D.

C NETWORKS
1.1 Kirchoff’s Laws:-

1.1.1. Kirchoff’s current law or point law (KCL)

Statement:- In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents

meeting at a point is zero.
 I = 0................................. at a junction or node

Assumption:- Incoming current = positive

Outgoing current = negative

1.1.2. Kirchoff’s voltage law or mesh law (KVL)

Statement:- The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in

each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the
algebraic sum of the emfs in that path is zero.
 IR +emf = 0 .......................................... round the mesh
Assumption:- i) Rise in voltage (If we go from negative terminal of the
battery to positive terminal) = positive
ii) Fall in voltage (If we go from positive terminal of the battery to negative
terminal) = negative
iii) If we go through the resistor in the same direction as current then there is
a fall in potential. Hence this voltage is taken as negative.
iv)If we go through the resistor against the direction of current then there is a
rise in potential. Hence this voltage drop is taken as positive.
 Example:- Write the loop equation for the given circuit below
(Supplementary exam 2004)
E1
r1
i

r2

E2

r3
E3
Solution: Apply KVL to the loop,
 ir1  E1  ir2  E 2  ir3  E 3  0
 E1  E 2  E 3   ir1  ir2  ir3
 E1  E 2  E 3   i  r1  r2  r3 


1.2. MAXWELL’S LOOP CURRENT METHOD (MESH ANALYSIS)

Statement:- This method determines branch currents and voltages across the
elements of a network. The following process is followed in this method:-

 Here, instead of taking branch currents (as in Kirchoff‘s law) loop currents
are taken which are assumed to flow in the clockwise direction.
 Branch currents can be found in terms of loop currents
 Sign conventions for the IR drops and battery emfs are the same as for
Kirchoff‘s law.
 This method is easier if all the sources are given as voltage sources. If there
is a current source present in a network then convert it into equivalent
voltage source.
 Explanation:-

Consider a network as shown in Fig. below. It contains two meshes. Let I1 and
I2 are the mesh currents of two meshes directed in clockwise.

Apply KVL to mesh-1,

V1 -I1 R 1 -  I1 -I 2  R 3 = 0

Apply KVL to mesh-2,

-I 2 R 2 -V2 -  I 2 -I1  R 3 =0

When we consider mesh-1, the current I1 is greater than I2. So, current through
R3 is I1-I2. Similarly, when we consider mesh-2, the current I2 is greater than I1.
So, current through R3 is I2 – I1.

Example: Find I1, I2 and I3 in the network shown in Fig below using loop
current method

10Ω 40 V
20Ω E 10Ω G
A B

10 V 50 V
20Ω
10 V I1 I2 I3
10Ω

D C F H

Solution:- For mesh ABCDA,

 - I1 × 1 0 -  I 1 - I 2 × 2 0 - 1 0 = 0
 3 I1 - 2 I 2 = - 1 ( 1)

For mesh BEFCB,

4 0 -I 2 × 2 0 + 1 0 -  I 2 -I 3 × 1 0 -  I 2 -I1 × 2 0 = 0
 2 I1 -5 I 2 + I 3 = -5 (2 )

For mesh EGHFE,

- 1 0 I 3  5 0   I 3  I 2   1 0  1 0  0
 I 2 -2 I 3 = -4 (3 )
Equation (2) x 2 + Equation (3)

4 I 1 - 9 I2 = - 1 4 4 


Solving eqn (1) & eqn (4)

I1 = 1 A, I2 = 2 A, I3 = 3 A

1.3. NODAL ANALYSIS

Statement:- This method determines branch currents in the circuit and also
voltages at individual nodes.

The following steps are adopted in this method:-

 Identify all the nodes in the network.

 One of these nodes is taken as reference node in at zero potential

 The node voltages are measured w.r.t the reference node

 KCL to find current expression for each node

 This method is easier if all the current sources are present. If any voltage
source is present, convert it to current source
  The number of simultaneous equations to be solved becomes (n-1) where ‗n‘
is the number of independent nodes.

Explanation:-

At node ‗a‘ I1+I2 = I3

E1Va
By ohms law, I , I  E2 Va , I  Va
1 2 3
R1 R2 R3
Therefore, Va  R
1  R1  R1   1E
R E
2
R0
 1 2 3  1 2

or, Va  1  1  1   1E 2 
E0
R R R R R
 1 2 3  1 2

1 1 1 E E
Va  R  R  R  R
  R0
or, 1 2

 1 2 3 1 2
Hence,

 Node voltage multiplied by sum of all the conductance connected to this

node. This term is positive

 The node voltage at the other end of each branch (connected to this node
multiplied by conductance of this branch). This term is negative.
Example:- Use nodal analysis to find currents in the different branches of the
circuit shown below.

