing software on an application server attached to LAN instead.
 Allow sharing of file. File server could be attached to LAN that allowed users to
store larger files and also allowed files to be shared between users.
 Allow sharing of resources. Instead of supplying individual printers to be connected
to a user’s PC, one or more printers could be attached to print server that was
connected to LAN.
 Allow Central Management e.g backup / security.
 Managers in organizations could use electronic mail to communicate with staff
rather than sending round memos on paper.
 ‘Paper-less office’ became a possibility, where files were to be stored in digital
form on a file server rather than as paper copies in a filing cabinet.
Give three Main Characteristics LAN. M/J 2023-P12

 It will be used by an organization or a company within a site or branch.

 LAN Cover small geographical area.

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 It will be owned by organization or company.

 Transmission medium will be twisted pair cable or Wi-Fi.
 LAN will contain a device that allows connection to other networks.
 There will be end-systems connected which will be user systems or servers.
Wireless LANs (WLANs) are similar to LANs but there are no wires or cables. Provide
wireless network communications over fairly short distances (up to 100 metres) using
radio or infrared signals.

Size of a Different Type of Network:

WAN: 100 km to over 1000 km ( Wide Area Network )
MAN: 1 km to 100 km (metropolitan area network )
LAN: 10 m to 1000 m ( Local Area Network )
PAN: 1 m to 10 m ( Personal Area Network )

Word Internet is a shortened form of term ‘internetwork’, which describes number of

networks all connected together.

Client-Server Model
Client-server model uses separate dedicated servers and specific client workstations;
client computers will be connected to server computer(s).
 Users are able to access most of files, which are stored on dedicated servers.
 Server dictates which users are able to access which files. (Note: sharing of
data is most important part of the client-server model.)
 Client-server model allows installation of software onto a client’s computer.
 The model uses central security databases which control access to the shared
resources. (Note: passwords and user IDs are required to log into the network.)
 Once a user is logged into the system, they will have access to only those resources
and files assigned to them by the network administrator, so offers greater security
than peer-to-peer networks.
 Client-server networks can be as large as you want them to be and they are much
easier to scale up than peer-to-peer networks.
 A central server looks after the storing, delivery and sending of emails.
 Client-server model offers most stable system, for example, if someone deletes a
shared resource from server, back-up would restore deleted resource.
 Client-server network can become bottlenecked if there are several client requests
at time.

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 In Client-Server Model, a file server is used and is responsible for

Central storage and management of data files, thus enabling other network users
to access files.
Allowing users to share information without the need for offline devices (such as
a memory stick)
Allowing any computer to be configured as host machine and act as file server
(note that server could be a storage device (such as SSD or HDD) that could also
serve as a Remote Storage device for other computers, thus allowing them to
access this device as if it were a local storage device attached to their computer).
Examples of use of Client-Server network model
A company/user would choose a client-server network
model for following reasons.
 The company/user has a large user-base (This network model may still be used by a
small group of people who are doing independent projects but need to have sharing
of data and access to data outside the group).
 Access to network resources needs to be properly controlled.
 There is a need for good network security.
 Company requires its data to be free from accidental loss (Data needs to be backed
up at a central location).
Peer-to-Peer model
Peer-to-peer is type of network in which each node can share its files with all other nodes.
Each node has its own data and there is no central server. Because there is no central
storage, there is no requirement to authenticate users.

Node is a device connected to network (it can be computer, storage or peripheral device).
On a Peer-To-Peer network, each node joins network to allow;
 Provision of Services to all other network users; services available are listed on nominated
‘look up’ computer – when a node requests a service, ‘look up’ computer is contacted to
find out which of other network nodes can provide required service.
 Other users on network to simply access data from another node.
 Communication with other peers connected to network.
 Peers to be both suppliers and consumers (unlike client-server model where consumers
and resources are kept entirely separate from each other).
 Peers to participate as equals on network (this is different to client-server model where a
webserver and client have different responsibilities).

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Peer to Peer model is used in scenarios where few number of nodes are required (small
business) where it is relatively easy for users to be in contact with each other. More
number of nodes leads to performance and management issues.

