Think Abstract

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Think Abstract

Think Abstract

A Learning Package for

Spec 117-M Abstract Algebra

Paterno Sarol Baguinat III

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Think Abstract

Think Abstract
A Learning Package for
Spec 117-M Abstract Algebra

by

Paterno Sarol Baguinat III

and

Jose Rizal Memorial State University

All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or used in
any manner whatsoever without the express written permission of the author except for
the use of brief quotations in a book review.

Page and Cover Design: Author

ISBN _____________
First Edition ________

Published by:

JOSE RIZAL MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY

Gov. Guading Adaza St., Sta. Cruz, Dapitan City, 7101
Tel. No. (065) 908-8294
[email protected]

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Think Abstract

Course Introduction

Think Abstract is an introduction to abstract algebra. This course aims to equip the
students enrolled in the program Bachelor of Secondary Education major in Mathematics
with knowledge of basic algebraic structures such as groups, rings, integral domains and
fields. It also intends to provide basic understanding of relations focusing on isomorphism.
This course also aims to enhance the students’ skills in constructing mathematical proofs
and develop their symbolic thinking and appreciation of mathematical structures.
This course will utilize a Flexible Learning Package (FLP) which consists of course
introduction, course syllabus, learning guide, learning contract, summative assessments,
course requirements, as well as the learning activities and formative assessments that the
students need to accomplish.
The FLP for this course has the following components:
Course Introduction. This presents the overview of the course and the elucidation
of flexible learning package.
Course Syllabus. This communicates the JRMSU’s vision, mission, goals and
objectives, program and course outcomes and guides that students with the intended
learning outcomes, activities, formative assessments, grading system and the course
requirements.
Learning Guide. This encompasses the study schedule which includes activities
and respective dates the students will submit requirements. This also includes classroom
rules and conduct, technology tools to be utilized, feedback mechanism, grading plan and
contact information.
Learning Contract. This contains the terms and conditions of the University in the
implementation of the Flexible Learning System (FLS) the students are encouraged to
follow.
Summative Assessments. This shows the summative assessment plan (SAP) to
achieve the course outcome. The SAP includes the title of assessment, description of the
assessment task, scoring or grading standard and the weight allocation.
Flexible Learning Module. This is the most significant part of the FLP. It is
composed of learning units which purports to achieve the learning outcomes for the course
Abstract Algebra. Each unit contains a brief introduction, pretest, module content, learning
activities and outcome-based assessment tasks at the end of every unit.
Your knowledge, understanding and proficiency on courses in college algebra,
trigonometry, set theory, number theory, and linear algebra would help you progress in
this course. If not you have to demonstrate mastery of the basics of the mentioned course.
Wishing you a meaningful and productive learning experience.
At the end of this course, I hope you will learn to think abstract!

Paterno S. Baguinat III

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Think Abstract

Contents

Page

Cover 1
Copyright 3
Course Introduction 4
Course Syllabus 6
Learning Guide 11
Learning Contract 14
Summative Assessment 15
Flexible Learning Module 16
References 73
Glossary 74
Rubrics 75
Answer Key 76
User’s Evaluation Form 77
About the Author 78

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 Republic of the Philippines
JOSE RIZAL MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY
The Premier University in Zamboanga del Norte
Main Campus, Dapitan City 5965
Registration No. 87Q12612
INSTITUTIONAL LEVEL
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

Program: Bachelor of Secondary Education – Major in Mathematics

College: College of Education
Instructor: Paterno S. Baguinat III
Contact Number: 09399053060
COURSE SYLLABUS

Pre-requisite: Course Date & Time:

Spec 117-M
Logic and Set Theory Code Room:
Unit Credit: 3 units Course Consultation Hours:
Abstract Algebra
No. of Hours: 54 hours Title
Jose Rizal Memorial State University adheres to the principle of dynamism and cultural diversity in building a
PHILOSOPHY
just and humane society.

VISION A dynamic and diverse internationally recognized University.

Jose Rizal Memorial State University pledges itself to deliver ef f ective and ef ficient services along research,
instruction, production, and extension. It commits itself to provide advanced prof essional, technical and
MISSION
technopreneurial training with the aim of producing highly competent, innovative, and self -renewed
individuals.
Jose Rizal Memorial State University f ocuses on developing graduates who are exemplars of Rizal’s ideals
that can:
E - xhibit relevant and responsive competencies across disciplines to wards
X - enial delivery of services
C - ommunicate ideas prof iciently in both written and spoken f orm
E - ngage in lif elong learning
GOALS L - ead ef f ectively and ef f iciently amidst socio -cultural diversity
L - ive up to the challenges of the global community
E - mbody prof essional, social and ethical responsibilities
N - urture a harmonious environment
C - onserve and promote Filipino cultural heritage and
E - valuate their contribution to the local and global communities.
Think Abstract

Jose Rizal Memorial State University f ocuses on developing graduates with the f ollowing attributes:
• Globally Competitive
• Industry-Relevant
GRADUATE ATTRIBUTES OF • Ef f ective Communicator
ILUSTRADO TRIBE • Innovative
• Service-Driven

This course equips the students with knowledge of basic algebraic structures such as groups, rings, integral
COURSE domains and f ields. It provides basic understanding of relations f ocusing on isomorphism. This course also
DESCRIPTION aims to enhance the students’ skills in constructing mathematical proof s and develop their symbo lic thinking
and appreciation of mathematical structures.

PROGRAM OUTCOMES At the end of the program, the students are expected to:
ADDRESSED BY THE COURSE • Demonstrate knowledge of mathematical concepts and pro cedures, and exhibit critical thinking
and problem solving skills in the world of work.
• Participate in various types of mathematical development activities and research undertakings,
particularly in response to the needs of the communities one serves.
• Disseminate inf ormation, ideas, problems and solutions both, orally and in writing, to other
scientists, decision makers, and the public.
• Design and apply the appropriate techniques in solving mathematical problems and adapt
research-based methods and tools in solving new problems in the f ield of work.
• Participate in the generation and sharing of new knowledge and development projects.
• Engage in mathematical advancements in ways that are meaningf ul to ones elf , other disciplines,
and the lives of the people.

COURSE OUTCOMES At the end of the course, the students are expected to:
• Evaluate properties implied by the def initions of groups, rings and f ields
• Apply canonical types of groups and rings including polynomial and modular rings as well as f ields
• Solve problems involving subgroups, normal subgroups and quotient groups,
• Analyze and demonstrate examples of ideals and quotient rings,
• Use the concepts of isomorphism and homomorphism f or groups and rings, and
• Show proof s of propositions arising in the context o f abstract algebra.

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Course Learning Topics References Learning Learning Formative Summative
Outcomes Outcomes Activities Materials Assessment Assessment
Apply concepts Solve problems A Group and Its Fraleigh (2003) Problem Problem Problem
of group as involving group, Problem solving
Properties solving sets solving
algebraic group operation,
structure, group subgroups, and
operations, cyclic groups, Inf inite, Finite,
subgroups and Abelian and Non-
cyclic groups to abelian Groups
real-lif e Construct a Cayley Problem Problem set Perf ormance
table f or specif ic solving, task
group involving real- Order of Groups Warner (2019) research
lif e scenario,

Relate def inition and Subgroup Pinter (1990) Community Instruction Noting and
properties of group Immersion sheet reporting
and group operation
Cyclic Group and Journal
to real-world
scenario Generators

Solve problems Perf orm operations Group of Fraleigh (2003) Problem Problem Problem
Problem
involving of symmetric groups Permutation solving sets solving
solving,
symmetric and cosets,
groups, cosets Proving
and direct Show proof related Orbits, Cycles and Proving Propositions, Proving
Warner (2019)
products to cosets to be a Alternating Groups Instruction
group and direct sheets
products. Pinter (1990)
Direct products
Determine direct Problem Problem Problem
products and solving sets solving
abelian groups.

Solve problems Perf orm operation Factor group Fraleigh (2003) Problem Problem Problem
Problem solving
involving f actor on f actor groups solving sets solving
Proving
group,
homomorphism, Test whether or not
isomorphism the group is
homomorphic or
isomorphic.
Think Abstract
and group Homomorphism Warner (2019)
Show proof Proving Instruction Proving
action involving and isomorphism
sheet
homomorphism and
Pinter (1990)
isomorphism

Relate isomorphism Journal Journal Noting,

concept to real- Reporting
world scenario

Evaluate Assess properties of Rings and Fields Fraleigh (2003) Problem Problem Problem
properties rings including Problem solving
solving sets solving
implied by the polynomial and
def initions of modular rings as
rings and f ields well as f ields

Solve problems Ideal Rings Warner (2019) Problem Problem Problem

involving rings and solving sets solving
f ields
Extension Fields Pinter (1990)
Relate def inition and Journal Instruction Noting and
properties of rings sheet reporting
and f ields to real-
Journal
world scenario
Problem
Solve problems Analyze groups in Topology Fraleigh (2003) Problem Problem Problem
Solving
involving topology and unique solving sets solving
groups in f actorization
topology Homology Groups Warner (2019)
Relate def inition and Journal Instruction Noting and
properties of groups sheet reporting
in topology to real- Factorization Pinter (1990)
Journal
world scenario
Proving
Produce proof s Show proof s of Automorphism Fraleigh (2003) Proving Propositions, Proving
of propositions propositions for Instruction
in abstract groups of topology sheets
algebra. Galois theory Warner (2019)
Show proof of Proving Propositions, Proving
Pinter (1990)
automorphism and Instruction
Galois theory sheets

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Suggested References

Pinter, Charles C, (1990). A Book of Abstract Algebra. 2nd ed. New York : McGraw-Hill.
Fraleigh, J. B. (2003). A First Course in Abstract Algebra. 7th ed. Pearson, Upper. Saddle River, NJ
Warner, Steve (2019). Abstract Algebra f or Beginners: A Rigorous Introduction to Groups, Rings, Fields, Vector Spaces
Grading Plan

The term grade is computed using the f ormula:

40% - Perf ormance (Solved problems in learning activities, videos)

30% - Major Requirements (Summative Assessment)
30% - Formative Assessment (Unit Assessment)
Midterm Grade = 100% of Midterm Grade
Final Grade = 50% of Midterm Grade + 50% of the Final Term Grade.
Classroom Rules of Conduct

1. Course requirements must be submitted as scheduled.

2. Assignments must be done religiously. Plagiarism is strictly prohibited. Properly cite sources. Be aware that plagiarism in t he course
would not only include using another’s words but another’s specif ic intellectual post in social media.
3. All students should f eel f ree to talk to the instructor f ace-to-f ace through media during of f ice hours.
4. Academic accommodations are available f or students with sp ecial needs. Students with special needs should schedule an appointment
with the instructor early in the semester to discuss due accommodation.

Prepared by: Noted by: Noted by: Recommending Approval: Approved/Disapproved:

PATERNO S. BAGUINAT III PATRICK G. GALLETO, EdD JOJIE T. RECAMARA, EMD MARVIN A. RECAPENTE, DM ALICE MAE M. ARBON, PhD
Instructor Program Head, BSEd-Math Associate Dean, CED Campus Administrator OIC - VPAA

Date: August, 2020 Date: August, 2020 Date: August, 2020 Date: August, 2020 Date: August, 2020

Date Revised: August, 2020

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Learning Guide

The key to successfully finish this material lies in your perseverance to sincerely
and honestly perform the learning activities and accomplish the assessments. This flexible
learning package is developed with the aim to aid your learning for this course. Aside from
meeting the content and performance standards of this course in performing all the
learning activities and assessments, you will be able to learn the skills and values which
are needed in achieving the future skills and the graduate attributes to become globally
competitive individuals.

Classroom Rules and Conduct

The following are the house rules which will help you to be on track and
successfully finish this course:

The following are the house rules which will help you to be successfully finish the
course:
1. Schedule and manage your time to read and understand every component of
this learning package.
2. Study on how you can manage to perform all the learning activities in
consideration with your resources and accessibility to technology. Do not ask
questions that are already answered in the guide.
3. If you did not understand the readings and the other tasks, read again. If there
are still clarifications and questions, feel free to reach me through the contact
information indicated in this guide.
4. Do not procrastinate. As much as possible, follow the time table.
5. Read and understand the assessment and technology tools as indicated in the
directions in every assessment or activity.
6. Before the end of the midterms, you will be tasked to send back the material
trough the pigeon boxes in your department. For online learners, you will
submit your output and other tasks in the google classroom. While waiting for
my feedback of your accomplished module, you may continue on
accomplishing the tasks in the succeeding units that are scheduled for the
finals.
7. Most importantly, you are the learner; thus, you do all the tasks in your own.
You may ask assistance and guidance from your parents, siblings or friends,
but all the activities shall be performed by you alone.
8. Course requirements must be submitted as to schedule.
9. Plagiarism is strictly prohibited. Be aware that plagiarism in this course would
include not only using another’s words, but another’s specific intellectual posts
in social media. Assignments must be done independently and without
reference to another student’s work. Any outside sources used in completing

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an assignment, including internet references must be fully cited on any

homework assignment or exercise.
10. All students should feel free to talk to the instructor face-to-face or through
media during office hours.
11. Academic accommodations are available for students with special needs.
12. Students with special needs should schedule an appointment with the
instructor early in the semester to discuss any accommodations for this course.

Study Schedule
Refer to the following table for study activities and their suggested schedule.

Week Unit Title Activities

August 24-28, 2020 Orientation Flexible learning package

orientation

August 24-September 18, Groups and Subgroups Proving,

2020 journalizing/reporting,
problem solving

September 21-October 9, Permutation, Symmetric Proving,

2020 Groups, journalizing/reporting,
Cosets and Direct problem solving
Products

October 12-23 Factor Group, Proving,

Homomorphism and journalizing/reporting,
Isomorphism problem solving

October 27, 2020 Midterm Examination Problem Solving, Proving

November 9-20, 2020 Rings, Ideals, Fields and Proving,

Extension journalizing/reporting,
problem solving

November 23-December 5, Groups, Topology and Proving,

2020 Factorization journalizing/reporting,
problem solving

December 7-18, 2020 Automorphism and Galois Proving,

Theory journalizing/reporting,
problem solving

January 10, 2021 Final Examination Problem Solving, Proving

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Evaluation
To pass the course, you must observe the following:
1. Read the course module and answer the pretest, quizzes, self -assessment
activities.
2. Write your thoughts and suggestions in the comment boxes.
3. Perform all the learning activities.
4. Accomplish the assessments.
5. Submit the course requirements.
6. Perform the Midterm and Final Assessments

Technology Tools
In order to perform all the learning activities and accomplish the assessments, you
will need word processing and presentation software applications. These are applications
that are available in your desktop or laptop that will not require internet connection. All
materials and activities that will involve reporting, blogging and vlogging, and any that will
require net-based technology tools will be saved in either the CD or flash drive. These
materials will be submitted through the pigeon boxes. For online learners, materials will
be uploaded in google classroom.