(Supplementary Exam July- 2004)

Solution:-

Let V1 and V2 are the voltages of two nodes as shown in Fig below

Applying KCL to node-1, we get

12  V1 0  V1 V2  V1
  0
2 1 3
 36  3V1  6V1  2V2  2V1  0
  11V1  2V2  36...............(1)
Again applying KCL to node-2, we get:-
V1  V 2 0V2 6  V2
   0
3 5 4
 2 0V1  4 7V 2  9 0  0
 2 0V1  4 7V 2   9 0 ...............( 2 )

Solving Eq (1) and (2) we get V1 = 3.924 Volt and V2 = 3.584 volt

12-V1 12-3.924
Current through 2  resistance = = =4.038 A
2 2
0-V1
=-3.924 A
Current through 1  resistance =
1

V1-V2
Current through 3  resistance = =0.1133 A
3

0-V2
Current through 5  resistance = =-0.7168 A
5

6- V2
Current through 4  resistance = =0.604 A
4

As currents through 1 and 5 are negative, so actually their directions are

opposite to the assumptions.

1.4. STAR-DELTA CONVERSION

Need:- Complicated networks can be simplified by successively replacing delta

mesh to star equivalent system and vice-versa.

In delta network, three resistors are connected in delta fashion (∆) and in star
network three resistors are connected in wye (Y) fashion.
 Fig. 1.4.1.

a) Delta connection b) Star connection

1.4.1. Delta to Star Conversion:- From Fig. 1.4.1 (a), ∆ : Between A & B,
there are two parallel path.
Resistance between terminal A & B = RAB  RBC  RCA  

RAB  RBC  RCA

From Fig. 1.4.1 (b), STAR: Between A & B two series resistances are
there RA + RB. So, terminal resistances have to be the same.

R A  R B  R A B  R B C  R C A .................(1)
R A B  R B C  R C A

R B  RC  R B C  R C A  R A B  .................( 2 )
R A B  R B C  R C A

RC  R A  RC A R AB  R B C 
.................( 3 )
R AB  R B C  R C A
Eq {(1)-(2)}+(3) & Solving,-

R AB  RCA
RA  .................(4)
R R R
AB BC CA

R AB  RBC
RB  .................(5)
R R R
AB BC CA
 RC A  R B C
RC  .................( 6 )
R  R  R
AB BC CA

Easy way to remember:- 


Pr oduct of twoadjacent armsof delta
Any armof star connection 
sumof armsof delta

1.4.2. Star to Delta conversion

Eq {(1) X (2)}+(2) X (3)+ (3) X (1) & Simplifying,-

R R  R B RC  R C R A  R  R R R
R AB  A B A B
 A B
RC RC

 R  R R B R C
R
B C B C

A

R  R R  R C R A
C A C  A
RB

Easy way to remember:- Resistance between two terminals of delta = sum of star
resistance connected to those terminals + product of the same to resistance
divided by the third resistance.
Example(delta to star):- Convert the following Delta Resistive Network into an equivalent
Star Network.

NETWORK THEOREMS

 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
 THEVENIN‘S THEOREM
 NORTON‘S THEOREM
 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

1. Superposition theorem
Statement:- In a network of linear resistances containing more than one
generator (or source of emf), the current which flows at any point is the sum
of all the currents which would flow at that point if each generator were
considered separately and all the other generators replaced for the time being
by resistances equal to their internal resistance.
Example:- By means of superposition theorem, calculate the currents in the
network shown.