Peer-to-peer network offers little data security since there is no central security system.
This means it is impossible to know who is authorized to share certain data.
In Peer to Peer network users can create their own network node share point which is only
real security aspect since this gives them some kind of control. However, there are no Real
authentication procedures.
Examples of peer-to-peer network model:
A user would choose peer-to-peer network model for one following reasons:
 Network of users is fairly small.
 There is no need for robust security.
 They require workstation-based applications rather than being server-based.
An example would be a small business where there is frequent user interaction and there is
no need to have features of a client-server network.
Peer-to-peer model advantages Client-Server Model advantages
It avoids possibility of congestion on network It allows an organisation to control
when many clients are simultaneously downloading and use of files.
attempting to download files
Parts of a file can be downloaded separately. Files can be better protected from malware
Parts are available from more than one host. attacks because files are stored on one
server which will be regularly scanned
using appropriate anti-virus software.

Types of Clients
Client-server model offers thin clients and Thick clients. These can often refer to both
Hardware and Software.
Thin Client
Thin Client can either be a device or software which needs to be
connected to a powerful computer or server to allow processing to take place. Thin client
will not work unless it is connected at all times to computer or server.
Example of Thin Clients:
 Software example would be a Web browser which has very limited functions unless
it is connected to a server.
 Other examples is mobile phone apps which need constant access to a server to
work.

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 Hardware example is a POS terminal at a supermarket that needs constant access

to a server to find prices, charge customers and to do any significant processing.
Pros and Cons of using Thin Client
Pros Cons
Less expensive to expand (low powered High reliance on the server; if the server
and cheap devices can be used) goes down or there is a break in
communication link then the devices
cannot work.
All devices are linked to a server (data Despite cheaper hardware, the start-up
updates and new software installation costs are generally higher than for thick
done centrally) clients.
Server can offer protection against hacking
and malware.

Thick Client
Server performs minimal processing for client. clients do most of their
own processing independently. most of the resources are installed locally. Thick client can
either be device or software that can work offline or online. It is still able to do some
processing whether it is connected to a server or not.
Example of Thick Client:
 Hardware example is a normal PC/laptop since it would have its own storage, RAM and
operating system which means it is capable of operating effectively online or offline.
 Software Example is computer game which can run independently on a user’s computer,
but can also connect to an online server to allow gamers to play and communicate with
each other.
Pros and Cons of using Thick Client
Pros Cons
More robust. device can carry out Less secure (relies on clients to keep their own
processing even when not connected to data secure)
server.
Clients have more control (they can store Each client needs to update data and software
their own programs and data/files) individually
Data integrity issues, As many clients access
same data which can lead to inconsistencies.

Differences between thick and thin client software

Thin client software Thick client software
Always relies on a connection to a remote Can run some of the features of the software
server or computer for it to work. even when not connected to a server.

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Requires very few local resources (SSD, RAM Relies heavily on local resources.
memory or CPU processing time).
Relies on a good, stable and fast network More tolerant of a slow network connection
connection for it to work.
Data is stored on remote server or computer. Can store data on local resources such as
HDD or SSD.
ESQ: Network runs as thick-client model. Describe what is meant by a thick-client model.
Networked Computers
Networked computers form an infrastructure which enables internal and external
communications to take place. The infrastructure includes the following:
Hardware Software Services
• LAN cards •Operation and management of • DSL
• routers the network • Satellite communication
• switches • operation of firewalls channels
• wireless routers • security applications /utilities • Wireless protocols
• cabling • IP addressing.
Five requirements for a data communications system are a sender, a receiver,
a transmission medium, a message and a protocol.

Types of transmission mode on bases of Direction of data

 Simplex Data Transmission: …..Transmission:
Simplex is one direction data transmission from transmitter (sender) to receiver.
Example:
(a) Data from keyboard to your CPU.
(b) Data being sent from a computer to a printer.
(c) Another example are Television, or Radio.
 Half-Duplex Data Transmission:
It is transmission of data in both directions but not at the same time. An example of
a half-duplex system is walkie-talkie.
 Full-Duplex Data Transmission:
It is transmission of data in both directions simultaneously. It is also known as duplex
data transmission.
Example:
1) Broadband connection on a phone line.
2) Telephone is a full-duplex device because both parties can talk at once.
Type of Message

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When a message is sent it can be as a broadcast, a multicast or a unicast.