Feedback Modality and Communication Mechanisms

Feedback system will be facilitated through text messaging. If you need to call,
send me a message first and wait for me to respond. Do not give my mobile phone number
to anybody. I will not entertain messages or calls from numbers that are not registered.
You may send your clarifications and questions through the google classroom.

Grading Plan

The term grade is computed using the formula:

40% - Performance (Solved problems in learning activities)
30% - Major Requirements (Summative Assessment)
30% - Formative Assessment (Unit Assessment)

Midterm Grade = 100% of Midterm Grade

Final Grade = 50% of Midterm Grade + 50% of the Final Term Grade.

Contact Information

Person/Office Email address Mobile Phone Number

Instructor [email protected] +639399053060
IMDO [email protected] +639399168104

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JOSE RIZAL MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY

LEARNING CONTRACT

By signing this learning agreement, I commit to the following terms and conditions of Jose
Rizal Memorial State University in the implementation of Flexible Learning System.
Specifically, I commit to observe the following:
1. That I must observe all guidelines of the state pertaining to the prevention of
COVID, specifically to stay home, to observe physical distancing and the use of
face masks when interacting with others.

2. That I shall prioritize my health and safety while I comply with all the necessary
learning activities and assessments needed in my enrolled courses.

3. That I will exhaust all means of complying the requirements at home or in a less
risky place and location that will not allow me to be exposed to other people.

4. That I have already read and understood all instructions pertaining to my enrolled
courses.

5. That I commit to do all the learning activities diligently, following deadlines and the
learning guide enabling me to deliver the course requirements.

6. That I commit to answer all forms of assessment in the learning package honestly.

7. That I shall initiate in giving feedback to my instructor at least once every two
weeks.

8. That I shall not reproduce or publish any part of the learning package content
without the written consent of the University and the author/s.

9. That I shall not commit any form of plagiarism in all course requirements.
Conformed:

_______________________________ ___________________
Name and signature of student Date signed

_______________________________ ___________________
Name and signature of parent/guardian Date signed
_______________________________
Contact Number of Parent/Guardian

**Please email the signed copy of this learning agreement to your instructor as soon as you have
received the learning package.

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Summative Assessment Plan

This documents presents the summative assessment strategies appropriate to

achieving the course outcomes. The f ollowing summative assessments used to evaluate
student learning, skill acquisition, and academic ac hievement at the end of a course or a
semester.

Course Title: Abstract Algebra

SY/Sem: 2020 - 2021
Course Code: Spec 117-M
First Semester

Weight
Scoring/
Title of (%) in
No Course Outcomes Description Grading
Assessment Final
Standard
Grade
Apply concepts of group as This assessment 40%
algebraic structure, group measures the
operations, subgroups and knowledge and
cyclic groups to real-life competence of
1
students in solving
Assessment in
Solve problems involving problem involving
Abstract Algebra 30%
symmetric groups, cosets groups and
2 Rubric
and direct products subgroups,
permutation,
symmetric groups,
Midterm cosets and direct
Examination products, factor
group,
Solve problems involving homomorphism and
factor group, isomorphism. 30%
3
homomorphism,
isomorphism and group
action

This summative Rubric 25%

Evaluate properties implied assessment involves
4
by the definitions of rings evaluating students
and fields performance in
solving problems
related to evaluating
properties of rings
Solve problems involving Rubric 25%
Final and fields, and
5
groups in topology Examination groups in topology

This assessments
Produce proofs of intends to evaluate
students’ proving Rubric 50%
propositions in abstract Proving
6
algebra. Propositions skills of various
concepts in group
theory such as
homomorphism,
isomorphism,
automorphism and
Galois Theory

Prepared by Paterno Sarol Baguinat III

College/Department: CED

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Think Abstract

A Flexible Learning Module in

Spec 117-M Abstract Algebra

Paterno Sarol Baguinat III

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Think Abstract

Think Abstract
A Flexible Learning Module in
Spec 117-M Abstract Algebra

by

Paterno Sarol Baguinat III

and

Jose Rizal Memorial State University

All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or used in
any manner whatsoever without the express written permission of the author except for
the use of brief quotations in a book review.

Page and Cover Design: Author

ISBN _____________
First Edition ________

Published by:

JOSE RIZAL MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY

Gov. Guading Adaza St., Sta. Cruz, Dapitan City, 7101
Tel. No. (065) 908-8294
[email protected]

18
Think Abstract

Acknowledgment

This completion of this flexible learning module would not be possible without the
motivation, encouragement and support of the following:
Foremost, the Almighty God whose immense blessings of love and wisdom, health
and faith overflow, consequently keeping the author’s enthusiasm ablaze.
Jose Rizal Memorial State University Administration spearheaded by the dynamic
Dr. Daylinda Luz R. Laput, University President; Dr. Alice Mae M. Arbon, OIC-Vice
President for Academic Affairs; the Flexible Learning System (FLS) Committee led by
Prof. Jovito Anito; and the faculty of JRMSU High School Department
Warmest love, hugs and kisses to his family: Nanay Salome, Tatay Paterno, Ate
Naomie, Barot, Cheng-cheng, Badang and James; to my nieces and nephews who are
my inspiration to go forward and hurdle the obstacles that confront me. My cousins and
relatives also deserve my thanks.
I am also grateful to my best friends Dada, Sai Tonya, Kaka, Mama, Ladada,
Frenkelle and friends Sir Jessie Flores, Inday Bucol, Charles, Jacob, Jocel, Rene and
many more, whose positive conviction enlightens my path whenever it goes blurry, if not
dark in some moments; and to all the faculty of the College of Education (CED) headed
by Dr. Narcisa S. Bureros, CED Dean and Dr. Joji T. Recamara, Associate Dean; and the
College of Business and Accountancy led by Dr. Wilfredo D. Carreon Jr.
Felications also go to Dr. Rizza B. Bagalanon, Dr. Edgar S. Balbuena, Dr. Patrick
Galleto, Dr. Ninfa B. Pangilinan, Dr. Corazon B. Ochotorena, among other faculty of CED,
Oyan Elementary School, and Sulangon National High School (This page is not enough
to mention you all) ---you have helped me become what I currently become. Thank you
so much.

Paterno S. Baguinat III

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Preface

I have never imagined myself completing a module that focuses on studying

content of one of the most difficult Mathematics subjects as Abstract Algebra (AA). It is
just too abstract for me.
AA is sometimes called modern algebra and mathematicians simply call it algebra.
Based on the name alone, you might think AA is similar to algebra courses you have taken
in high school and in the first year of college education and you would say “It is just a little
bit more abstract.” Memories were so vivid: the first time I opened a book in AA, I got
shocked because it seemed significantly far from high school and college algebra, and
yes, I am right –---it was really abstract.
However, thanks to COVID-19 I was assigned to make a module in AA for BSEd-
Mathematics for the Flexible Learning System (FLS); I admit I was so sad and in anguish
at first, but as I compose myself and collect all my learnings in linear algebra and set and
number theory, my angst transformed into enthusiasm as I delved into the lives of Euclid,
Karl Friedrich Gauss and Evariste Galois, while focusing on the very goal of making the
learning of AA easy for prospective Mathematics educators.

At first glance, you may think AA is not applicable to real life like other branches of
Mathematics. Apart from its significance in solving the famous Rubik’s cube, every year
new uses of abstract algebra are found: its applicability not only transcends in the field of
Mathematics but also in pure science like in Physics and in Chemistry as well as in
Computer Science.
Just a quick note: requisite in learning AA is mathematics experience and maturity
in the courses College and Linear algebra as well as in Set and Number Theory. Have
you proven mathematical propositions before? Have you had thought of things very
abstractly? Get ready, AA will challenge you like never before.

Don’t worry, this module will help you learn the content and assist you in achieving
the learning outcome. The language used in the module content is simple but if you find it
difficult to comprehend in the first or second attempt, read it many times. Writing in any
sheet for visualization and understanding is a great aid for you to succeed in this course.

This module titled “Think Abstract” is composed of six (6) units. It has the following
major components:

Short introduction. This presents brief generalization and salient point or view of
the unit.

Learning Outcomes. These are the target skills or competence that you are
expected to demonstrate at the end of the unit.

Pretest. This is a diagnostic assessment which measures prior knowledge or

readiness.

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Think Abstract

Content. This is a comprehensive discussion of topics that would help you

progress in the course acquire the target competence. Figures, tables and illustrations are
also provided so as learning AA would be somewhat a piece of cake.

Learning Activities. Problems that needs to be solved, propositions to be proven

or verified and performance tasks compose this part.

Assessment. This part intends to evaluate whether or not you acquire the
intended learning outcome.

Rubrics are also included in this module. These will help you reflect and self -
evaluate as you perform the learning activities or demonstrate the assessment tasks.
Gender-sensitive language is considered in the writing of this material. Internationalization
and glocalization are also catered in the module so as to promote inclusivity and global
and intercultural competence.

Wishing you a meaningful and productive learning experience. I hope at the end
of this course, you will learn to think abstract!

Paterno S. Baguinat III

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Think Abstract

Contents

Page

Copyright 3

Acknowledgment 4

Preface 20

Unit 1 Groups and Subgroups 23

Unit 2 Permutation, Symmetric Groups, Cosets and Direct Products 50

Unit 3 Factor Group, Homomorphism and Isomorphism 63

Unit 4 Rings, Ideals, Fields and Extension

Unit 5 Groups, Topology and Factorization

Unit 6 Automorphism and Galois Theory

References 73
Glossary 74
Rubrics 75
Answer Key 76
User’s Evaluation Form 77
About the Author 78

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Unit

Groups and Subgroups

1
Solving mathematical problems helps someone solve real-world problems be it in
business, health, computer, or logic-related, depending on what branch of mathematics
are you delving into: algebra, trigonometry, geometry, number theory and topology.
The problems from these areas can be different from one another. However, in the
19th century, mathematicians noticed that they were using the same tool to solve many
different kinds of problems. This sparked that idea that instead of reinventing the wheel,
why not lift the tool out of the different branches of math and study the full power of the
tool in a general form. This leads to the creation of a new subject called Abstract Algebra
and the star of this subject is a structure called the “Group”.
Groups occur abundantly in nature. Many of the algebraic structures which can be
discerned in natural phenomena turn out to be groups. Typical examples, which we shall
examine later, come up in connection with the structure of crystals, patterns of symmetry,
and various kinds of geometric transformations. Groups are also important because they
happen to be one of the fundamental building blocks out of which more complex algebraic
structures are made.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you are expected to:

• Apply concepts of group as algebraic structure, group operations, subgroups and
cyclic groups to real-life
Specifically, you must be able to:
• Solve problems involving group, group operation, subgroups, and cyclic groups,
• Construct a Cayley table for specific group involving real-life scenario, and
• Relate definition and properties of group and group operation to real-world
scenario

Pretest

Directions: Provide answers to the following questions or requirements. Write answers

on your activity notebook.
1. It is referred to as a well-defined collection of objects.
2. When can you say that the set S is well-defined?
3. Write a is an element of set S in set notation.

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4. Write “the set of all x is an even whole positive number < 11” in roster form
and in rule form.
5. How do you call a set with no elements.
6. If A = {a,b,c} and B={1,2,3}, find (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶.
7. B ⊂ A is read as ______ while A ⊂ B means ______.
8. What is the improper subset of A?
9. How many subsets does S = {a, b, c, d} have?
10. Find the cardinality of B whose elements are the solutions of f(x) = x 4 +x 3-x-1.
11. If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4}, find the Cartesian product of A and B.
12. What is the notation for a set of all integers?
13. List the elements of the set 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 | 𝑥 2 = 3 |
14. Find the number of different partitions of a set having 4 elements.
15. Solve: x + 5 = 3 mod 6.

Reminders

The answers of this pretest is at the google classroom with the course
code: 5ekyvl6. If you obtain a score of 10 or below, review classes of
Basic Set Theory. Otherwise, proceed to the Content of this module.

The next section shows the content of this unit. It contains vital information of the
topics based on the learning outcome. Please read and analyze the content. Reading it
again and again will enhance comprehension of the texts.

Content

A Group and Its Properties

Fundamental definition of a group. A group is a non-empty set G, with a binary
operation ∗ which satisfies the axioms: closure, inverse, identity and associativity
properties.
Any binary operation on G gives a way of combining elements
∗: G × G → G : (x,y) ⟹ x∗y
The elements of the group are not necessarily numbers, it could be letters.
When we are talking about a set G, together with a fixed binary operation ∗,
express it in this manner: (G, ∗) or write it in this form 〈𝐺,∗〉 .
The notation 〈𝐻,∗〉 , makes it explicit that the group consists of the set H and the
operation *
〈𝑅, +〉 is a group consisting of a set of real numbers under the operation addition.
〈ℤ+ , ⦁〉 is a group consisting of a set of positive integers under the operation
multiplication.
Other example of groups are the following:
1. (ℤ | 7ℤ, + ) or Group of integers mod 7 under addition
{Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday}

24
Think Abstract

can be written as {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

where 0 is Monday, 1 is Tuesday, 2 is Wednesday, 3 is Thursday, 4 is Friday,

5 is Saturday and 6 is Sunday.

Using modular arithmetic,

4 days after Sunday is Thursday, since 6 [Sunday] + 4 = 10 mod 7 = 3
[Thursday] mod 7.

3 days before Wednesday is Sunday, since 2 [Wednesday] - 3 = - 1 mod

7 = 6 [Sunday] mod 7

2. Transformations of an equilateral triangle

{ 1, t, t2, b, b⦁ t, b⦁ t2 }

The elements 1, t, t2, b, b⦁ t, and b⦁ t2 are obtained from doing the following
activity:

Suppose you have an equilateral triangle. Number the three corners of the
triangle 1, 2, and 3 as shown below.

3 2

If you would like to determine how many ways can you rotate or flip the
triangle so it looks the same before and after, then you can do it in the manner
illustrated below.
Suppose the original triangle is x. You get the first transformation by picking
up the triangle and putting it back down unchanged. We call it transformation 1.