Step 1. Considering 10 V battery

218
R eq   1  2 . 8 
218
10
I1b   3.57 A
2.8
18
I 2b  3.57   3.21 A
20
I 3b  I 1 b  I 2 b  0 . 3 6 A
 Step 2. Considering 20 V battery
I1c I2c
I3c
1Ω 18 Ω 2Ω

20 V

118
R eq   2  2 . 9 5 
118
20
I 2c   6.78A
2.95
18
I 1c  6.78   6.42 A
19
I 3b  I 2 c  I 1 c  0 . 3 6 A

Step 3. Results

I1  I1b  I1c  3.57  6.42  2.85A

I2  I2c  I2b  6.78  3.21  3.57A
I3  I3b  I3c  0.36  0.36  0.72A

2. SOURCE CONVERSION:-
Statement: A voltage source (V) with a series resistance (R) can be
converted to a current source (I=V/R) with a parallel resistance (R) and vice-
versa.
 Proof:-

IL  (1)
R R
RXX L
IL  I (2)
R X  RL

From Eq. (1) & (2)

V  IR X (3)

• STATEMENT: The two circuits are said to be electrically equivalent if they

supply equal load currents with the same resistance connected across their
terminals.

• voltage source having a voltage V and source resistance Rx can be replaced

by I(= V/Rx) and a source resistance Rx in parallel with current source.

• Current source I and source resistance Rx can be replaced by a voltage

source V (=IRx) and a source resistance Rx in series with V.

3. THEVENIN’S THEOREM:-
Statement:- Any pair of terminals AB of a linear active network may be
replaced by an equivalent voltage source in series with an equivalent
 resistance Rth. The value of Vth (called the Thevenin‘s voltage) is equal to
potential difference between the terminals AB when they are open circuited,
and Rth is the equivalent resistance looking into the network at AB with the
independent active sources set to zero i.e with all the independent voltage
sources short-circuited and all the independent current sources open-
circuited.
Example:- Find VX by first finding VTH and RTH to the left of A-B
12  4 A
+

30 V 6  2  VX
_


B

Solution:- step1. First remove everything to the right of A-B.

12  4 


30 V 6 


 B

( 3 0 )( 6 )
V A B  10V
612

Notice that there is no current flowing in the 4  resistor (A-B) is open. Thus
there can be no voltage across the resistor.

Step 2. To find Rth

We now deactivate the sources to the left of A-B and find the resistance seen
looking in these terminals.
 12  4 


6 


B

RTH = 12||6 + 4 = 8 

Step 3. To find Vx

After having found the Thevenin circuit, we connect this to the load in order to
find VX.

RTH A

8  +
VTH 10 V 2  VX
_

( 10 )( 2 )
VX   2V
2 8

4. NORTON’S THEOREM:
Statement: Any two terminal linear active network (containing independent
voltage and current sources), may be replaced by a constant current source
IN in parallel with a resistance RN, where IN is the current flowing through a
short circuit placed across the terminals and R N is the equivalent resistance
of the network as seen from the two terminals with all sources replaced by
their internal resistance.
 Example: Find the Norton equivalent circuit to the left of terminals A-B for
the network shown below. Connect the Norton equivalent circuit to the load
and find the current in the 50  resistor.

10 A

20  40  A




+
_ 50 V 60  50 



Solution: 

B
10 A

20  40 

50 V 60 
SS

Fig. Circuit to find INORTON

ISS 10.7 A
It can also be shown that by deactivating the sources,We find the resistance
looking into terminals A-B is RN  55 
RN and RTH will always be the same value for a given circuit. The Norton
equivalent circuit tied to the load is shown below.

10.7 A  50 


5. MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM:

• Statement: For any power source, the maximum power transferred from the
power source to the load is when the resistance of the load R L is equal to the
equivalent or input resistance of the power source (Rin = RTh or RN).
• The process used to make RL = Rin is called impedance matching.

Explanation:

VTH
I=
RTH  RL
2
V R
PL  I R L 
2 TH L
(R TH  R L) 2
dP
For PL to be maximum, dR L  0
L

Or, RL  RTH
2 2
2 V R V
So, Maximum power drawn by R L =I R L= TH L
 TH

 2R 
2
4RL
2
VTH
Power supplied by the source=
RTH  RL 
 SINGLE PHASE A.C CIRCUIT

Single phase EMF generation:

Alternating voltage may be generated

1) By rotating a coil in a magnetic field

2) By rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil

The value of voltage generated depends upon

1) No. of turns in the coil 2) field strength 3) speed

Equation of alternating voltage and current

N= No. of turns in a coil

m= Maximum flux when coil coincides with X-axis

= angular speed (rad/sec) = 2f

At =t, = flux component  to the plane =m cos t

According to the Faraday‘s law of electromagnetic induction,

dφ d
e=-N =-N φ m C osωt = ω N φ m Sinωt ........... (1 )
dt dt

Now, e is maximum value of Em , when Sin = Sin 90 = 1.

i.e Em = Nm ............................................................... (2)

From Eqn (1) & (2), e = Em Sin t volt

Now, current (i) at any time in the coil is proportional to the induced emf (e) in the
coil. Hence, i = Im Sin t amp

A.C terms:

 Cycle:- A complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating

quantity is known as cycle.

