CHAPTER 7 - NATURE, PROPERTIES AND MANAGEMENT OF SOIL

At the end of this course, students should be able to acquire knowledge and develop
skills as follows:

1. define soil texture, soil structure, and porosity ;

2. state the characteristics /properties of soil separates;
3. distinguish the 2 types of soil structure;
4. compute for particle density, bulk density and porosity;
5. discuss the importance of water to the soil and to the crops; and
6. explain the 3 major forces affecting the free level of water and the 3 forms of soil water.

Introduction

Soil is a habitat for plants. As such, the soil’s physical, chemical, and biological properties
affect plant’s growth.

Criteria of Essentiality of Elements for Plants

Arnon of California made a basic set of criteria on the essentiality of elements. He

pointed out that an element could only be essential to plants when:

1. A deficiency of that element makes it impossible for the plant to complete its life
cycle;

2. The deficiency symptom of that element in question can be prevented or corrected

only by supplying the element; and

3. The element is directly involved in the metabolism or nutrition of the plant.

Elements Essential to Plant Nutrition

The protoplasm of the plant constitutes only six basic elements, namely: C, H, O, N, P,
K, and S. In addition to this, fourteen other elements had been found essential to some plants.
This includes Ca, Mg, K, Fe, Mn, Mo, Cu, B, Zn, Cl, Na, Co, V, and Si. It must be noted that
not all of these elements are required by all plants, but all have been found essential to some
plants.

Each of the first twenty elements does a specific role in the growth and development of
the plants, and when found in deficient amounts in the growing medium can retard growth as
well as decreased yields of plants.
 Classification of Elements as to Quantity Used by Plants

1. Major or macronutrients – those that are needed by the plants in relatively large
amounts. This includes C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S.
2. Minor or micro – elements – those that are required by plants in small quantities.

Sources of Essential Elements for Plant Use

The elements needed by plants to build its tissues and to reproduce solely come from
two basic sources: air and soil. The elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in plants are
obtained from carbon dioxide and water coming respectively from air and soil. All other
nutrients needed by the plants are normally supplied by the soil. These are mineral elements
occurring in the soil as products of weathering rocks, decaying organic materials or applied
nutrients in the form of fertilizers. Nitrogen also exists in the atmosphere in gaseous form and
is utilized by leguminous plants via the process of N-fixation through symbiosis with certain
species of bacteria.

Essential elements are normally absorbed by plants in their soluble forms. Aside from
being absorbed by the plants in inorganic forms, some nutrients are also taken in organic forms.
Typical examples of this are those of N and P which could be absorbed by the plants in the
form of nucleic acid, phytin, amino acids and phospholipids.
Table 1 Essential elements and the forms they are usually absorbed by plants.

ELEMENTS FORMS ABSORBED BY PLANTS

TRACE ELEMENTS
C CO2
H H+, H2O, OH-
O O2 , CO2 , H2O , OH-
MACRONUTRIENTS
N NH4+, NO3-, NO2-
CO (NH2)2
P H2PO4, HPO4=
K K+
Ca Ca++
Mg Mg++
S SO4= , SO2= , SO3=
B B4O7= , H2BO3- HBO3= , BO3=
Fe Fe++ , Fe+++
Mn Mn++ , MO3= , MnO3=
MICRONUTRIENTS
B B4O7= , H2BO3-, HBO3= , BO3=
Fe Fe++ , Fe+++
Mn Mn++ , MO3= , MnO3=
Cu Cu++
Zn Zn++
Co Co++
Si Si+
Ni Ni++
Cl Cl-
Mo MoO4=
Na Na+
Al Al+++