Task Base Final Name of

transformation

Pick up the triangle x

and put it back down 1 1
unchanged.

1
3 2 3 2

25
Think Abstract

Let’s find another ways to rotate or flip this triangle so that it overlaps itself.
Rotate. For starters, pick up the triangle and rotate it 1200 clockwise.
Reading clockwise starting from the top corner, this gives you 3, 1, 2. Let’s call this
transformation t.

Task Base Final Name of

transformation

Pick up the triangle of 1 3

transformation 1 and t
rotate it 1200
clockwise.
3 2 2 1

Pick up the triangle of 3 2 t2

transformation t and
rotate it 1200
clockwise.
2 1 1 3

Pick up the triangle of

transformation t2 and 2 1
rotate it 1200
clockwise.
t3
1 3 3 2

t2

Rotating the triangle of transformation t one more time or 1200 clockwise,

it will give you t2. If you rotate the triangle of transformation t2 1200 clockwise, it will
result to a triangle of transformation t3 .
It can be noticed that the triangle of transformation t3 is the triangle of
transformation 1.
Thus, t3 = 1. So there is no need to write t3 as element of the group, since
there is already 1.

26
Think Abstract

Flip. Another operation if flipping. If you flip the triangle of transformation 1

and flip it about the vertical axis, it will result to a triangle of transformation b as
shown below.

Task Base Final Name of

transformation

Pick up the triangle of 1 1

transformation 1 and b
flip it about the vertical
axis
3 2 2 3

Pick up the triangle of 1 1 b2

transformation b and
flip it about the vertical
axis
2 3 3 2

Flipping the triangle of transformation t about the vertical axis, it will give
you b. If you flip the triangle of transformation b, it will result to an e-triangular plate
of transformation b2 .
It can be noticed that the triangle of transformation b2 is the triangle of
transformation 1.
Thus, b2 = 1.
Based on the rotating and flipping activities, we can say that the triangle if
rotated thrice or flipped twice will result to its original position.
Therefore, 1 = t3 = b2 . Like t3, there is no need to write b2 as an element of
the group, since there is already 1.

27
Think Abstract

Flip and Rotate. Another elements of the group can be obtained in this
example by flipping the triangle of transformation 1 then rotate it 1200 clockwise
after.
Flip 1 → b , then rotate it once → b⦁ t as illustrated below.

1 1 1 2

3 2 2 3 2 3 3 1

1 b b b⦁ t

Now, flip 1 → b, then rotate it 1200 clockwise twice → b⦁ t2 as shown below.

1 1 2 3

3 2 2 3 3 1 1 2

1 b⦁ t t b⦁ t2

So, there are six (6) transformations made by rotating and flipping triangle,
namely:

1 3 2

3 2 2 1 1 3

1 t t2

28
Think Abstract

1 2 3

2 3 3 1 1 2

b b⦁ t b⦁ t2

Figure 1. Transformations of Equilateral Triangle

For any transformation X: 1⦁ X = X and X⦁ 1 = X

This means, if you multiply each transformation by 1, you will arrive at the
same transformation. This is because 1 doesn’t actually change the triangle.
Determining number of transformations is one of the topics in the subject
Geometry. These transformations are called symmetries (Fraleigh, 2003).

3. Set of integers ℤ under the operation addition

ℤ = {…, -5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … }

Group Operation ∗. Suppose you go into a store to buy sardines as relief for your
neighbors who are greatly affected by COVID-19 and you see that there are two kinds of
sardines on display having same sizes but with different costs of PhP 15, and PhP17,
respectively. You may pick up the one tagged PhP15 for the reason that you opt to choose
so you can save money. You may also pick the sardines tagged PhP 17 for that sardines
brand is your favorite.
The reason “choosing which one is cheaper for you to save money” or “choosing
your favorite brand” is a real-life example of applying a group operation ---a binary
operation.
According to Pinter (1990), a Group has a binary operation ∗ which when applied
to any elements x and y of the set G, yields a combination of any two elements x ∗ y of G.
o A binary operation ∗ on a set S is a function mapping S × S into S. For
each (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ S × S denote ∗ ((a, b)) of S by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 .
o ∗ on a set S is commutative if 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ S .
o ∗ on a set S is associative if (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ S .

Example 1:
On Z+ , define a binary operation ∗ by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = the smaller of a and b, or the
common value if a = b, find the following:
1. 2 ∗ 5
2. 12 ∗ 7

29
Think Abstract

Solution:
1. 2 ∗ 5 = 2, since the smaller value of 2 and 5 is 5.
2. 12 ∗ 7 = 7

Example 2:
On Z+ , define a binary operation ∗ ′′ by 𝑎 ∗ ′′𝑏 = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) + 7 , where ∗ is defined
in Example 1, find 2 ∗ ′′5

Solution:
2 ∗′′ 5 = (2 ∗ 5) + 7 and since the smaller value of 2 and 5 is 2,
Therefore (2 ∗ 5) + 7 = 2 + 7 = 9.

Example 3:
Suppose Table 1 defines that binary operation ∗ on S = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} on the following
rule: 𝑖th entry on the left ∗ 𝑗th entry on the top = entry in the 𝑖th row ∗ entry in the 𝑗th column
of the table
Table 1. Table for ∗

∗ a b c d
a a b c d
b b d a a
c c b d b
d d c c a

Find the following:

1. 𝑏 ∗𝑐
2. 𝑐 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑑)
3. 𝑏 ∗𝑎
4. (𝑐 ∗ 𝑑) ∗ 𝑎
5. 𝑑 ∗𝑏

Solution:
1. 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎
Table 2. Ilustration Table for 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐

∗ a b c d
a a b c d
b b d a a
c c b d b
d d c c a

30
Think Abstract

2. 𝑐 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑑) = 𝑐
Since 𝑐 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑑) = 𝑐 ∗ (𝑎) = 𝑐

3. 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑏
4. (𝑐 ∗ 𝑑) ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑏
5. 𝑑 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑐

Example 4:
In Table 1, is the binary operation ∗ commutative? Is it associative?
Solution:
You might say, the binary operation ∗ is commutative since 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 because
𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑏 and 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 and 𝑏 = 𝑏. However, if we have 𝑐 ∗ 𝑑 , 𝑐 ∗ 𝑑 = 𝑏 and 𝑑 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑐
and 𝑏 ≠ 𝑐 , thus the binary operation ∗ is not commutative. If it’s not commutative, it
follows that it is also not associative.

Example 5:
Suppose Table 2 defines that binary operation ∗ on S = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} . Is it
commutative? Is it associative?
Table 3. Table for ∗

∗ a b c d
a a d b c
b d b a a
c b a c b
d c a b d

Solution:
o Check all values for ∗, pair the element 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑.
There are 4C2 =6 pairs: {𝑎, 𝑏}, {𝑎, 𝑐}, {𝑎, 𝑑}, {𝑏, 𝑐}, { 𝑏, 𝑑}, {𝑐, 𝑑}

𝑎 ∗ 𝑏=𝑑 and 𝑏 ∗𝑎=𝑑 , commutative since 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎

𝑎 ∗ 𝑐=𝑏 and 𝑐 ∗𝑎=𝑏 , commutative
𝑎 ∗ 𝑑=𝑐 and 𝑑 ∗𝑎 = 𝑐 , commutative
𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 =𝑎 and 𝑐 ∗𝑏=𝑎 , commutative
𝑏 ∗ 𝑑=𝑎 and 𝑑 ∗𝑏 = 𝑎 , commutative
𝑐 ∗ 𝑑=𝑏 and 𝑑 ∗𝑐 = 𝑏 , commutative

Therefore, the binary operation ∗ in Table 2 is commutative.

o Check all values for ∗ using all combinations of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 in a group of 3

elements.
There are 4C3 =4 pairs: {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}, {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑑}, {𝑎, 𝑐, 𝑑}, {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}

𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑎) = 𝑎 and (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = (𝑑) ∗ (𝑐) = 𝑑

31
Think Abstract

Since 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) ≠ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐, the binary operation ∗ in Table 2 is

not associative.

If the group G is a set of integers Z, then + and × are natural examples of binary
operations. When speaking generally, use the symbol ∗ and is read aloud as “times” but
this does not mean multiplication, because it could also be addition or any other operation.
In arithmetic, there are just two operations: addition and multiplication. This is far
from our knowledge in primary and high school that there are four (4) operations: + - ×÷.
Subtraction is just adding negative. For example 5 – 3 = 5 + (-3). Thus, it is safe to
say that subtraction is addition in disguise. Division is also multiplication. For example
10 1
= 10 ( ). Thus, it is safe to say that the operation division is multiplication in
2 2
disguise. However, division does qualify as an operation on the set of all the positive real
numbers, for the quotient of any two positive real numbers is a uniquely determined
3
positive real number. for example is undefined.
0
When working with groups, you typically use additive notation + or multiplicative
notation ×. This is done even if the elements of the group are not numbers and the group
operation is not numerical, but is instead geometric transformation or function
composition.
If you use additive notation, the identity element is 0, while when you use
multiplicative notation, the identity element is 1.

Properties a Group Satisfies. Apart from it should be a set which is not empty
and has operation ∗ for it to be called a group G, a group should satisfy all these properties:
closure, inverse, identity and associativity. If it does not satisfy even one of the four
properties, it is not called a group.
A set with a binary operation is called a monoid if only the first two properties are
hoed. (ℤ, ×) is a monoid but not a group.
o Closure: Closed under operation

𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺 ⟹ 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺
This means if you combine any two elements in the group, the
results is an element in the same group.

Example 6:

Is 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 on the set of integers closed under addition?

Solution:

Let x, y be integers 5 and -2, respectively.

x + y will result to an integer. x – y is also an integer.

That is 5 + (-2) = 3 and 5 – (-2) is 7. The sums 3 and 7 are integers.

x ⦁ y will result to an integer.

32
Think Abstract

That is 5 ⦁ (-2) = -10. The product -10 is an integer.

Thus, a group is closed under addition and multiplication. However, it

𝑥 5 5
is not closed under the operation division for = , and is not an
𝑦 −2 −2
integer.

o Inverse

Each element x of the Group should have an inverse, denoted as

𝑥 −1. An inverse is an object that has an opposite effect of 𝑥.

The additive inverse of 7 is -7, while the additive inverse of -5 is 5.

1
The multiplicative inverse or the reciprocal of 7 is , while the
7
1
reciprocal of is 3.
3
If you combine the element 𝑥 and its inverse 𝑥 −1, you will obtain its
identity 𝑒. That is 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 −1 = 𝑒
or 𝑥 ∈ G, ∃𝑥 −1 ∈ G such that 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 −1 = is 𝑥 −1 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑒.
o Identity

If you combine any element 𝑥 and its identity 𝑒, the result should be
itself 𝑥. That is 𝑥 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑥 or 𝑒 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑥

Or for some identity element 𝑒 contained in group G, 𝑥 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑥 =

𝑥 ∀𝑥 ∈ G .

0 is the identity element for addition, while 1 is the identity element

for multiplication.

o Associativity

If you combine any element 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧, (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) ∗ 𝑧 = 𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧) for

all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ G.

33
Think Abstract

To determine whether the given is a group or not, just always remember the basic
knowledge in solving a simple equation such as this:
Solve: x + 4 = 12

x+4 = 12 Integers under addition

x + 4 + (-4) = 12 + (-4) Inverse

x + 4 + (-4) = 8 Closure

x + [ 4 + (-4) ] = 8 Associativity

x+0 = 8 Identity

x = 2

Example 7:
Is a set of rational numbers Q under addition a group?

Solution:
o Review the definition of a Group

Is it a set?
Yes. A set of rational number.

Does it have an operation?

Yes. Addition

Does it satisfy the following properties: closure, inverse, identity and

associativity?

1. Closure

Yes.

Suppose x and y are elements of set Q.

𝑝 𝑟 𝑚
x and y are of the form where p,q ∈ Z. Let x = and y = .
𝑞 𝑠 𝑛
𝑟 𝑚 𝑟𝑛+𝑠𝑚
+ = .
𝑠 𝑛 𝑠𝑛
𝑟 𝑚 𝑝
When the elements and which are in the form are combined,
𝑠 𝑛 𝑞
𝑟𝑛+𝑠𝑚 𝑝
it result to the same element which is also in the form . So, it is
𝑠𝑛 𝑞
shown that ∀x,y∈G we have x∗y∈G.

34
Think Abstract

2. Inverse

Yes.
𝑟 𝑚 −𝑟 −𝑚
The inverse of and is and , respectively.
𝑠 𝑛 𝑠 𝑛
𝑟 −𝑟
+ = 0 . Zero (0) is the identity element e for addition
𝑠 𝑠
So, it is shown that 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 −1 = is 𝑥 −1 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑒.

3. Identity

Yes.
The identity element for addition is 0.
𝑟 𝑟 𝑚 𝑚
+ 0 = and + 0 = . So, it’s shown that
𝑠 𝑠 𝑛 𝑛
𝑥 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑥 ∀𝑥 ∈ G .

4. Associativity

Yes.

Suppose x, y and z are elements of set Q.

𝑝 𝑟 𝑚
x, y and z are of the form where p,q ∈ Z. Let x = , y = , and
𝑞 𝑠 𝑛
𝑎
t= .
𝑏
𝑟 𝑚 𝑎 𝑟𝑛 + 𝑠𝑚 𝑎 𝑟𝑛𝑏 + 𝑠𝑚𝑏 + 𝑎𝑠𝑛
( + )+ = + =
𝑠 𝑛 𝑏 𝑠𝑛 𝑏 𝑠𝑛𝑏

And
𝑟 𝑚 𝑎 𝑟 𝑚𝑏 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑟𝑛𝑏 + 𝑠𝑚𝑏 + 𝑎𝑠𝑛
+( + ) = + =
𝑠 𝑛 𝑏 𝑠 𝑛𝑏 𝑠𝑛𝑏

So, its shown that (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) ∗ 𝑧 = 𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧) for all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ G.

Since all the criteria for group is are satisfied, therefore the set of rational numbers
(Q) under addition (+) indeed forms a group. It can then be written an 〈𝑄, +〉 .

Infinite, Finite, Abelian and Non-abelian Groups

Infinite group. The elements of this group is noncountable.
Examples:
1. 〈ℤ, +〉 : A set of integers under the operation addition
2. 〈𝑅, +〉 : A set of real numbers under the operation addition
3. 〈𝑄, +〉 : A set of rational numbers under the operation addition

Finite group. Finite group is a group with a finite number of elements.