 Time period: The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one

cycle is called time T.
 Frequency: It is the number of cycles that occur in one second. f = 1/T
f = PN/120 where, P= No. of poles, N= Speed in rpm
 Waveform: A curve which shows the variation of voltage and current w.r.t
time or rotation.
  Phase & Phase difference:

e A  E m A S in ω t
In phase: e  E S in ω t
B mB

Out of phase: i) B leads A

e A  E mS i n ω t
Phase difference . e  E S i n ( ω t+  )
B mB

ii) A leads B or B lags A

e A  E m Sinωt
e B  E m Sin(ωt- )
 Root mean Square (RMS) or effective or virtual value of A.C:-

i 2 +i 2 +.....+i 2
Irms = 1 2 n
=Square root of the mean of square of the instantaneous currents
n

 It is the square root of the average values of square of the alternating

quantity over a time period.
T 2
I rm s =
0 i (ω t)d ω t 

Average Value (or mean value):

 It is the arithmetic sum of all the instantaneous values divided by the number
of values used to obtain the sum
i1 + i 2 +....... + i n
I av=
n
T
1
i  ω t d ω t 
T 0
I av=

Form factor (Kf):- is the ratio of rms value to average value of an alternating
quantity. (Kf = Irms/Iav)

Peak factor (Ka) or crest factor:- is the ratio of peak (or maximum) value to the
rms value of alternating quantity (Ka = Imax/ Irms)
Example: An alternating current varying sinusoidally with a frequency of 50 Hz
has an RMS value of 20 A. Write down the equation for the instantaneous value
and find this value a) 0.0025 sec b) 0.0125 sec after passing through a positive
maximum value. At what time, measured from a positive maximum value, will the
instantaneous current be 14.14 A?

I m =2 0 = 2 8 .2 A
Ans: ω = 2 π × 5 0 = 1 0 0 π rad /s

The equation of the sinusoidal current wave with reference to point O as zero time
point is

i= 28.2 sin 100t Ampere

Since time values are given from point A where voltage has positive and maximum
value, the equation may itself be referred to point A. In this case, equation becomes

i= 28.2 cos 100t

i) When t= 0.0025 second

i = 28.2 cos 100 X 0.0025 ................. angle in radian
= 28.2 cos 100 X 180 X 0.0025 ..................angle in degrees
= 28.2 cos 45 = 20 A ................................ point B

ii) When t = 0.0125 sec

I =28.2 cos 100 X 180 X 0.0125
= 28.2 cos 225 = 28.2 X (-1/2)
= -20 A ...........................................point C
iii) Here i = 14.14 A
14.14 = 28.2 COS 100 X 180 t
Cos 100 X 180 t = ½
Or, 100 X 180 t = cos-1(1/2) = 60, t=1/300 sec .................. point D

Phasor & Phasor diagram:

Phasor: Alternating quantities are vector (i.e having both magnitude and
direction). Their instantaneous values are continuously changing so that they
are represented by a rotating vector (or phasor). A phasor is a vector rotating at
a constant angular velocity
Phasor diagram: is one in which different alternating quantities of the same
frequency are represented by phasors with their correct phase relationship

Points to remember:
1. The angle between two phasors is the phase difference
2. Reference phasor is drawn horizontally
3. Phasors are drawn to represent rms values
4. Phasors are assumed to rotate in anticlockwise direction
5. Phasor diagram represents a ―still position‖ of the phasors in one particular
point
 A.C through pure ohmic resistance only

v vm sinωt in phase

v = iR or i = =
R R
A.C through pure inductance only

v= L

di
= V m sinω t
dt
Vm
i=
L
 sinω t
Vm
i= - cosω t
ωL
 π
i= I sin ω t-  (current lags by 90 • )

m  2 


 
ω L= 2 πfL= X L = inductive reactance(in Ω )
 A.C through pure Capacitance only

d
i= C d v = C  V S in ω t 
m
dt dt
= ω C V m c o sω t
 π Vm  π
= ω C V s in ω t+ = s in ω t+ 
m  2  1  
2 