 Unicast Message:
Communication technique in which data transmission is done between two devices
is known as Unicast. It is also known as one to one or point to point communication.
Example: Communication between server and client.
 Multicast Message:
Communication technique in which data transmission is done between a particular
group of devices is known as Multicast. This is similar to group message that we send
through SMS or sending e-mail to a particular mailing group.
 Broadcast:
Communication where a piece of information is sent from one point to all other points.
In this case there is just one sender, but information is sent to all connected receivers.
Network Topologies
There are many ways to connect computers to make complex networks.
❖ Point-to-Point Connection :
Simplest possible network is where two end-systems are connected by a network link.
Transmission might be simplex or duplex and a message can only be unicast.

❖ Bus Topology:
A bus topology has only one link but it is shared by number of end-
systems and is described as a multi-point connection. There is no direct connection
between any pair of end systems. A message must be broadcast even though it might only
be intended for one end-system.
Bus topology is resilient because a fault in an end-system or in the link to it does not affect
the use of the network by the other end-systems.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Even if one node fails, the remainder •If main cable fails, whole network goes down.
of the network continues to function. • Performance of network declines under heavy
loading.
• It is easy to increase the size of the • Network is not secure since each packet passes
network by adding additional nodes. through every node.

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How packets are transmitted in Bus Topology?

In bus network topology, each node looks at
each packet and determines whether or not the address of the recipient in the package
matches the node address. If so, the node accepts the packet; if not, the packet is ignored.

Bus Topology is most suitable for situations with a small number of devices with light traffic
occurring. For example, a small company or an office environment.
❖ Mesh Topology:
In this configuration, each end-system has a point-to-point connection
to each of the other end systems. Transmission is duplex; messages might be unicast,
multicast or broadcast.
Mesh topology can be used when individual LAN switches are connected in a network. The
topology is essential for the connection of routers within the infrastructure of the Internet.
Disadvantages of A Mesh Network Advantages of A Mesh Network
Large amount of cabling is needed, which is It is easy to identify where faults on the
expensive and time consuming. network have occurred.
Set-up and maintenance is difficult and Any broken links in the network do not affect
complex. the other nodes.
The network is relatively easy to expand.

❖ Star Networks:
In star topology, each end system has point-
to-point connection to central device. Transmission is duplex
and messages from central device might be unicast, multicast
or broadcast. Failure of an end-system, or its link, leaves other

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end-systems unaffected. However, central device must not fail. Central Device is
specialized device (server etc) with purpose of connecting other devices in network.
Currently, star topology is usual way to configure a network.
Advantages of A Star Network Disadvantages of star network
Data collisions are greatly reduced due to the If central hub/switch fails, then whole
topology. network goes down.
More secure network since security methods Initial installation costs are high.
can be applied to central node and packets
only travel to nodes with correct address.
ESQ: How packets are handled in Star topology?
How packets are handled depends on whether the central node is a switch or a hub. If it is a
hub, all the packets will be sent to every device/node on the star network – if the address in
the packet matches that of the node, it will be accepted; otherwise, it is ignored. If the central
node is a switch, packets will only be sent to nodes where the address matches the recipient
address in the packet.

Star Networks are useful for evolving networks where devices are frequently added or
removed. They are well suited to applications where there is heavy data traffic.

 Hybrid Networks:
Hybrid network is mixture of two or more different topologies (bus
and star, bus and mesh, and so on). Main advantages and disadvantages depend on which
types of network are used to make up hybrid network, but main disadvantage is that they
can be very complex to install, configure and maintain.
Transmission Media
 Twisted pair Cable:
Twisted pair cables are most common cable type used in LANs. It has
lowest data transfer rate and suffers most from external interference (such as
electromagnetic radiation). However, it is cheapest option. Twisted pair use copper for
transmission medium.
Types of twisted pair cable:
➢ Unshielded is used by residential users.
➢ Shielded is used commercially (Cable contains thin metal foil jacket which cancel out
some of external interference).
 Coaxial Cables:
Coaxial cables are most commonly used cables in MANs and by cable
television companies. Cost of coaxial cables is higher than twisted pair cables but they offer
better data transfer rate and are affected less by external interference. Coaxial cables also

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have about 80 time transmission capacity of twisted pair. It is not usually used for long-
distance telephone cabling.