The easiest finite groups to study are those called the groups of integers modulo
n, denoted by ℤ𝑛 , where n is any positive integer greater than 1. In general, the group of

35
Think Abstract

integers modulo n consists of the set {0, 1, 2, 3, …, n-3, n-2, n-1}, with the operation of
addition module n
In most real world situations, we deal with only a finite number of objects.
Examples of finite group are:
1. 〈ℤ24 〉 : Group of integers modulo 24 . For example, one day is composed of 24
hours.

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, …, 21, 22, 23, 24} can be written as
{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, …, 21, 22, 23}

2. 〈ℤ7 〉 : Group of integers modulo 7 . Real-life application for this is a group of

days in a week.

We all know that there are 7 days in a week: {Monday, Tuesday,

Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday}. It can be written as {0, 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6} where 0 is Monday, 1 is Tuesday, 2 is Wednesday, 3 is Thursday,
4 is Friday, 5 is Saturday and 6 is Sunday.

𝒁𝟕 is a group consisting of 7 elements {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and an operation

called addition modulo 7.

Imagine the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 being on the circumference of

a circle as shown below. To add 3 and 6, start with 3 and move clockwise 6
units around the circle and you will end up in 2.

Thus, 3+6 = 2, 4+3 = 0, and 4+6=3.

6 1

5 2

4 3

Figure 2. Illustration of element of integer mod 7 (Z7)

Operation table also known as Cayley Table, in memory off 19 th century
mathematics Arthur When is useful when working with finite groups. In general,
any finite group 〈 ℤ, ∗〉 has a table.

36
Think Abstract

Table 4. Cayley Table for 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏

∗ . . . b . . .
.
.
.
a a∗b
.
.
.

So, to make a Cayley Table for ℤ𝟕, refer to the basic format shown below.
Table 5.Empty Cayley Table for Z7

+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
1
2
3
4
5
6

To complete the table, just combine one element from a particular row and
column. For example, 4 + 5 = 9 mod 7 = 2 mod 7. Just write 2 .
Table 6. Cayley Table for 4 + 5

+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
1
2
3
4 2
5
6

37
Think Abstract

So, the Cayley Table for ℤ𝟕 is

Table 7. Cayley Table for 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏

+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 0
2 2 3 4 5 6 0 1
3 3 4 5 6 0 1 2
4 4 5 6 0 1 2 3
5 5 6 0 1 2 3 4
6 6 0 1 2 3 4 5

In general, the Cayley Table has the following features.

1. If you start with the identity element, the first row and first column have
the same elements.

For Cayley Table for ℤ𝟕 , the operation is addition. So, the identity
element is 0. If you start with the identity element zero, the first row and
first column just repeat the elements in the headers {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
This is because if you combine each element to its identity element,
in this case add them, you will obtain the same element.

Table 8. Ilustration of Feature 1 of Cayley Table

+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 0
2 2 3 4 5 6 0 1
3 3 4 5 6 0 1 2
4 4 5 6 0 1 2 3
5 5 6 0 1 2 3 4
6 6 0 1 2 3 4 5

2. Every row and column contains identity element.

This is because in groups, all elements have inverses. For ℤ𝟕, the
inverse of 0 is 0, 1 for 6, 2 for 5, 3 for 4, and vice versa.

38
Think Abstract

Table 9. Ilustration of Feature 2 of Cayley Table

+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 0
2 2 3 4 5 6 0 1
3 3 4 5 6 0 1 2
4 4 5 6 0 1 2 3
5 5 6 0 1 2 3 4
6 6 0 1 2 3 4 5

3. The Cayley Table is symmetric or asymmetric about the diagonal

In ℤ𝟕, the elements of the diagonal are {0, 2, 4, 6, 1, 3, 5}. If you flip
the table along the diagonal, you will obtain the same table. This is
because ℤ𝟕 is an abelian group since x+y = y+x for any two elements x
and y. If it is not abelian, then the group is asymmetric or not symmetric
about the diagonal.

Table 10. Ilustration of Feature 3 of Cayley Table

+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 0
2 2 3 4 5 6 0 1
3 3 4 5 6 0 1 2
4 4 5 6 0 1 2 3
5 5 6 0 1 2 3 4
6 6 0 1 2 3 4 5

4. There are no duplicate elements in rows or columns

In ℤ𝟕, the elements of the first row are {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Each row
or column should have the same elements. All the rows and columns
have no duplicate elements.

Trivial Group. A set with a single element admitting one possible binary operation.

Abelian and Non-Abelian Group. If a group is commutative, it is called a

Commutative Group or commonly known as Abelian Group. The fundamental Abelian
group is (ℤ, +) or set of integers under the operation addition (+).

39
Think Abstract

Definition of Abelian. A group (G, ∗) is called Abelian if it satisfies commutative

property
x ∗ y = y ∗ x, ∀ x, y ∈ G.
The operations of addition (+) and multiplication (⦁) on the set R of real numbers
are commutative, since x + y = y + x and x × y = y × x for all real numbers x and y. Thus,
〈𝑅, +〉 is Abelian.

Non-Abelian Group. If the group is not commutative, it is a Noncommutative

Group or Non-Abelian.
Definition of Non-Abelian. A group (G, ∗) is called Abelian if it does not satisfy
commutativity
x ∗ y ≠ y ∗ x , ∀x,y ∈ G.
It took mathematicians many years to identify these as the most essential property
that Group G many not be commutative, that is: 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ≠ 𝑦 ∗ 𝑥.
This rule was not included for it will exclude many important examples like the
group of symmetries.
For example, in triangle transformations shown in Figure 1, flipping the triangle
once, followed rotating it clockwise twice after, is not the same as rotating the triangle
twice, then flipping it after: b⦁ t2 ≠ t2 ⦁ b
The following table shows the different groups. Integers mod n is an example of
finite Abelian group.
Table 11. Example of Abelian, Non-Abelian, Finite and Infinite Groups

Finite groups Infinite groups

Abelian groups Integers mod n Z, Q, R, C under +

Non-Abelian Groups Sn for n >2 Matrices

Order
Order of Groups. The order of the group or the size of the group, is just the
number of elements in the group and is written as |𝐺 |. ℤ 1 is a group of order 1, while the
group ( {1, -1, 𝑖, −𝑖 }, x ) is of order 4.

0 × 1 -1 𝑖 −𝑖
+
0 0 1 1 -1 𝑖 −𝑖
-1 -1 1 −𝑖 𝑖
𝑖 𝑖 −𝑖 -1 1
Cayley table for ℤ 1 ,
a trivial group −𝑖 −𝑖 𝑖 1 -1
Cayley table for a group ({1, -1, 𝑖, −𝑖 }, x)

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Think Abstract

Order of an Element. In a group with identity e, the order of an element 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 is

the smallest positive integer n such that x n = e. In notation: |x| = n . If there is no such n,
then x has infinite order.

Subgroup
To fully understand a group G, you need to decompose it and study its pieces.
These pieces are called subgroups. These are smaller group contained in group G.
A subgroup H is a subset of group G and is also a group. In symbol, it is written
as H < G and read as “H is a subgroup of G” and not H is less than or equal to G.
Technically, G < G read as “G is a subgroup of itself”, so the = symbol was placed.
If H ≠ G, then H < G read as “H is a subgroup of G” or “H is a proper subgroup
of G” since H is a proper subset of G.

G
H

The two standard subgroups of G are the group G itself and the trivial group, a
group having only the identity element {e}.
For example: “integers mod 7”. Here, the group of integers can be divided into 7
sets depending on the remainder you get when you divide the number by 7:
There will be seven sets A, B, C, D, E, F, G: set of all integers ℤ with remainders r
: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, when you divide any number x by 7.
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 are all the possible remainders you can get when you divide
any number x by 7.
r=0 A = {…, -42, -35, -28, -21, -14, -7, 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, …}
r=1 B = {…, -41, -34, -27, -20, -13, -6, 1, 8, 15, 22, 29, 36, 43, …}
r=2 C = {…, -40, -33, -26, -19, -12, -5, 2, 9, 16, 23, 30, 37, 44, …}
r=3 D = {…, -39, -32, -25, -18, -11, -4, 3, 10, 17, 24, 31, 38, 45, …}
r=4 E = {…, -38, -31, -24, -17, -10, -3, 4, 11, 18, 25, 32, 39, 46, …}
r=5 F = {…, -37, -30, -23, -16, -9, -2, 5, 12, 19, 26, 33, 40, 47, …}
r=6 G = {…, -36, -29, -22, -15, -8, -1, 6, 13, 20, 27, 34, 41, 48, …}

Based on the seven sets, you can observe that if you take one element in C, the
set having remainder 2 if you divide any number by 7, and one element in E, a set with
remainder 4 if you divide any number by 7, you will obtain one element in G, a set with

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Think Abstract

remainder 6 if you divide any number by 7. This always happens because the sets C, E,
G are congruence classes. Sets A, B, C, D, E, F and G are congruence classes.
2 [r=2 in C] + 4 [r=4 in E] = 6 [r =6 in G].
-33 [in C] + -3 [in E] = -36 [in G]

r=2 C = {…, -40, -33, -26, -19, -12, -5, 2, 9, 16, 23, 30, 37, 44, …}
r=4 E = {…, -38, -31, -24, -17, -10, -3, 4, 11, 18, 25, 32, 39, 46, …}
r=6 G = {…, -36, -29, -22, -15, -8, -1, 6, 13, 20, 27, 34, 41, 48, …}

If we treat the sets A, B, C, D, E, F, and G as if they were numbers 0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅ , 5̅, 6̅
then will have a group with seven elements:
ℤ mod 7 or “the integers mod 7” = { 0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅ , 4̅, 5̅, 6̅}. It must be noted that if a, b are
in the same congruence class, it is written 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (mod 𝑛) read as “a is congruent to b mod
n” since a and b have the same remainder when divided by n.
These seven meta-numbers { 0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅ , 6̅} do indeed form a group under
addition, which the identity element is 0̅.
Using the language of group theory, integers mod 5 is:
o The group is: Integers ℤ under +
o The subgroups are : ℤ, 2 ℤ, 3 ℤ, 4 ℤ, 5 ℤ, 6 ℤ, 7 ℤ, 8 ℤ,…
7 ℤ means a group of multiple 7.

7ℤ = {…, -42, -35, -28, -21, -14, -7, 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, …}

Cyclic Group and Generators

A group G is a cyclic group if it is generated by a single element:
G = 〈𝑥〉 = {∗𝑛 | 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
There are only two cyclic groups:
o Infinite cyclic group: (ℤ, +) and,
o Finite cyclic group: (ℤ / n ℤ, +), namely: ℤ , ℤ / 2 ℤ , ℤ / 3 ℤ , ℤ / 4 ℤ , ℤ / 5 ℤ,
ℤ / 6 ℤ , … and the trivial group {e}.
There are no other cyclic groups.
To illustrate finite cyclic group, let G be a group with operation ×. Pick 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 .
What is the smallest subgroup of 𝐺 that contains 𝑥?
These are the identity element 1, 𝑥 itself, its inverse 𝑥 −1and all powers of 𝑥
𝑥 2 , 𝑥 3 , 𝑥 4 , 𝑥 5 ,𝑥 6 , 𝑥 7 …:
and their inverses.
{… , 𝑥 −7 ,𝑥 −6 , 𝑥 −5 , 𝑥 −4 ,𝑥 −3 , 𝑥 −2 ,𝑥 −1 , 1, 𝑥, 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 3 , 𝑥 4 , 𝑥 5 ,𝑥 6 , 𝑥 7 , …}
The smallest subgroup of 𝐺 containing 𝑥 is called a group generated by 𝑥 and
denoted as 〈𝑥〉 . If 𝐺 = 〈𝑥〉 for some 𝑥, then we call 𝐺 a cyclic group.
Example of cyclic group is a group of integers ℤ under + or (ℤ, +). The integer ℤ
is generated by the number 1, written as 〈1〉 .
The group generated by 1 is:

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Think Abstract

o Element 1
o Identity element 0
o Additive inverse of 1 which is -1
o All multiplies of 1 and -1
{… , −7, −8, −6, −5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, …}
All these covers a set of integers ℤ, so ℤ is a cyclic group, specifically an infinite
cyclic group.
Integers mod n under + written as (ℤ/ 𝑛ℤ +) is an example of a finite cyclic
group, where the elements are:
{ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, … (𝑛 − 3) , (𝑛 − 2) , (𝑛 − 1)}
It is also generated by 〈1〉 .
Now look at positive and negative elements of 1, as follows
… , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, … (𝑛 − 1), 𝑛, (𝑛 + 1), (𝑛 + 2) , (2𝑛 − 1) , 2𝑛, (2𝑛 + 1)…
Recall that 𝑛 ≡ 0 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)
𝑛 + 1 ≡ 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)
𝑛 + 2 ≡ 2 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)
𝑛 + 3 ≡ 3 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)
…
−1 ≡ 𝑛 − 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)
−2 ≡ 𝑛 − 2 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)
−3 ≡ 𝑛 − 3 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)
−4 ≡ 𝑛 − 4 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)
To illustrate,
… , −3, − 2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, … (𝑛 − 1), 𝑛, (𝑛 + 1), (𝑛 + 2), … , (2𝑛 − 1) , 2𝑛, (2𝑛 + 1)…
becomes…, (𝑛 − 3),(𝑛 − 2), (𝑛 − 1),0, 1, 2, 3, … ( 𝑛 − 1) , 0, 1, 2, … , (𝑛 − 1), 0, 1…

So, the group generated by 〈1〉 repeats itself. It cycles from the number 0, 1, 2, 3,
… to (n-1) over and over again. This is why it is called a cyclic group.
Cyclic group leads to the founding of the Fundamental Theorem of Finitely
Generated Abelian Groups which states: “any abelian group that is finitely generated
can be broken apart to finite number of cyclic groups and these cyclic groups are the
integers ℤ and the integers mod n. Cyclic groups are building blocks of finitely generated
abelian groups.
Finding generators of a finite cyclic group. To determine the generators of a
finite cyclic group, just determine the coprimes of n in ℤ n.
Example 8:
Determine the generator/s of ℤ 6 ?
Solution:
Determine all the generators using the elements of the group.