   
ωC
 π
= I s in ω t+  ( c u rre n t le a d s b y 9 0 °)

m  2 


 
1 1
= X C= = c a p a c i t iv e re a c ta n c e  in  
ωC 2 π fC


‘j’ operator: j is a operator which rotates a vector by 90 in anticlockwise

direction

j2 = -1 ;j= -1

Note: ‗i‘ is used for current hence ‗j‘ is used to avoid confusion

Mathematical representation of vectors:


1. Rectangular or Cartesian form :- V  a  jb

2. Polar form : V  V  


3. Trignometrical form : V  V cos  j sin 



4. Exponential form : V  V e  j 
 Note: rectangular form is best suited for addition and subtraction & polar
form is best suited for multiplication and division

IMPEDANCE:
In quantitative terms, it is the complex ratio of the voltage to the
current in an alternating current (AC) circuit. Impedance extends the concept of
resistance to AC circuits, and possesses both magnitude and phase, unlike
resistance, which has only magnitude. When a circuit is driven with direct current
(DC), there is no distinction between impedance and resistance; the latter can be
thought of as impedance with zero phase angle.

Where X=Total reactance of the network (Both inductive and capacitive)

R=Resistance of the network in ohm.
8= Phasor angle in d egree/Radian.
Note:
I. If 8 =0 degree then the load is purelyResistive.
II. If 8=-90 degree then the load is purely inductive.(lagging)
III. If 8=90 degree then the load is purely capacitive.(leading)

Z=R+jX
Where Z=impedance of the electrical network in ohm.
 R=Resistance of the network in ohm.
X=Reactance of the electrical network in ohm.
Admittance:
In electrical engineering, admittance is a measure of how easily a
circuit or device will allow a current to flow. It is defined as the inverse of
impedance. The SI unit of admittance is the siemens (symbol S).
Admittance is defined as:

Y = 1/Z
Where

Y is the admittance, measured in siemens

Z is the impedance, measured in ohms

The synonymous unit mho, and the symbol ℧ (an upside-down uppercase omega
Ω), are also in common use.

Resistance is a measure of the opposition of a circuit to the flow of a steady

current, while impedance takes into account not only the resistance but also
dynamic effects (known as reactance). Likewise, admittance is not only a measure
of the ease with which a steady current can flow, but also the dynamic effects of
the material's susceptance to polarization:

Y=G+jB
Where
Y is the admittance, measured in siemens.
G is the conductance, measured in siemens.
B is the susceptance, measured in siemens.
AC Equivalent Circuits:

1. Impedances in series add together to give the equivalent impedance while the
admittance in parallel add together to give the equivalent admittance.
2. Impedances in parallel gives equivalent impedance by reciprocating the
reciprocal sum of the impedances and to obtain the equivalent admittance in series
same procedure has to be followed.
Instantaneous and Average Power

The most general expressions for the voltage and current delivered to an arbitrary
load are as follows:

v(t) = V cos(ωt − θV )

i(t) = I cos(ωt − θI )
Since the instantaneous power dissipated by a circuit element is given by the
product of the instantaneous voltage and current, it is possible to obtain a general
expression for the power dissipated by an AC circuit element:

p(t) = v(t)i(t)= V I cos(ωt) cos(ωt − θ )

It can be further simplified with the aid of trigonometric identities to yield

p(t) = V I/2cos(θ ) +V I/2 cos(2ωt − θ )

where θ is the difference in phase between voltage and current

The average power corresponding to the voltage and current signal can be obtained
by integrating the instantaneous power over one cycle of the sinusoidal signal. Let
T = 2π/ω represent one cycle of the sinusoidal signals. Then the average power,
Pav, is given by the integral of the instantaneous power,

p(t), over one cycle:

since the second integral is equal to zero and cos(θ ) is a constant.