Functions of Nutrients in Plants

MACRONUTRIENTS
Nitrogen (N)
 Nitrogen is a part of all living cells and is a necessary part of all proteins,
enzymes and metabolic processes involved in the synthesis and transfer of
energy.
 Nitrogen is a part of chlorophyll, the green pigment of the plant that is
responsible for photosynthesis.
 Helps plants to have rapid growth, increasing seed and fruit production and
improving the quality of leaf and forage crops.
 Nitrogen often comes from fertilizer application and from the air (legumes
get their N from the atmosphere, water or rainfall contributes very little
nitrogen.
Phosphorus (P)
 Like nitrogen, phosphorus is an essential part of the process of
photosynthesis.
 Involved in the formation of all oils, sugars, starches, etc.
 Helps with the transformation of solar energy into chemical energy; proper
plant maturation; withstanding stress.
  Effects rapid growth.
 Encourages blooming and root growth.
 Phosphorus often comes from fertilizer, bone meal, and superphosphate.
Potassium (K)
 Potassium is absorbed by plants in larger amounts than any other mineral
element except nitrogen and in some cases calcium.
 Helps in the building of protein, photosynthesis, fruit quality and reduction
of diseases.
 Potassium is supplied to plants by soil minerals, organic materials, and
fertilizer.
Calcium (C)
 Calcium, an essential part of plant cell wall structure, provides for normal
transport and retention of other elements as well as strength in the plant. It is
also thought to counteract the effect of alkali salts and organic acids within a
plant.
 Sources of calcium are dolomitic lime, gypsum, and superphosphate.
Magnesium (Mg)
 Magnesium is part of the chlorophyll in all green plants and essential for
photosynthesis. It also helps activate many plant enzymes needed for growth.
 Soil minerals, organic materials, fertilizers, and dolomitic limestone are
sources of magnesium for plants.

MICRONUTRIENTS
Boron (B)
 Helps in the use of nutrients and regulates other nutrients.
 Aids production of sugar and carbohydrates.
 Essential for seed and fruit development.
 Sources of boron are organic matter and borax.
Copper (Cu)
 Important for reproductive growth.
 Aids in root metabolism and helps in the utilization of proteins.
Chlorine (Cl)
 Aids plant metabolism.
 Chloride is found in the soil.
Iron (Fe)
 Essential for formation of chlorophyll.
 Sources of iron are the soil, iron sulphate, iron chelate.
Manganese (Mn)
  Functions with enzyme systems involved in breakdown of carbohydrates and
nitrogen metabolism.
 Soil is the source of manganese.
Molybdenum (Mo)
 Helps in the use of nitrogen.
 Soil is the source of molybdenum.
Zinc (Zn)
 Essential for the transformation of carbohydrates.
 Regulates consumption of sugars.
 Part of the enzyme systems which regulate plant growth.
 Sources of zinc are soil, zinc oxide, zinc sulphate, zinc chelate.

Methods of Assessing Soil Fertility Status

Ways of detecting nutrient deficiency in soil. When the soil does not furnish adequate
amount of nutrients essential for normal development of crops required amounts must be
supplied. This situation necessitates finding a method that will permit determination of those
elements which are lacking. Several techniques had been commonly employed in the field to
determine the fertility status of agricultural soils. This includes:

1. Nutrient-deficiency symptoms of plants

2. Analysis of tissues from plants growing on the soil
3. Biological tests
4. Chemical soil tests
Nutrient-deficiency symptoms. Crop plants are best indicators of soil fertility. An abnormal
appearance of the growing plants may be caused by a deficiency of one or more nutrient
elements in the soil. This visual method of evaluating soil fertility is unique in that it requires
no expensive or elaborate equipment and can be used as a supplement to other diagnostic
techniques.
Nitrogen deficiency
 Sickly yellowish green color
 Early drying of leaves which starts at the lower leaves of the plant, proceeding
upward.
 Drying of the leaves starts at the tip and proceeds along the midrib.
 Reduces tillering in rice.
 Slow growth and reduced height.
Phosphorus deficiency
 Purplish leaves, stems and branches.
  Slow growth and delayed maturity.
 Small, slender stalk in case of corn.
 Reduced yield
Potassium deficiency
 Mottling, spotting, streaking or curling of leaves starting on the lower leaves.
 Scorch or burned margins and tips of leaves, firing starts at the tip of leaves and
proceed down from the edge usually leaving the midrib green.
 Corn plants fall down prior to maturity due to poor root development.
Sulfur deficiency
 Young leaves bare light green with lighter color of veins
 Short, slender stalks, yellow in color
 Slow, stunted growth
Zinc deficiency
 On rice plants, yellowish discoloration of the leaves with rusty spots. The rusty
spots developed into large spots and condense as the plant grows older.
 Reduce tillering of rice plants.
 White bud of corn.
Silicon deficiency
 Drooping of leaves which results to reduced absorption of sunshine and reduced
yield.
Calcium deficiency
 Young leaves in terminal bud become “hooked” in appearance and die back at
the tips and along margins.
 Wrinkled appearance of the lower leaves.
 Young leaves remain folded (in some cases).
 Failure of terminal bud to developed (observed on mongo).
Magnesium deficiency
 General loss of green color starting at the bottom leaves. The veins of the leaf
remain green.
 Weak stalk with long branched roots.
 Sharply defined series of yellowish-green, light yellow or even white streaks
throughout the entire leaf.
 Leaves curve upward along the margins.
Molybdenum deficiency
  Older leaves die at the tips, along margins, and in some cases twist.
Plant Analysis. This analysis is based on the assumption that the quality of a given element in
a plant is an indication of the supply of that particular nutrient and as such is directly related to
the quantity in the soil. This method could, however, be inaccurate in some ways. For example,
a shortage of an element limits growth, which may promote accumulation of other elements in
the cell sap and show high tests regardless of supply. There are two common types of plant
analysis used as follows:
a) Tissue test which is ordinarily done in the field
b) Total analysis which is performed using the whole plant or a plant part.