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Think Abstract

ℤ 6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5), so the generators is any of the elements 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or a

combination of these elements
Let’s examine each:
o 0 is the identity element.
o 〈0〉 only generates {0}, since 0+0 = 0, 0+0+0=0
o 〈1〉 generates {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,}, since 0 = 0 (no 1 is no 1), 1 = 1, 1+1=2,
1+1+1=3, 1+1+1+1=4, and 1+1+1+1+1=5
o 〈2〉 only generates {0, 2, 4}, since 0 = 0 (no 2 is no 2), 2 = 2, 2+2=4.
o 〈3〉 only generates {0, 3}, since 0 = 0 (no 3 is no 3), 3 = 3, 3+3= 6, 6 mod
6 = 0.
o 〈4〉 only generates {0, 4, 2}. 2 is included since 4+4=8, and 8 mod 6 = 2
mod 6
o For 〈5〉 it generates the following:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
no One Two 5s Three 5s Four 5s Five 5s Six 5s Seven 5s
5 5
0 5 5+5=10 5+5+5=15 5+5+5+5=20 5(5)=25 5(6)=30 5(7)=35
=25mod6 =30mod6 =35mod6
=10mod6 =15mod6 =20mod6 =1 =0 =5
=4 =3 =2

〈1〉 and 〈5〉 are the generators of the group ℤ 6 .

Another method is determine the coprimes of n in ℤ n.

ℤ 6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
The coprimes of 6 are the numbers which don’t share the same factors with 6,
except 1.
o The factors of 6 are {1, 2, 3, 6}
o The factor of 1 is only 1.
o The factors of 2 are {1, 2}.
o The factors of 3 are {1, 3}
o The factors of 4 are {1, 2, 4}.
o The factors of 5 are {1, 5}
Therefore, the generators of ℤ 6 are 〈1〉 and 〈5〉

Example 9:
Determine the generator/s of ℤ 12 ?

Solution:
ℤ 12 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}
The coprimes of 12 in the group are 1, 5, 7, and 11 . Therefore, the generators of
ℤ 12 are 〈1〉 , 〈5〉 , 〈7〉 , and 〈11〉

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Think Abstract

Cayley Digraph
Cayley graph is a powerful tool in group theory. Cayley digraphs are defined
with a group and a subset of : the vertices of the Cayley digraph Cay (G, S) are the
elements of the group, and its arcs are all the couples (x, xz) with x ∈ G and z ∈ S
(Fraleigh, 2003)
Let’s examine the reduce residue of class 8: G = {1, 3, 5, 7} where the elements
are positive integers a less than 8 such that GCF(a,8)=1
GCF (1,8) = GCF(3,8) = GCF(5,8) = GCF(7,8) = 1
Let the elements 1, 3, 5 and 8 be the four dots as shown.

1 3

7
5

Combine elements of the set by adding some edges to the dots using the
following rule:
o (a,b) ∈ (1,3,5,7)
o Let ∗ be the combination of (a, b) and (a∗b)=the product of a and b
o Divide a∗b by 8 and note the remainder as a∗b
15
So 3∗5 = 15, and = 7, thus 3∗5 = 7
8
9
and 3∗3 = 9, and = 1, thus 3∗3 = 1
8
With the operation ∗, {3,5} is the subset of {1, 3, 5, 7} which also called as the set
of generators since it could create all elements of the set.
Using the elements of {3,5}, (x,y) =z; (3∗3) = 1, (3∗5)=7, x=3 and xz={1,7}.
Connect the dots from x to xz, that is from 3 to 1 and from 3 to 7.
(5∗3) = 7, (5∗5)=1, so connect the dots from 5 to 7, and 5 to 1.
(7∗3) = 5, (7∗5)=3 so connect the dots from 7 to 5, from 7 to 6, and from 7 to 3.
There is no 7 to 6 since 6 is not in an element. Thus the Cayley Graph.

1 3

7
5
Figure 3. Cayley Graph for *

45
Think Abstract

Extend Knowledge

Learn more about groups at

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g7L_r6zw4-c
and Cayley digraph at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aci0uEBrit8

Just click the link. You may refer to the e-textbook materials at the
Coursework tab of google classroom with course code 5ekyvl6.

If you have poor connectivity, feel free to inform me using the contact
provided for in the syllabus, so I can assist or help you.

Learning Activities

Activity 1: Solve it
Directions: The following items aims to determine whether or not you can solve
problems involving group, group operation, subgroups, and cyclic groups. Answer all.
Write answers in your activity notebook.
1. On A, define the binary operation ∗ by 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = the greater absolute value of 𝑥 and
𝑦 , or the common value if 𝑥 = 𝑦 and 𝑥 ∗ ′′𝑦 = (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) + 3, find the following:
a. 4 ∗ −7
b. 5 ∗ 5
c. (−12 ∗ 5) ∗ 12
d. (7 ∗ 6) ∗ −14
e. 4 ∗ ′′ − 7
f. 5 ∗ ′′5
g. (−12 ∗ 5) ∗ ′′12
h. (7 ∗ ′′6) ∗ −14

2. Suppose the operation ∗ is on S = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧} with the following table

Table 1. Table for ∗

∗ x y z
x y x z
y x z y
z z y x

2.1 Find the following:

a. 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦
b. 𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧)
c. 𝑦 ∗ 𝑧

2.2 Is S commutative? Why?

2.3 Is S associative? Why?

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Think Abstract

3. Determine if the following is a Group or not.

a. Integers under +
b. Integers under multiplication
c. Multiples of 7 under +
d. Even integers under addition
e. Odd integers under addition

4. Find the generators of the following:

a. Z8
b. Z14
c. Z25

Activity 2: Construct it
Directions: Give what is asked. Write answers in your activity notebook.
1. Construct a Cayley table to find the groups.
a. All groups G of order 3
[Use elements {M, T, W}. M is an identity element.]

b. All group of order 4.

[Use elements {e, x, y, z}. e is an identity element.]

2. Make a Cayley graph of G = ℤ6 and S = {1}.

Am I ready?

Congratulations for doing the learning activities. Refer to the google

classroom for the answers. If your score is above 15, you may
proceed to the next unit of this module, or you may master this unit
first before you proceed to the next unit.

If your score is below 15, patiently and religiously review this unit. For
clarification, help or assistance, feel free to contact me through SMS,
phone calls or email indicated in the course syllabus.

You may also send me a message via google class with the code:
5ekyvl6 or in the Google Meet through the link
https://meet.google.com/lookup/czace4xbilor may seek help from
friends and other people.

If you have poor connectivity or worst no internet connection and

Now, you are ready to level up your performance. Do the succeeding

assessment.

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Think Abstract

Assessment

Part I
Directions: Read and answer the following. Write your answers on your activity
notebook.

1. On A, define the binary operation ∗ by 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = the product having the cheaper

cost in your barangay or the city having the lesser recorded COVID-19 cases
as of August 24, 2020, find the following. :
1.1 1 𝑘𝑔 rice ∗ 1 𝑘𝑔 of corn
1.2 Dapitan ∗ Dipolog
1.3 1 can Mega sardines ∗ 1 can Family sardines
1.4 Cebu ∗ Manila

Attach document photos and/or reference.

2. Suppose the operation ∗ is on S = {1, 3, 5, 7} with the following Cayley table

3. Determine if the following is a Group or not. Explain why it’s a group or not a
group.
a. Prime numbers under +
b. Multiples of 11 under +
c. Factors of 36 under addition
d. ℤ 8
4. Prove that there are no duplicate elements in rows in a group.
5. Give a real-world example of finite abelian group.

Part II
Directions: Let G be the groups of dates grouped into {M,T,W} where M = all
Mondays, T = Tuesday, and W=Wednesdays. Construct a Cayley table to find all groups
of G, then make a Cayley graph for the reduce residue class of 12. Write answers in your
activity notebook.

Part III
Directions: Make a vlog relating definition and properties of group and group
operation to real-world scenario. Choose at least 2 concepts of group, it could be the
group itself, group operations, subgroup or cyclic group.

Help

Have you already tried making a vlog? If you haven’t, you may visit this
page for tutorial on vlog writing and publishing like a pro:
https://creatoracademy.youtube.com/page/lesson/vlogging .

48
Think Abstract

Am I ready?

Congratulations for doing the learning activities. Refer to the google classroom for
the answers. If your score is above 15, you may proceed to the next unit of this
module, or you may master this unit first before you proceed to the next unit.

If your score is below 15, patiently and religiously review this unit. For clarification,
help or assistance, feel free to contact me through SMS, phone calls or email
indicated in the course syllabus.

You may also send me a message via google class with the code: 5ekyvl6 or in the
Google Meet through the link https://meet.google.com/lookup/czace4xbilor may
seek help from friends and other people.

If you have poor connectivity or worst no internet connection and resources like
mobile phone, please notify me so I could help you, will extend the deadline of the
submission of your output or will give you another activity.

You may write your insights or thought about the activity on your journal.

You have just completed this unit. You are now ready to take Unit 2.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________.

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Think Abstract

Unit
Permutation, Symmetric Groups,

2 Cosets and Direct Products

One’s way of solving a problem might be different from other’s mean, but the two
may end up successfully solving the problem. Others may use shortcut while some endure
the struggles only to feel blissful and happy in the aftermath. This is similar to solving
group of permutations, their orbits, cycles, cosets and building blocks.
If the building blocks of everyday matters are atoms of which there are different
types of bonds to make molecules, in group theory, the fundamental building blocks of
finite groups are called simple groups and to combine them together to make larger,
complex groups, determine their direct products.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you are expected to:

• Solve problems involving symmetric groups, cosets and direct products

Specifically, you must be able to:

• Perform operations of symmetric groups and cosets,
• Show proof related to cosets to be a group and direct products.
• Determine direct products and abelian groups.

Pretest

Directions: Provide answers to the following questions or requirements. Write answers

on your activity notebook.
1. ____________ refers to a group of permutations on a set with n elements.
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
2. Find ( )∗ ( ) .
3 2 0 1 2 1 3 0
0 1 2 3
3. Write ( ) as a permutation in single line.
1 3 2 0
4. What does the cycle notation (0, 1, 3) (2) mean?
5. A set with remainder 0 if you divide x by 7 can be written as ____
6. Express {…, -42, -35, -28, -21, -14, -7, 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, …} as a normal
group.
7. 1+7 ℤ, 2+7 ℤ, 3+7 ℤ, 4+7 ℤ, 5+7 ℤ, and 6+7 ℤ are examples of _____.
8. A group of cosets is called a ________, which can be written as ℤ / n ℤ.
9. ______is a way to combine the two groups to make a new large group. It notation
is the same as Cartesian product of two sets.
10. Suppose 𝐺1 = ℤ under + and 𝐺2 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} under multiplication×. Find (8, -1)
⦁ (6, i).

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Think Abstract

Content

Group of Permutation
For any set 𝑆, a function 𝑓 : 𝑆 ⟶ 𝑆 is called a permutation of 𝑺 if 𝑓 is one-to-one
and onto (Pinter, 1990).
To take the set of all of the permutations of set 𝐴 and turn it into a group, define
the set, binary operation and group properties (closure, associativity, existence of an
identity and inverse). The set is not set S but the set of all permutations of 𝑆.
Symmetric Groups. A symmetric group Sn , where S stands for symmetric and n
is for the number of elements, is a group of permutations on a set with n elements. A
permutation is just the rearrangement of the elements of the set.
There are n! ways to permute a set with n elements, so Sn is a finite group with n!
elements.
|Sn | = n!
Example:
S4 is a group of permutations with 4 elements. Suppose the four elements are {0,
1, 2, 3}. Therefore, there are 4! = 24 number of permutations as follows:
{0, 1, 2, 3} {0, 2, 1, 3} {0, 3, 1, 2}
{0, 1, 3, 2} {0, 2, 3, 1} {0, 3, 2, 1}

{1, 2, 3, 0} {1, 3, 0, 2} {1, 0, 2, 3}

{1, 2, 0, 3} {1, 3, 2, 0} {1, 0, 3, 2}

{2, 3, 0, 1} {2, 0, 1, 3} {2, 1, 0, 3}

{2, 3, 1, 0} {2, 0, 3, 1} {2, 1, 3, 0}

{3, 0, 1, 2} {3, 1, 2, 0} {3, 2, 1, 0}

{3, 0, 2, 1} {3, 1, 0, 2} {3, 2, 0, 1}

So, S4 = { {0, 1, 2, 3}, {0, 2, 1, 3}, {0, 3, 1, 2}, {0, 1, 3, 2}, {0, 2, 3, 1}, {0, 3, 2, 1}, {1,
2, 3, 0}, {1, 3, 0, 2}, {1, 0, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 0, 3}, {1, 3, 2, 0}, {1, 0, 3, 2}, {2, 3, 0, 1}, {2, 0, 1, 3}
, {2, 1, 0, 3}, {2, 3, 1, 0}, {2, 0, 3, 1}, {2, 1, 3, 0}, {3, 0, 1, 2}, {3, 1, 2, 0}, {3, 2, 1, 0},
{3, 0, 2, 1}, {3, 1, 0, 2}, {3, 2, 0, 1}}.

Operations of symmetric group. Treating permutation as function allows you to

define the group operation. Multiplication in S4 is just function composition.
It can be remembered that if 𝑓 : 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐵 and 𝑔 : 𝐵 ⟶ 𝐶, then the function
composition or composite functions 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 : 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐶 is defined by (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔 (𝑓(𝑥)) for
all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴.

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Think Abstract

Now, consider the permutation {3, 2, 0, 1}.

This permutation takes {0, 1, 2, 3} called the inputs and replaces it with {3, 2, 0,
1} called the outputs, where 3 replaces 0, 2 replaces 1, 0 replaces 2, and 1 replaces 3.

{0, 1, 2, 3}

{3, 2, 0, 1}
You can see that permutation acts like a function. Specifically it is a bijection,
where:
𝑓(0) = 3, 0 is the input and 3 is the output
𝑓(1) = 2
𝑓(2) = 0
𝑓(3) = 1
Treating permutation as function allows us to define the group operation.
Multiplication in S4 is just function composition.
For example:
{0, 1, 2, 3} {0, 1, 2, 3}
∗
{3, 2, 0, 1} {2, 1, 3, 0}
𝑓(0) = 3 𝑔(0) = 2
𝑓(1) = 2 𝑔(1) = 1
𝑓(2) = 0 𝑔(2) = 3
𝑓(3) = 1 𝑔(3) = 0

If you compose the functions:

𝑓 ° 𝑔 (0) = 𝑓 (2) = 0 , since 0 maps to 2, and 2 maps to 0.
{0, 1, 2, 3} {0, 1, 2, 3}
∗
{3, 2, 0, 1} {2, 1, 3, 0}

𝑓 ° 𝑔 (1) = 𝑓 (1) = 2 , since 1 maps to 1, and 1 maps to 2.