 Fibre Optic Cables:

Fibre optic cables are commonly used to send data over long distances,
because they offer best data transfer rate, smallest signal attenuation and have a very
high resistance to external interference.
Main drawback is high cost. Fibre optics use pulses of light rather than pulses of electricity
to transmit data. They have about 26000 times transmission capacity of twisted pair cables.
Types of Fiber Optic Cable:
➢ Single-mode Fiber Optic Cable uses a single mode light source and has a smaller
central core, which results in less light reflection along cable. This allows data to
travel faster and making them a good choice for telecommunications.
➢ Multi core Fiber Optic Cable allows for multi-mode light source; construction
causes higher light reflections in core, so they work best over shorter distances (in a
LAN).

Suitability for given Application:

➢ Cost of cable and connecting devices.
➢ Best bandwidth that can be achieved. Bandwidth governs possible data transmission
rate.
Factors Causing Poor Performance of Cables:
➢ Interference affecting transmitted signals.
➢ Extent of attenuation (deterioration of signal) when high frequencies are transmitted.
When a signal is transmitted at a high frequency, it can experience more attenuation
compared to a low-frequency signal.

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Wireless Transmission
It is transmission using electromagnetic radiation (radio, microwave or infrared).

 Penetration measures ability of electromagnetic radiation to pass through different

media.
Radio waves > microwaves > infrared (radio waves have best penetration)
 Attenuation is reduction in amplitude of a signal. Infrared has low attenuation
because it can be affected by rain or internal walls. Thus infrared is best suitable for
indoor use only. Fact that it can be stopped by walls is seen as an advantage since
this stops signal causing interference elsewhere.
 Bandwidth: It is measure of the amount of data that can be transmitted per second.
infrared > microwaves > radio waves (infrared has largest bandwidth)
Wired versus Wireless
 Wired Networking
➢ More reliable and stable network.
➢ Data transfer rates tend to be faster.
➢ Tends to be cheaper overall, in spite of the need to buy and install cable.
➢ Devices are not mobile; they must be close enough to allow for cable connections.
➢ Lots of wires can lead to tripping hazards, overheating of connections.

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➢ Permission from authorities and land owners is required before laying cables
underground.
 Wireless Networking:
➢ It is easier to expand networks and is not necessary to connect devices using cables.
➢ Devices have increased mobility, provided they are within range of the WAPs.
➢ Increased chance of interference from external sources.
➢ Data is less secure than with wired systems; it is easier to intercept radio waves and
microwaves than cables.
➢ Data transmission rate is slower than wired networks.
➢ Signals can be stopped by thick walls.
Wi-Fi and Bluetooth
Wi-Fi and Bluetooth offer wireless communication between devices. They both use
electromagnetic radiation as carrier of data transmission.
Bluetooth sends and receives radio waves in band of 79 different frequencies (channels).
Devices using Bluetooth automatically detect and connect to each other, but they do not
interfere with other devices since each communicating pair uses different channel. When a
device wants to communicate, it picks one of 79 channels at random. If channel is already
being used, it randomly picks another channel. This is known as Spread Spectrum
Frequency hopping.
Wi-Fi uses spread spectrum technology. Wi-Fi is best suited to operating full-scale
networks, since it offers much faster data transfer rates, better range and better security
than Bluetooth. Wi-Fi-enabled device (computer or smart phone) can access, internet
Wirelessly at any wireless access point (WAP) or ‘hot spot’ up to 100 metres away.
Satellites
Satellites are components of modern communication systems. Van Allen belts are areas
containing high levels of electrically charged particles, which interfere with satellites.

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 GEO Satellites: Highest altitude satellites are in geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) over
equator and these are used to provide long-distance telephone and computer network
communication. ‘Geostationary’ means that satellite orbits at same speed as Earth
spins,. Only three GEO satellites are needed for full global coverage.
 MEO Satellite: Closer to Earth are a group of medium Earth-orbit (MEO) satellites some
of which provide the global positioning system (GPS). Ten MEO satellites are needed for
global coverage.
 LEO Satellites: Low-Earth-orbit (LEO) satellites work in ‘constellations’ to supplement
the mobile phone networks. Fifty LEO satellites are needed for full global coverage but
currently there are several hundred LEO satellites in orbit.

Satellite can act as a component in a network and can directly connect with ground-based
components.
Disadvantage of satellites is that the greater transmission distance causes transmission
delays, which can cause technical problems for the network.
Hardware Requirements of LAN Networks
 Hub: Hubs are hardware devices that can have a number of devices or computers
connected to them.