In phasor notation, the current and voltage are given by

impedance of the circuit elementdefined by the phasor voltage and currentto be

The expression for the average power using phasor notation

Power Factor

The phase angle of the load impedance plays a very important role in the
absorption of power by load impedance. The average power dissipated by an AC
load is dependent on the cosine of the angle of the impedance. To recognize the
importance of this factor in AC power computations, the term cos(θ ) is referred to
as the power factor (pf). Note that the power factor is equal to 0 for a purely
inductive or capacitive load and equal to 1 for a purely resistive load; in every
other case,0<pf<1.If the load has an inductive reactance, then θ is positive and the
current lags (or follows) the voltage. Thus, when θ and Q are positive, the
corresponding power factor is termed lagging. Conversely, a capacitive load will
have a negative Q, and hence a negative θ. This corresponds to a leading power
factor, meaning that the load current leads the load voltage.A power factor close to
unity signifies an efficient transfer of energy from the AC source to the load, while
a small power factor corresponds to inefficient use of energy .Two equivalent
expressions for the power factor are given in the following:

Complex Power

The expression for the instantaneous power may be further expanded to provide
further insight into AC power. Using trigonometric identities, we obtain the

following expressions:
Recalling the geometric interpretation of the impedance Z

|Z| cos θ = R and |Z|sin θ = X

are the resistive and reactive components of the load impedance, respectively. On
the basis of this fact, it becomes possible to write the instantaneous power as:

Since Pav corresponds to the power absorbed by the load resistance, it is also
called the real power, measured in units of watts (W). On the other hand, Q takes
the name of reactive power, since it is associated with the load reactance. The units
of Q are volt-amperes reactive, or VAR. Note that Q represents an exchange of
energy between the source and the reactive part of the load; thus, no net power is
gained or lost in the process, since the average reactive power is zero. In general, it
is desirable to minimize the reactive power in a load.

The computation of AC power is greatly simplified by defining a fictitious but very

useful quantity called the complex power, S:

where the asterisk denotes the complex conjugate You may easily verify that this
definition leads to the convenient expression

The complex power S may be interpreted graphically as a vector in the complex S

plane
The magnitude of S, |S|, is measured in units of volt-amperes (VA) and is called
apparent power, because this is the quantity one would compute by measuring the
rms load voltage and currents without regard for the phase angle of the load.The
complex power may also be expressed by the product of the square of the rms
current through the load and the complex load impedance:

or, equivalently, by the ratio of the square of the rms voltage across the load to the
complex conjugate of the load impedance:
 Active, Reactive and Apparent Power

Fig. Power Triangle

S2=P2+Q2
S=P+jQ
 Apparent power, S: is the product of rms values of the applied voltage and
circuit current. It is also known as wattless (idle) component
S=VI=IZx I=I2Z volt-amp
 Active power or true power, P: is the power which actually dissipated in
the circuit resistance. It is also known as wattful component of power.
P=I2R=I2Zcos=VI cos watt
 Reactive power, Q:- is the power developed in the reactance of the circuit.
Q=I2X=I2Zsin=VIsin VAR

Example: In a particular R-L series circuit a voltage of 10 V at 50 Hz

produces a current of 700 Ma while the same voltage at 75 Hz produces 500
mA. What are the values of R and L in the circuit.
Ans. i)
R 2 + 2 π× 50 L  =
2
Z=


V = IZ o r 1 0 = 7 0 0 × 1 0 -3 R 2 + 9 8 6 9 6 L2 
R 2

+ 9 8 6 9 6 L2 = 1 0 /7 0 0 × 1 0 -3 = 1 0 0 /7
o r R 2 + 9 8 6 9 6 L2 = 1 0 0 0 0 /4 9 ................. (i)
 ii) In the second case

Z=
2
= 
R2+ 222066L2 
1 0 = 5 0 0 × 1 0 -3 R 2
+ 2 2 2 0 6 6 L2 
R 2
+222066L2 =20 
R 2 + 2 2 2 0 6 6 L 2 = 4 0 0 ...................... ( i i )
s u b t ra c t in g e q ( i ) f ro m e q ( i i ) , w e g e t
2 2 2 0 6 6 L 2 - 9 8 6 9 6 L 2 = 4 0 0 -( 1 0 0 0 0 / 4 9 )
123370L2=196
L=0.0398H=40mH
S u b s t i tu t in g th i s v a lu e o f L in e q ( i i ) , w e g e t
R2+222066(0.398)2=400
R=6.9Ω

Introduction to resonance in series & parallel circuit

Resonance:
Definition: An AC circuit is said to be in resonance when the circuit current is in
phase with the applied voltage. So, the power factor of the circuit becomes unity at
resonance and the impedance of the circuit consists of only resistance.

Series Resonance: In R-L-C series circuit, both XL and XC are frequency

dependent. If we vary the supply frequency then the values of X L and XC varies. At
a certain frequency called resonant frequency (fr), XL becomes equal to XC and
series resonance occurs.