{0, 1, 2, 3} {0, 1, 2, 3}
∗
{3, 2, 0, 1} {2, 1, 3, 0}

𝑓 ° 𝑔 (2) = 𝑓 (3) = 1 , since 2 maps to 3, and 3 maps to 1.

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Think Abstract

{0, 1, 2, 3} {0, 1, 2, 3}
∗
{3, 2, 0, 1} {2, 1, 3, 0}

𝑓 ° 𝑔 (3) = 𝑓 (0) = 3 , since 3 maps to 0, and 0 maps to 3.

{0, 1, 2, 3} {0, 1, 2, 3}
∗
{3, 2, 0, 1} {2, 1, 3, 0}

Therefore, for S4
{0, 1, 2, 3} {0, 1, 2, 3} {0, 1, 2, 3}
∗ =
{3, 2, 0, 1} {2, 1, 3, 0} {0, 2, 1, 3}
This can be written as
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
( ) ∗( )= ( ).
3 2 0 1 2 1 3 0 0 2 1 3

Example:
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Solve: ( ) ∗ ( )
1 3 2 0 3 1 2 0

Solution:
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
( )∗ ( )= ( )
1 3 2 0 3 1 0 2 0 3 1 2

It is important to note Cayle’s theorem which states that every finite group is a
subgroup of a symmetric group . Apart from that, symmetric group Sn is non-abelian if n>2.
In S4 , n = 4 which is greater than 2, thus S4 is non-abelian.

Orbits, Cycles, and the Alternating Groups

Orbits. Let B be the permutation of set A. The equivalence classes in A determined
by the equivalence relation are the orbits of B.
A permutation of B∈ Sn is a cycle if it has at most one orbit containing more than
one element.
Example:
1 2 3 4
Find the orbits of B= ( ) in S4.
4 3 2 1

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Think Abstract

Solution:
For 1: 1 ⟶ 4 ⟶ 1 ⟶ 4 ⟶ 1 can be written as (1,4)
For 2: 2 ⟶ 3 ⟶ 2 ⟶ 3 ⟶ 2 can be written as (2,3)
For 3: 3 ⟶ 2 ⟶ 3 ⟶ 2 ⟶ 3 can be written as (3,2)
For 4: 4 ⟶ 1 ⟶ 4 ⟶ 1 ⟶ 4 can be written as (4,1)
So, the orbits are (1,4) (2,3).
Cycle notation of permutation. Permutation on n objects form a group called
symmetric group Sn . Cycle notation allows you to write a permutation in single line and
oftentimes you end up writing few numbers.
The order of an m-cycle in Sn is m and the length of a cycle is the number of
elements in its largest orbit.
A cycle of length three such as (0, 1, 3) is called “three-cycle”.
If the length of the cycle is 2 such as (4, 2) is called a “2-cycle” or a transposition.

0 1 2 3
So, ( ) can be written as a product of two disjoint cycles: a 3-cycle
1 3 2 0
(0, 1, 3) and one-cycle (2) .
It can also be written as (0, 1, 3) since one-cycle (2) cannot change any number
so just ignore them. In reality, cycles are called loops of mapping.
(0, 1, 3) (2) is the cycle decomposition
(0, 1, 3) (2) means that

0 maps to 1 0 1 2 3
( )
1 3 2 0

1 maps to 3 0 1 2 3
( )
1 3 2 0
and 3 maps to 0 0 1 2 3
( )
1 3 2 0

There is a cycle, but 2 is not included; so put separate 2.

(2) means 2 maps to 2 0 1 2 3

( )
1 3 2 0

You can start in any element you want. Suppose you start with 3.
So 3 maps to 0, 0 maps to 1, 1 maps to 3 and thus creates a cycle (3, 0, 1).
Still, 2 maps to 2. In notation it can be written as (2)

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Think Abstract

Thus, (0, 1, 3) (2) is the same as (3, 0, 1) (2) or (2) (3, 0, 1) or (3, 0, 1) only.
We can visualize it in the figures shown below.

3 1 0

1 0 0 3 3 1

Example:
0 1 2 3 4
Write ( ) in cycle notation. Start with element 2.
4 3 1 0 2

Solution:
Since, 2 maps to 1, 1 maps to 3, 3 map to 0, 0 maps to 4, 4 maps to 2, the cycle
notation is (0, 4, 2, 1, 3).
Symmetric groups can help your life, specifically in making software to study group.
This is called computational algebra.
Alternating group. The subgroup of Sn consisting of the even permutations of n
letters is the alternating group An on n letters.
Coset
To find the subgroups if there are any, you can use the objects called cosets. With
these cosets, you can create a simple rule called Lagrange’s Theorem Lagrange’s
theorem proposed by Joseph-Louis Lagrange narrows down the possible list of
subgroups. The cosets do not overlap and of the same size.
It can be remembered: that the group “integers mod 7” is composed of a group of
integers divided into 7 sets. The subgroups are : ℤ, 2 ℤ, 3 ℤ, 4 ℤ, 5 ℤ, 6 ℤ, 7 ℤ, 8 ℤ,…
A set with remainder 0 if you divide x by 7 can be written as 0 + 7 ℤ
Similarly, set with remainder 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 if you divide x by 7 can be written
as 1 + 7 ℤ, 2 + 7 ℤ, 3 + 7 ℤ, 4 + 7 ℤ, 5 + 7 ℤ, 6 + 7 ℤ, respectively, as shown below.
r=0 7ℤ = {…, -42, -35, -28, -21, -14, -7, 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, …}
r=1 1+7 ℤ = {…, -41, -34, -27, -20, -13, -6, 1, 8, 15, 22, 29, 36, 43, …}
r=2 2+7 ℤ = {…, -40, -33, -26, -19, -12, -5, 2, 9, 16, 23, 30, 37, 44, …}
r=3 3+7 ℤ = {…, -39, -32, -25, -18, -11, -4, 3, 10, 17, 24, 31, 38, 45, …}
r=4 4+7 ℤ = {…, -38, -31, -24, -17, -10, -3, 4, 11, 18, 25, 32, 39, 46, …}
r=5 5+7 ℤ = {…, -37, -30, -23, -16, -9, -2, 5, 12, 19, 26, 33, 40, 47, …}
r=6 6+7 ℤ = {…, -36, -29, -22, -15, -8, -1, 6, 13, 20, 27, 34, 41, 48, …}

1+7 ℤ, 2+7 ℤ, 3+7 ℤ, 4+7 ℤ, 5+7 ℤ, and 6+7 ℤ are called cosets.

55
Think Abstract

If you write the subgroup 7 ℤ as 0 + 7 ℤ, it is now a coset.

{0 + 7 ℤ, 1+7 ℤ, 2+7 ℤ, 3+7 ℤ, 4+7 ℤ, 5+7 ℤ, 6+7 ℤ } is a coset group.
(1+7 ℤ) + (5+7 ℤ) = 6 + 7 ℤ . Just add all the numbers in the first coset 1+7 ℤ to all
the numbers in the second coset 5+7 ℤ.

1+7 ℤ = {…, -41, -34, -27, -20, -13, -6, 1, 8, 15, 22, 29, 36, 43, …}
+ 5+7 ℤ = {…, -37, -30, -23, -16, -9, -2, 5, 12, 19, 26, 33, 40, 47, …}
6+7 ℤ = {…, -36, -29, -22, -15, -8, -1, 6, 13, 20, 27, 34, 41, 48, …}

To generalize: Suppose G is a group and N is a subgroup, so the non-overlapping

cosets are N, g1 N, g2 N, g3 N, g4 N, g5 N, …
Also note: not all cosets always form a group. If G has cosets which do not form a
group, then N is not a normal subgroup and we cannot make a quotient group.
Properties of a Subgroup for its Cosets to be a Group. N must have the
following properties for the cosets to be a group.
Suppose N divides G into k different cosets. Since G may not be abelian, left coset
may differ from right coset.
… … …
gk N
… … … …

… … … …

…
N g1N N
g2

Every left coset is of the form 𝑔 𝑁 for some 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺. If we pick cosets 𝑥 𝑁 and 𝑦 𝑁.
Since N is a subgroup, then N has an identity element e: 𝑒 ∈ 𝑁
So, 𝑥⦁𝑒 = 𝑥 ∈ 𝑥 𝑁 and 𝑦⦁𝑒 = 𝑦 ∈ 𝑦 𝑁. For cosets to act like a group, 𝑥⦁𝑦 ∈
(𝑥 𝑁)(𝑦 𝑁). In other words (𝑥 𝑁)(𝑦 𝑁) = 𝑥𝑦 𝑁.
To show (𝑥 𝑁)(𝑦 𝑁) = 𝑥𝑦 𝑁, pick an element from coset 𝑥 𝑁 → 𝑥 ⦁ 𝑛1 and then
pick an element from coset 𝑦 𝑁 → 𝑦 ⦁ 𝑛2 .
(𝑥 ⦁ 𝑛1 ) ⦁( 𝑦 ⦁ 𝑛2 ) ∈ 𝑥𝑦 𝑁 ⟹ (𝑥 ⦁ 𝑛1 ) ⦁( 𝑦 ⦁ 𝑛2 ) = 𝑥⦁ 𝑦⦁ 𝑛3
In simplifying: (𝑥 ⦁ 𝑛1 ) ⦁( 𝑦 ⦁ 𝑛2 ) = 𝑥⦁ 𝑦⦁ 𝑛3, first multiply both sides by the inverse
of x. Thus,
𝑥 −1 ⦁(𝑥 ⦁ 𝑛1 ) ⦁( 𝑦 ⦁ 𝑛2 ) = 𝑥 −1 ⦁ (𝑥⦁ 𝑦⦁ 𝑛3 ),
( 𝑛1 ⦁𝑦 ⦁ 𝑛2 ) = (𝑦⦁ 𝑛3 ),
Then multiply both sides by the inverse of y. Thus,
𝑦 −1 ⦁( 𝑛1 ⦁𝑦 ⦁ 𝑛2 ) = 𝑦 −1 ⦁(𝑦⦁ 𝑛3 )
𝑦 −1 ⦁( 𝑛1 ⦁𝑦 ⦁ 𝑛2 ) = ( 𝑛3 )
Finally, multiply both sides by the inverse of n2
𝑛2 −1 ⦁[𝑦 −1 ⦁( 𝑛1 ⦁𝑦 ⦁ 𝑛2 )] = 𝑛2 −1 ⦁( 𝑛3 )
𝑦 −1 ⦁( 𝑛1 ⦁𝑦 ) = 𝑛2 −1 ⦁( 𝑛3 )
Since N is a subgroup, then 𝑛2 −1 ⦁( 𝑛3 ) ∈ 𝑁 so 𝑦 −1 ⦁( 𝑛1 ⦁𝑦) ∈ 𝑁

56
Think Abstract

Lagrange’s theorem states: H < G ⟹ | H | divides | G |. In simple terms, the

theorem states that if H is a subgroup of G, then the order of H divides the order of G. This
shows that subgroups cannot be any size. There are restrictions on the possible
subgroups of G.
Suppose you have a group G with | G | = 143. 143 = 11 x 13. This means that the
divisors of 143 are 1, 11, 13, and 143. So any subgroup of G must be of order 11 and 13,
including the order of standard subgroups: the trivial group, the group of order 1 which
has an element {e} , and the group G itself which is of order 143.
It is important to note that Lagrange’s theorem is a conditional: if, then theorem, so
the converse may not be true.

Direct Products
A recurring theme in science and mathematics is defining the fundamental building
blocks of something and studying the different ways to put them together.
For example, in Chemistry, the building blocks of everyday matters are atoms. And
there are different types of bonds which describe ways on how they can be stacked
together to make molecules.
In number theory, you learn that the building blocks of integers are primes
numbers. And that all positive integers have unique prime factors.
In group theory, the fundamental building blocks of finite groups are called simple
groups. And there are many ways to combine them together to make larger, complex
groups. One way is obtaining direct products.
Suppose you have any two groups G 1 and G2. G1, G2 may be finite or infinite,
abelian or non-abelian. Direct product is a way to combine the two groups to make a new
large group. It is a set of all pairs where the first component is from 𝐺1 and the second
component is from 𝐺2 . The notation is the same as Cartesian product of two sets.
𝐺1 × 𝐺2 = { (𝑥, 𝑦) |𝑥 ∈ 𝐺1 , 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺2 }
It is important to note that group operation is performed component-wise. To show
this, suppose (𝑎, 𝑏), (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐺1 × 𝐺2. Then, their product is defined to be the pair of
(𝑎, 𝑏), (𝑥, 𝑦),that is multiply the first components then multiply the second components.
Thus, (𝑎, 𝑏) ⦁ (𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑎⦁𝑥, 𝑏⦁𝑦)
If in any G i is non-abelian, then the direct product G is also non-abelian.
Example:
Suppose 𝐺1 = ℤ under + and 𝐺2 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} under multiplication×. Find (8, -1)
⦁ (6, i).
Solution:
Since the operation of 𝐺1 is addition while the operation for 𝐺2 is multiplication, so
add the first components first, then multiply the second component.
So, (8, -1) ∗ (6, i).
= (8+6, -1×i)
= (14, -i)

57
Think Abstract

Example:
Suppose 𝐺 = ℤ / 2 ℤ × ℤ / 5 ℤ × ℤ / 7 ℤ, find (1, 5, 6) + (-7, 8, -3).

Solution:
1 + (-7) = -6 mod 2 = 0 mod 2
5+8 = 13 mod 5 = 3 mod 5
6 + (-3) = 3 mod 7

Thus, (1, 5, 6) + (-7, 8, -3) = (0, 3, 3)

Suppose 𝐺 = R × S3. R is an abelian group while S3 is non-abelian.

Let a = (2 3) and b = (1 2). Find the following
1. (1, a) ⦁ (2.5, b)
2. (2.5, b) ⦁ (1, a)
3. Is (1, a) ⦁ (2.5, b) = (2.5, b) ⦁ (1, a)?