Its main task is to take any data packet received at one of its ports and then send the data
to every computer in the network. Using hubs is not a very secure method of data
distribution and is also wasteful of bandwidth. Hubs can be wired or wireless devices.
 Switch:
Switch connect a number of computers together to form a LAN. Unlike a hub,
the switch checks the data packet received and works out its destination address and sends
the data to the appropriate computer only. This makes using a switch a more secure and
efficient way of distributing data.

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Each device on a network has a MAC address which identifies it uniquely. Data packets sent
to switches will have a MAC address identifying the source of the data and additional
addresses identifying each device which should receive the data. Switches can be wired or
wireless devices.
 Repeater:
When signals are sent over long distances, they suffer attenuation or signal
loss. Repeaters are devices which are added to transmission systems to boost the signal so
it can travel greater distances. They amplify signals on both analogue (copper cable) and
digital (fibre optic cable) communication links.

Repeaters can also be used on wireless systems. These are used to boost signals to prevent
any ‘dead spots’ in the Wi-Fi zone.
Sometimes, hubs contain repeaters and are known as repeating hubs. All signals fed to the
hub are boosted before being sent to all devices in the network, thus increasing the
operational range.
 Bridge
Bridges are devices that connect one LAN to another LAN that uses same
protocol. They are often used to connect together different parts of a LAN so that they can
function as a single LAN.
Bridges can be wired or wireless devices. Bridge stores network addresses for end-systems
in two segments it connects.

Router Routers enable data packets to be routed between different networks for
example, to join a LAN to a WAN. Router takes data transmitted in one format from a
network and converts data to a protocol and format understood by another network,
thereby allowing them to communicate via router.
Role of routers as follows;

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➢ Restrict broadcasts to a LAN.

➢ Act as a default gateway
➢ Can perform protocol translation; for example, allowing a wired network to
communicate with a wireless (Wi-Fi) network – router can take an Ethernet data
packet, remove Ethernet part and put IP address into a frame recognised by
wireless protocol.
➢ Can move data between networks.
➢ Can calculate best route to a network destination address.
 Gateway:
It is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network. It can be used
to connect two or more dissimilar LANs (LANs using different protocols). Gateway converts
data packets from one protocol to another. Gateways can also act as routers, firewalls or
servers – in other words, any device that allows traffic to flow in and out of the networks.
Gateways can be wired or wireless devices.
All networks have boundaries so that all communication within network is conducted using
devices such as switches or routers. If a network node needs to communicate outside its
network, it needs to use a gateway.
 Modems:
Modern computers work with digital data, whereas many of the public
communication channels still only allow analogue data transmission. To allow the
transmission of digital data over analogue communication channels we need to use a modem
(modulator demodulator). Modem converts digital data to analogue data. It also does the
reverse and converts data received over the analogue network into digital data which can be
understood by the computer.
Wireless modems transmit data in a modulated form to allow several simultaneous wireless
communications to take place without interfering with each other.
 Network Interface Card (NIC)
Network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to connect to a
network (such as the internet). It is usually part of the device hardware and frequently
contains the MAC address generated at the manufacturing stage.
 Wireless network interface card/controller (WNIC)
WNICs are same as NICs, in that they are used to connect devices to internet or
other networks. They use an antenna to communicate with networks via microwaves and
normally simply plug into a USB port or can be internal integrated circuit plug in.

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 CS Made Easy

Differences between routers and gateways

Public switched telephone network (PSTN)

During early years of networking, telephone network carried analogue voice data.
However, digital data could be transmitted provided that a modem was used to convert
digital data to analogue signals. Another modem was used to reverse process at receiving
end. Such ‘dial-up’ connections provided modest-speed, shared access when required.
More recently, PSTNs have upgraded their main communication lines to fibre-optic cable
employing digital technology. This has allowed to offer improved leased line services to
ISPs. There are two types of service. The first is a broadband network connection for
traditional network access. Second is WiFi hotspot technology, where an access point has a
connection to a wired network providing Internet access.

Example Telephone calls can be made by using:

• Conventional telephones (PSTN) over a wired network
• Computer, equipped with speakers and microphone, connected to the Internet
Put tick in correct column to match description to appropriate communication method.

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 2.1 Networking EMK Notes

Ans:

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Exam Style Questions
ESQ#1 One of company's offices one server and four computers connected in a star
topology. Draw a diagram to show layout of office's star topology. M/J/23 P12
Ans:

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