Precise analytical techniques are used for measurement of the various elements after
the plant material is dried, ground and crushed.

One method of tissue test is rapid test. In this test the sap from raptured cells is tested
for unassimilated N, P, K and other elements such as Mg and Mn. Plant parts may be chopped
or squeezed and extracted with reagents. The intensity of color developed is compared with
standards and used as a measure of the supply of nutrients in question. The results are read as
very low, low, medium and high.

Biological Tests
1. Field test is done by field-plot method. A series of fertilizer treatments are applied
to a measured area which is replicated several times to achieve a more reliable
result. The growth and yield of the crop used are compared and a conclusion as to
the best fertilizer rate used is made. This could lead to making general
recommendations in the use of a particular fertilizer for a particular crop.
2. In the strip test on a farmer’s field, strips of field are being treated with different
levels of fertilizer to check recommendations based on soil or plant test. Strips are
not replicated but careful observations could provide excellent information.
3. Microbiological methods are performed by using microorganisms as indicators. It
has been observed that microorganism exhibit a behavior similar to higher plants in
the absence of mineral element. The growth of Azotobacter for example could
indicate which greater methods of sensitivity than chemical methods if Ca, P and K
are limited in the soil.
Chemical Tests or Soil Analysis. Collect soil samples from the field and have it analyzed in
the Soil Laboratory.
Soil testing and plant analysis are useful tools for making recommendations for
application of fertilizers to crops. Soil testing gives a measure of the availability of nutrients to
crops, plant analysis indicates the actual removal of the nutrients from the soil.

Fertilizers
Fertilizers are materials either in organic or inorganic forms containing essential
elements that when added to the soil in the kind, amount, and time improve the fertility of the
soil and subsequently the growth of the growing crops. Generally, fertilizers are supplied to
enrich the soil, improve growth, and increase yield of economic crops. Some terms associated
with the discussion of fertilizers are defined as follows:
Fertilizer grade or fertilizer analysis refers to the minimum guarantee of the plant
nutrient content in terms of total nitrogen (N), available phosphorus (P2O5), and water
soluble potassium (K2O). In the analysis 80-60-50, 80 stands for N, 60 for P, and 50
for K.

Fertilizer ratio is the relative percentage of N, P2O5 and K2O in the fertilizer grade.
For example: 12-24-12 has a ratio of 1:2:1 N/P2O5/K2O, respectively.

Fertilizer recommendation is the recommended rate of application per unit area. It is

usually expressed in kg N, kg P2O5 and K2O per hectare. In a recommendation of 50-
30-40, therefore the soil needs the application of 50 kg N, 30 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O
per hectare.
Mixed fertilizers are fertilizer materials which contain two or all of the three major
elements. It is made by mixing 2 or 3 different fertilizers.

Filler or Carrier are materials like sand and sawdust containing no fertilizer element
which is added to act as carrier of these elements and also to complete the weight of
mixed fertilizers.
Hygroscopicity of fertilizer materials refers to the ability of fertilizer materials to
absorb water from the air.

Special techniques of fertilizing employed by the horticulturist includes:

1) Starter solutions
A starter solution is merely a fertilizer in solution.
Example: About 1 cup of a readily soluble fertilizer in 5 gallons of water, or 4 pounds
in 50 gallons, makes a good starter solution for transplanting vegetables, strawberries
and herbaceous ornamentals.

2) Foliar feeding
Foliar feeding is fertilizing through the leaves. The fertilizers applied in this manner
must be highly soluble and non- caustic to leaf surface.

3) Liquid fertilizer application

Liquid fertilizer applications are sometimes used to give greater depth
penetration. Also it makes fertilizer application possible through an irrigation system.

4) Liquefied gas fertilizer refers to the application of ammonia gas to the soil. The gas
is injected under pressure into the soil by long tubes terminated by blades.