Solution:
If a = (2 3) and b = (1 2), then a⦁b = ( 1 3 2), while b⦁a = ( 1 2 3).
Here, a⦁b ≠ b⦁a

1. (1, a) ⦁ (2.5, b) = (3.5, ( 1 3 2))

2. (2.5, b) ⦁ (1, a) = (3.5, (1 2 3))

𝐺 = R × S3 is non-abelian.

Finitely Generated Abelian Groups. It is discussed in the Unit 1 of this module

that Cyclic group leads to the founding of the Fundamental Theorem of Finitely
Generated Abelian Groups which states: “any abelian group that is finitely generated
can be broken apart to finite number of cyclic groups and these cyclic groups are the
integers ℤ and the integers mod n. Cyclic groups are building blocks of finitely generated
abelian groups.

Example:
Find all abelian groups of order 24.
Solution:
Express 24 as a product of primes.
24 = 8 ∙ 3 = 23 ∙ 3
Using the Fundamental Theorem of Finitely Generated Abelian Groups, we get the
possibilities:

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Think Abstract

o ℤ2× ℤ2× ℤ2× ℤ3

o ℤ2× ℤ4× ℤ3
o ℤ8× ℤ3
Thus, there are three (3) abelian groups of order 24.

Extend Knowledge

Learn more about permutation, cosets and direct product at

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WE5H2f8z6eg

Just click the link. You may refer to the e-textbook materials at the
Coursework tab of google classroom with course code 5ekyvl6.

If you have poor connectivity, feel free to inform me using the contact
provided for in the syllabus, so I can assist or help you.

Learning Activities

Activity 1: Solve it
Directions: Read and analyze the following. Give what are asked or required.
Answer all. Write answers in your activity notebook.
1. Find the group of permutations for S5 using the elements {1,2,3,4,5} and then do
the following:
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
a. Find: ( ) ∗ ( )
1 3 2 5 4 5 4 1 3 2
1 2 3 4 5
b. Determine the orbits of ( ).
5 4 1 3 2
c. Find: (4, 1, 3) (2) ∗ (2, 5, 4)
d. Determine: (1,5,4, 3) ∗ (2, 1, 4,5)

2. List the cosets for the groups indicated below:

a. Group of integers mod 5
b. Group of integers mod 9.

3. Suppose 𝐺1 = ℤ under + and 𝐺2 = {3, 4, 5, 6} under multiplication×,

find (2, 4) ⦁ (3, 5).

4. Suppose 𝐻 = ℤ / 3 ℤ × ℤ / 4 ℤ × ℤ / 5 ℤ, find (2, 4, 6) + (-1, -2, -3).

5. Find all abelian groups of order 280.

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Think Abstract

Activity 2: Show me
Directions: Show the properties of a subgroup for its cosets to be a group. Present
it through an organized solution video.

Am I ready?

Congratulations for doing the learning activities. Refer to the google

classroom for the answers. If your score is above 7, you may proceed
to the next unit of this module, or you may master this unit first before
you proceed to the next unit.

If your score is below 7, patiently and religiously review this unit. For
clarification, help or assistance, feel free to contact me through SMS,
phone calls or email indicated in the course syllabus.

You may also send me a message via google class with the code:
5ekyvl6 or in the Google Meet through the link
https://meet.google.com/lookup/czace4xbilor may seek help from
friends and other people.

If you have poor connectivity or worst no internet connection and

Now, you are ready to level up your performance. Do the succeeding

assessment.

Assessment

Part I
Directions: Read and answer the following. Write your answers on your activity
notebook.
1. Find the group of permutations for S5 using the elements {1,2,3,4,5} and then
do the following:
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
a. Find: ( ) ∗ ( )
1 3 2 5 4 2 3 1 5 4
1 2 3 4 5
b. Determine the orbits of ( ).
2 5 3 1 4
c. Find: (4, 1, 3,5) (2) ∗ (2, 5, 4,1)
d. Determine: (1,5,3) ∗ (2, 1, 4)

2. List the cosets for the groups indicated below:

a. Group of integers mod 6.
b. Group of integers mod 10.

3. Suppose 𝐺1 = ℤ under + and 𝐺2 = {1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6} under multiplication×,

find (1, 4) ⦁ (3, 6).

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Think Abstract

4. Suppose 𝐻 = ℤ / 5 ℤ × ℤ / 6 ℤ × ℤ / 7 ℤ, find (21, 41, 61) + (-12, -22, -32).

5. Find all abelian groups of order 312.

6. Find S3. Let the 3 elements be (x, y z).

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
7. If g =( ) and h = ( ), find the following:
3 5 4 1 2 3 1 5 2 4
a. 𝑔 ° ℎ
b. ℎ ° 𝑔
c. 𝑔 ° ℎ (1)
d. 𝑔 ° ℎ (2)
e. 𝑔 ° ℎ (3)
f. 𝑔 ° ℎ (4)
g. 𝑔 ° ℎ (5)
h. ℎ ° 𝑔 (1)
i. ℎ ° 𝑔 (2)
j. ℎ ° 𝑔 (3)
k. ℎ ° 𝑔 (4)
l. ℎ ° 𝑔 (5)

8. Write the following in cycle notation.

1
a. ( )
1
1 2
b. ( )
2 1

0 1 2
c. ( )
1 2 0

0 1 2 3 4
d. ( )
4 3 1 0 2

1 2 3 4 5
e. ( )
5 3 4 2 1

1 2 3 4 5
9. How many cycles does ( ) have?
2 4 3 1 5

Activity 2: Prove me
Directions: Prove that a direct product of abelian group is abelian. Present it
through an organized solution video.

61
Think Abstract

Am I ready?

Congratulations for doing the learning activities. Refer to the google classroom for
the answers. If your score is above 15, you may proceed to the next unit of this
module, or you may master this unit first before you proceed to the next unit.

If your score is below 15, patiently and religiously review this unit. For clarification,
help or assistance, feel free to contact me through SMS, phone calls or email
indicated in the course syllabus.

You may also send me a message via google class with the code: 5ekyvl6 or in the
Google Meet through the link https://meet.google.com/lookup/czace4xbilor may seek
help from friends and other people.

If you have poor connectivity or worst no internet connection and resources like
mobile phone, please notify me so I could help you, will extend the deadline of the
submission of your output or will give you another activity.

You may write your insights or thought about the activity on your journal.

You have just completed this unit. You are now ready to take Unit 3.

__________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
___________________.

__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________.

__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________.

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Unit
Factor Group, Homomorphism

3 and Isomorphism

In the 18th century, Karl Friedrich Gauss who was then 21 years old wrote a classic
book called “Disquisitiones Arithmeticae” which he laid down the idea of modular
arithmetic which takes out a group of integers and partitions it into a finite number of sets
and treat each set as a new type of number. This technique was also used in studying
normal subgroups and quotient groups, also known as factor groups. These groups may
be different or similar in form which can determined using the tools homomorphism and
its variant called isomorphism.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you are expected to:

• Solve problems involving factor group, homomorphism, isomorphism and group
action
Specifically, you must be able to:
• Perform operation on factor groups
• Test whether or not the group is homomorphic or isomorphic.
• Show proof involving homomorphism and isomorphism
• Relate isomorphism concept to real-world scenario

Pretest

Factor Group
It can be remembered: that the group “integers mod 7” is composed of a group of
integers divided into 7 sets. The subgroups are : ℤ, 2 ℤ, 3 ℤ, 4 ℤ, 5 ℤ, 6 ℤ, 7 ℤ, 8 ℤ,…
A set with remainder 0 if you divide x by 7 can be written as 0 + 7 ℤ
Similarly, set with remainder 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 if you divide x by 7 can be written
as 1 + 7 ℤ, 2 + 7 ℤ, 3 + 7 ℤ, 4 + 7 ℤ, 5 + 7 ℤ, 6 + 7 ℤ, respectively, as shown below.
r=0 7ℤ = {…, -42, -35, -28, -21, -14, -7, 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, …}
r=1 1+7 ℤ = {…, -41, -34, -27, -20, -13, -6, 1, 8, 15, 22, 29, 36, 43, …}
r=2 2+7 ℤ = {…, -40, -33, -26, -19, -12, -5, 2, 9, 16, 23, 30, 37, 44, …}
r=3 3+7 ℤ = {…, -39, -32, -25, -18, -11, -4, 3, 10, 17, 24, 31, 38, 45, …}

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Think Abstract

r=4 4+7 ℤ = {…, -38, -31, -24, -17, -10, -3, 4, 11, 18, 25, 32, 39, 46, …}
r=5 5+7 ℤ = {…, -37, -30, -23, -16, -9, -2, 5, 12, 19, 26, 33, 40, 47, …}
r=6 6+7 ℤ = {…, -36, -29, -22, -15, -8, -1, 6, 13, 20, 27, 34, 41, 48, …}

7Z is called a normal subgroup and {0 + 7 ℤ, 1+7 ℤ, 2+7 ℤ, 3+7 ℤ, 4+7 ℤ, 5+7 ℤ,

6+7 ℤ } is a coset group. A group of cosets is called a quotient group or a factor group,
which can be written as ℤ / 5 ℤ.
Also note that a quotient group is not a subgroup of ℤ. It is an entirely different
group:
ℤ / 5ℤ < ℤ
Thus, (1+7 ℤ) + (5+7 ℤ) = 6 + 7 ℤ . Just add all the numbers in the first coset 1+7 ℤ
to all the numbers in the second coset 5+7 ℤ.

1+7 ℤ = {…, -41, -34, -27, -20, -13, -6, 1, 8, 15, 22, 29, 36, 43, …}
+ 5+7 ℤ = {…, -37, -30, -23, -16, -9, -2, 5, 12, 19, 26, 33, 40, 47, …}
6+7 ℤ = {…, -36, -29, -22, -15, -8, -1, 6, 13, 20, 27, 34, 41, 48, …}

To generalize: Suppose G is a group and N is a subgroup, so the non-overlapping

cosets are N, g1 N, g2 N, g3 N, g4 N, g5 N, …
Also note: not all cosets always form a group. If G has cosets which do not form a
group, then N is not a normal subgroup and we cannot make a quotient group.

Homomorphism and Isomorphism

Suppose there are two groups G and H and you would like to relate the group
structure of G to the group structure of H through mapping. Those maps would give you
information whether or not the two groups have different or similar groups.
Homomorphism. Homomorphism = homo+ morph. “Homo” means “same”, while
“morph” means “shape”. Group homomorphism is one of the important concepts of
abstract algebra. It is a tool for comparing two groups’ similarities. It allows one to connect
similar groups or identical groups.
The groups don’t need to be exactly the same. Some groups are so different from
one another, there are no structural similarities at all.
To illustrate a group homomorphism, suppose you have groups G and H which are
different groups, with operations ∗ and ⊙ , respectively.
G ∗ and H ⊙
Pick any two elements a, b ∈ G and x, y ∈ H and a ∗ b = c
Suppose, a function f maps group G to H: G ↦ H. Elements a, b, and c in G are
mapped to elements in H. That is
a ↦ f(a)
b ↦ f(b)
c ↦ f(c)

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The whole point of a homomorphism is to find structural similarity between two

groups. So, a ∗ b = c ⟹ f(a) ⊙ f(b) = f(c)
⟹ f(a) ⊙ f(b) = f(a∗ 𝑏).
Thus, the definition of a homomorphism. It is important to note that a
homomorphism do not need to be one-to-one (injective) or onto (surjective).
For ease understanding, consider two groups: A = the set of integers ℤ and B =
the integers mod 2 or ℤ / 2 ℤ .
Set addition as the operations of both groups.
A is an infinite group while B is a finite group with only 2 elements {0, 1}.
You may think that these two groups A and B are completely different from each
other, but: ℤ can be broken down as R= {a set of even integers} and S = {a set of odd
integers} ⟹ ℤ = {𝑅, 𝑆}.
It can be noted that:
𝑅 + 𝑅 = 𝑅 , even + even = even
𝑅 + 𝑆 = 𝑆 , even + odd = odd
𝑆 + 𝑅 = 𝑆 , odd + even = odd
𝑆 + 𝑆 = 𝑆 , odd + odd = even
In the group ℤ / 2 ℤ,
0 + 0 = 0 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 2)
0 + 1 = 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 2)
1 + 0 = 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 2)
1 + 1 = 0 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 2)
If you replace even in R and odd in S in group Z with 0 and 1, respectively, you
can notice that it is exact same thing as to ℤ / 2 ℤ .
Based on the above, 𝑍 = {𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑠} ∪ {𝑜𝑑𝑑𝑠} behave exactly the same as ℤ /2ℤ =
{0, 1}. In mathematical terms, it can be written as a function f
𝑓 ∶ ℤ ⟶ ℤ/ 𝟐ℤ
So if the integer is even, map it to 0, and if the integer is odd, send it to 1.
even ↦ 0
odd ↦ 1
Note: It is not possible to create a reverse function that maintains the outcome for
𝑓 ∶ 𝒁 ⟶ ℤ/ 𝟐ℤ . This means 𝑓 ∶ ℤ ⟶ ℤ/ 𝟐ℤ and 𝑓 ∶ ℤ/ 𝟐ℤ ⟶ ℤ behave differently.
When using a function to compare two groups, direction matters.

Example:
𝑓 ∶ ℤ ⟶ ℤ under the operation addition
𝑓 (𝑥) ∶ 2𝑥
To check if it is homomorphism, show that 𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑦).
From the definition, 2 (𝑥 + 𝑦) = 2 (𝑥) + 2(𝑦) = 2𝑥 + 2𝑦, so f is a homomorphism.

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The output of f is a set of even integers 2 ℤ , and 2 ℤ< ℤ

Example:
Let G = R under +
H = { 𝑧 ∈ set of complex numbers C : | z | = 1 } under ×
G is abelian having an identity element 0
H is abelian having an identity element 1
It is important to note that every z ∈C with | z | = 1 can be written as 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃.

Define 𝑓 ∶ 𝑮 ⟶ 𝑯
x ↦ 𝑒 𝑖𝑥
Show 𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑓 (𝑥) × 𝑓(𝑦).
Using the definition of x:
𝑒 𝑖 (𝑥+𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 × 𝑒 𝑖𝑦
𝑒 𝑖𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 × 𝑒 𝑖𝑦
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 × 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 × 𝑒 𝑖𝑦
So, f is a homomorphism.

Isomorphism. Isomorphism = iso+ morph. “Iso” means “equal” while “morph”

means “shape”. An isomorphism is a homomorphism and a bijection: both one-to-one and
onto, or simply, they are identical. Thus, we call groups isomorphic if the form is the same
or identical.
Consider two groups: the group of integers mod 4 under addition (ℤ / 4 ℤ, +) and
the group of {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} under multiplication ( {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖}, × ).
Use Cayley table to compare them,

0 1 2 3 × 1 -1 𝑖 −𝑖
+
0 0 1 2 3 1 1 -1 𝑖 −𝑖
1 1 2 3 0 -1 -1 1 −𝑖 𝑖
2 2 3 0 1 𝑖 𝑖 −𝑖 -1 1
3 3 0 1 2 −𝑖 −𝑖 𝑖 1 -1
Cayley table for (ℤ / 4 ℤ, +) Cayley table for a group ( {𝟏, −𝟏, 𝒊, −𝒊} ,× )

The two groups (ℤ / 4 ℤ, +) and ( {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖}, × ) have the same size, having 4
elements each. And they also behave similarly. If we highlight each element in the Cayley
Tables starting with identity elements 0 and 1, respectively with unique color blue, we can
say that they are no way similar.

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+ 0 1 2 3 × 1 -1 𝑖 −𝑖
0 0 1 2 3 1 1 -1 𝑖 −𝑖
1 1 2 3 0 -1 -1 1 −𝑖 𝑖
2 2 3 0 1 𝑖 𝑖 −𝑖 -1 1

3 3 0 1 2 −𝑖 −𝑖 𝑖 1 -1

Cayley table for (ℤ / 4 ℤ, +) Cayley table for a group ( {𝟏, −𝟏, 𝒊, −𝒊} ,× )
The identity element is 0 The identity element is 1.

But, if we arrange the group ( {𝟏, −𝟏, 𝒊, −𝒊} ,× ) in this manner {𝟏, 𝒊, −𝟏, −𝒊}, the
two groups now form similar pattern. By coloring the squares with different colors for each
element, we can clearly see that the color pattern of the two tables are exactly the same.
They are identical groups. They just use different elements and operations, but other than
that, the groups (ℤ / 4 ℤ, +) and ( {𝟏, −𝟏, 𝒊,−𝒊}, × ) are equivalent. If one table applies to
the other, then the groups having these tables are isomorphic (Fraleigh, 2003).

+ 0 1 2 3 × 1 𝑖 -1 −𝑖
0 0 1 2 3 1 1 𝑖 -1 −𝑖
1 1 2 3 0 𝑖 𝑖 -1 −𝑖 1
2 2 3 0 1 -1 -1 −𝑖 1 𝑖
Example:
3 3 0 1 2 −𝑖 −𝑖 1 𝑖 -1
Cayley table for (ℤ / 4 ℤ, +) Cayley table for a group ( {𝟏, −𝟏, 𝒊, −𝒊} ,× )
The identity element is 0 The identity element is 1.

Example:
Let G = R+ under ×
H = R under +
G is abelian having an identity element 0
H is abelian having an identity element 1
log ∶ 𝑮 ⟶ 𝑯
Verify log (𝑥 ⦁𝑦) = log 𝑥 + log 𝑦
To determine whether or not the groups are isomorphic, check whether the
function is both one-to-one and onto.
log x = log y
𝑒 log 𝑥 = 𝑒 log𝑦
𝑥=𝑦
Thus, log function is one-to-one (injective).
And since the range of log function is a set of all real numbers, then it is also onto
or surjective.
So, f is an isomorphism.

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Kernel of a Group Homomorphism. A homomorphism between two groups do

not need to be one-to-one function. If groups G and H are homomorphic, then identities
and inverses in G are also identities and inverses in H. If it is not one-to-one, then there is
a group associated with the group homomorphism that measures the degree to which the
function is not injectiv. This group is called the kernel.
𝐾𝑒𝑟 (𝑓) = { 𝑥 ∈ G |f (x) = 1𝐻 }
If f is not one-to-one or a bijection, then kernel has more than 1 element. The
kernel is never empty, it always contains the identity 1G. If it contains an identity 1G, then
f is one-to-one (Warner, 2019).

Group Action on a Set

Suppose there is group G } and set A. The group action by the G on set A is
𝑓: 𝑮 × 𝑨 ⟶ 𝑨. 𝑮 × 𝑨 is a Cartesian product and not a group.
𝑮 × 𝑨 = {(𝒈, 𝒂)|𝒈 ∈ 𝑮, 𝒂 ∈ 𝑨
For all elements in 𝒈𝟏 , 𝒈𝟐 ∈ 𝑮, and 𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 ∈ 𝑨, 𝒈𝟏( 𝒈𝟐 ∙ 𝒂) = (𝒈𝟏 ,𝒈𝟐 ) ∙ 𝒂)

× - a -
-
-

𝒈𝟏 𝒈𝟏 ∙ 𝒂

𝒈𝟐 𝒈𝟐 ∙ 𝒂

Extend Knowledge

Learn more about groups at

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9a59Npl4qU

Just click the link. You may refer to the e-textbook materials at the
Coursework tab of google classroom with course code 5ekyvl6.

If you have poor connectivity, feel free to inform me using the contact
provided for in the syllabus, so I can assist or help you.

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Think Abstract

Learning Activities

Activity 1: Solve it
Directions: Read the following and answer all. Write answers in your activity
notebook.
1. Find the factor groups of the following:
a. ℤ𝟒
b. ℤ𝟓
c. ℤ𝟔

2. Check whether or not the following are homomorphic and show why:
a. 𝑓 ∶ ℤ ⟶ ℤ under the operation addition
𝑓 (𝑥): 5𝑥 + 7

b. 𝑓 ∶ G ⟶ H under the operation addition

G = R under +
H = { Q ∈ set of rational numbers } under ×
𝑥: 52𝑥+3

3. Construct a Cayley table for the group G and determine if G and H are
îsomorphic. Explain why.

a. G = ℤ𝟑
Suppose the operation ∗ is on H = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧} with the following table
Table 1. Table for S, ∗

∗ x y z
x y x z
y x z y
z z y x

b. G = R+ under ×
H = R under +
log ∶ 𝑮 ⟶ 𝑯. log (𝑥/𝑦) = log 𝑥 − log 𝑦

4. Let G = ℤ 4 and set A = {1,2,3}, find the group action by the G on set A.

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Am I ready?

Congratulations for doing the learning activities. Refer to the google

classroom for the answers. If your score is above 5, you may
proceed to the next unit of this module, or you may master this unit
first before you proceed to the next unit.

If your score is below 5, patiently and religiously review this unit. For
clarification, help or assistance, feel free to contact me through SMS,
phone calls or email indicated in the course syllabus.

You may also send me a message via google class with the code:
5ekyvl6 or in the Google Meet through the link
https://meet.google.com/lookup/czace4xbilor may seek help from
friends and other people.

If you have poor connectivity or worst no internet connection and

resources like mobile phone, please notify me so I could help you,
will extend the deadline of the submission of your output or will give
you another activity.

Now, you are ready to level up your performance. Do the succeeding

assessment.

Assessment

Part I
Directions: Read and answer the following. Write your answers on your activity
notebook.

1. Find the factor groups of the following:

a. ℤ𝟖
b. ℤ𝟗
c. ℤ𝟏𝟎

2. Check whether or not the following are homomorphic and show why:
a. 𝑓 ∶ ℤ ⟶ ℤ under the operation addition
𝑓 (𝑥): 4𝑥 − 1

b. 𝑓 ∶ G ⟶ H under the operation addition

G = R under +
H = { Q ∈ set of rational numbers } under ×
𝑥: 95𝑥−3

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3. Construct a Cayley table for the group G and H and show the two groups
are îsomorphic.

G = ℤ𝟓
H = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}

4. Let G = ℤ 3 and set A = {0,1,2,3}, find the group action by the G on set A.

5. Given that A and B are homomorphic, prove that homomorphism sends

identity in G identity in H .

6. If G and H are isomorphic, show that some group isomorphism sends

inverse in G to inverse in H.

7. Let G be Cx non-zero complex numbers under x and H be S 1 , a set of

complex number z with |z| = 1 under x. Show that f: Cx → S1 is an
isomorphism. 𝑓(𝑟⦁𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃.

Activity 2: Capture me
Directions: Make a video relating isomorphism concept to real-world scenario.
Submit it in the google classroom with the course code: 5ekyvl6.

Am I ready?

Congratulations for doing the learning activities. Refer to the google classroom for
the answers. If your score is above 15, you may proceed to the next unit of this
module, or you may master this unit first before you proceed to the next unit.

If your score is below 15, patiently and religiously review this unit. For clarification,
help or assistance, feel free to contact me through SMS, phone calls or email
indicated in the course syllabus.

You may also send me a message via google class with the code: 5ekyvl6 or in the
Google Meet through the link https://meet.google.com/lookup/czace4xbilor may
seek help from friends and other people.

If you have poor connectivity or worst no internet connection and resources like
mobile phone, please notify me so I could help you, will extend the deadline of the
submission of your output or will give you another activity.

You may write your insights or thought about the activity on your journal.

You have just completed this unit. You are now ready to take Unit 2.

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References

Pinter, Charles C, (1990). A Book of Abstract Algebra. 2nd ed. New York : McGraw-Hill.
Fraleigh, J. B. (2003). A First Course in Abstract Algebra. 7th ed. Pearson, Upper. Saddle River,
NJ
Gilbert, Jimmie; Gilbert, Linda (2005), Elements of Modern Algebra, Thomson Brooks/Cole, ISBN
978-0-534-40264-8
Warner, Steve (2019). Abstract Algebra f or Beginners: A Rigorous Introduction to Groups, Rings,
Fields, Vector Spaces
W. Keith Nicholson (2012) Introduction to Abstract Algebra, 4th edition, John Wiley & Sons ISBN
978-1-118-13535-8 .
Whitehead, C. (2002), Guide to Abstract Algebra (2nd ed.), Houndmills: Palgrave, ISBN 978-0-333-
79447-0
Sethuraman, B. A. (1996), Rings, Fields, Vector Spaces, and Group Theory: An Introduction to
Abstract Algebra via Geometric Constructibility, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN
978-0-387-94848-5

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Glossary

Abelian Group. A group that is commutative. It is also called a Commutative Group.

Alternating group. The subgroup consisting of the even permutations.
Binary operation. A binary operation ∗ on a set S is a function mapping S × S into S.
For each (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ S × S denote ∗ ((a, b)) of S by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 .
Coset. An object which is obtained after taking a subgroup and shifting it either on the left
or on the right.
Cyclic group. A group G is a cyclic if it is generated by a single element:
Direct product. A set of all pairs where the first component is from 𝐺1 and the second
component is from 𝐺2 .
Factor group. Also known as quotient group is a partition of the group into classes over
which a group operation can be unambiguously defined.
Finite group. A group with a finite number of elements.
Fundamental Theorem of Finitely Generated Abelian Groups. A theorem which states:
“any abelian group that is finitely generated can be broken apart to finite number of cyclic
groups and these cyclic groups are the integers ℤ and the integers mod n.
Group. A non-empty set G, with a binary operation ∗ which satisfies the axioms: closure,
inverse, identity and associativity properties.
Homomorphism. A tool for comparing two groups’ similarities. It allows one to connect
similar groups or identical groups.
Infinite group. A group with noncountable group elements.
Isomorphism. A homomorphism and a bijection: both one-to-one and onto, or simply,
groups that are identical.
Kernel. A group associated with the group homomorphism that measures the degree to
which the function is not injective.
Length of a cycle. The number of elements in its largest orbit.
Non-abelian Group. A group that is not commutative.
Orbits. The equivalence classes determined by the equivalence relation.
Order of an Element. In a group with identity e, the order of an element 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 is the
smallest positive integer n such that x n = e.
Order of Groups. The order of the group or the size of the group, is just the number of
elements in the group and is written as |𝐺 |.
Permutation. The rearrangement of the elements of the set in which order matters.
Subgroup. A subset of group G and is also a group. In symbol, it is written as H < G and
read as “H is a subgroup of G” and not H is less than or equal to G.
Symmetric group. A group of permutations on a set with n elements.
Trivial Group. A set with a single element admitting one possible binary operation.

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Rubrics

Rubric A Analytic Rubric in Math Problem Solving Exercises

Criteria Rating
Excellent Very Good Fair Poor
4 3 2 1

Understands the Identifies special Understands the Understands Doesn't

Problem factors that problem enough to solve part understand
influences the of the problem or to enough to get
approach before get part of the started or make
starting the problem solution progress
Uses Information Explains why Uses all Uses some Uses
Appropriately certain information appropriate appropriate inappropriate
is essential to the information information correctly information
solution correctly
Applies Explains why Applies Applies some Applies
Appropriate procedures are completely appropriate inappropriate
Procedures appropriate for the appropriate procedures procedures
problem procedures
Uses Uses a Uses a Uses a Uses a
Representations representation that representation representation that representation
is unusual in its that clearly gives some that gives little or
mathematical depicts the important no significant
precision problem information about information about
the problem the problem
Answers the Correct solution of Correct solution Copying error, No answer or
Problem problem and made computational error, wrong answer
a general rule about partial answer for based upon an
the solution or problem with inappropriate plan
extended the multiple answers, no
solution to a more answer statement,
complicated solution answer labeled
incorrectly

Source: uen.org/rubric

Rubric B Holistic Rubric for Evaluating Math Proofs

Rating
Excellent Very Good Fair Poor
4 3 2 1

Description Extends strategy and • Correct strategy and • Partially correct • No strategy and
reasoning reasoning strategy and reasoning is evident
to show additional is chosen to support reasoning is chosen Or
conceptual conceptual that could solve
understanding of the understanding of the part of the problem • Strategy and
mathematics mathematics reasoning would not
of the problem of the problem • Evidence of drawing work to solve any part
on some of the problem
• Adjustments, • Evidence of solidifying relevant previous
analysis and prior mathematical
alternative knowledge and applying knowledge is present
strategies may be it to the
considered problem-solving situation
• The answer is is present
correct • The answer must be
correct

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Answer to Exercises
Unit 1 Pretest
1. Set
2. Elements of a particular set are unambiguously determined as elements of
the set
3. a ∈S
4. Roster: {2,4,6,8,10}
5. Rule: {x | x is an even whole positive number < 11}
6. Null or empty set
7. { } or null
8. B is a subset of A while A ⊂ B means ______.
A is a proper subset of B
9. A
10. 16
11. 4
12. {(1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4), (3,3), (3,4)}
13. Z
14. + √3
15. 16
16. x =4 mod 6.

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