At series resonance, XL =XC

2frL=1/2frC

fr= 1/2LC

Impedance of RLC series circuit is given by:

Z= R 2 + X L -X C (Since,X L = X C )

Z= R 2
Z= R
R R
cosφ= = =1
Z R
Properties of series resonance:-

In series resonance,

 The circuit impedance Z is minimum and equal to the circuit resistance R.

 The circuit current I= V/Z = V/R and the current is maximum
 The power dissipated is maximum, P=V2/R
 Resonant frequency is fr = 1/2LC
 Voltage across inductor is equal and opposite to the voltage across capacitor
 Since power factor is 1, so zero phase difference. Circuit behaves as a purely
resistive circuit.
Example: A series RLC circuit having a resistance of 50, an inductance of
500 mH and a capacitance of 400 F, is energized from a 50 Hz, 230 V, AC
supply. Find a) resonant frequency of the circuit b) peak current drawn by the
circuit at 50 Hz and c) peak current drawn by the circuit at resonant frequency

Ans.

1 1
a)f 0 = = =11.25 Hz
2π LC
b) R=50Ω
X = ω L=2π×50×500×10 -3 = 157Ω
1 1
X = = = 7.9Ω
C
ω C 2π×50×400×10 -6

X= X L -X C =157-7.9= 149.1Ω
Z= = =157.26Ω
Peak supply voltage,Vm = Vrms = (230)=325.26 V
V 325.26
Hence peak current at 50Hz I = m = =2.068
m
Z 157.26
c) At resonance, Z 0 =R=50Ω
V 325.26
So,peak current during resonance, I = m = = 6.5025A
mo
R 50

Parallel resonance:

Points to remember:
 Net susceptance is zero, i.e 1/XC =XL/Z2
XL x XC =Z2

Or L/C =Z2

 The admittance equals conductance

 Reactive or wattless component of line current is zero
 Dynamic impedance = L/CR 
  Line current at resonance is minimum and V/L/CR but is in phase
with the applied voltage
 Power factor of the circuit is unity

THREE PHASE AC CIRCUIT

Three phase EMF Generation:-

If the 3-coil windings W1, W2 and W3 arranged at 120 apart from each other on
the same axis are rotated, then the emf induced in each of them will have a phase
difference of 120. In other words if the emf (or current) in one winding (w1) has a
phase of 0, then the second winding (w2) has a phase of 120 and the third (w3)
has a phase of 240.
Star (Y) connection:-
Phasor diagram:-

Here, ER, EY, EB are phase voltages and VRY, VYB, VBR are line voltages
 VRY  2EREY cos60


 2ERER cos60
 3 ER


Hence,

 Line voltage =3 x phase voltage

 Line current = phase current
 Line voltages are also 120 apart
 Line voltage are 30 ahead of respective phase voltages
 The angle between line voltage and line current is (30+)

Power: Total power = 3 x phase power

=3 x Vph x I ph x cos
=3 VL IL cos
 is the angle between phase voltage and current

Example: A balanced star connected load of (8+j6) per phase is connected

to a balanced 3-phase 400 V supply. Find the line current, power factor,
power and total volt-amperes.

Ans.
Z ph   10

400
Vph   231 V
Vph 231
I ph = = =23.1 A
Z ph 10
(i) I L =I ph =23.1 A
R ph 8
(ii)p.f=cosΦ= = =0.8(lag)
Z ph 10
(iii) Power P= VL IL cosΦ
= 3×400×23.1×0.8
2
=12,800 W [Also,P=3I R =3(23.1) 2 ×8=12,800 W ]
(iv) Total volt-amperes,
S= VL I L = 3×400×23.1=16,000 VA
Delta-connection:
 Fig. Phasor Diagram
I L =I R -IB
IL = IR +IB +2IR IB cos60 = IR +IR +2IR IR cos60 = 3IR

Hence,
 Line current =3 phase current
 Line voltage = phase voltage
 Line currents are also 120 apart
 Line currents are 30 behind the respective phase currents
 Angle between line current and line voltage is 30+

Power: Total power = 3 x phase power

= 3 x Vph Iph cos

= 3 x VL x IL/3 x cos

= 3 VL IL cos

Note: For both star and delta system:

Active & True power = 3 VL IL cos

Reactive power =3 VL IL sin

Apparent power =3 VL IL

MODULE-II

Magnetic Circuits:

The Magnetic Field and Faraday’s Law:

Magnetic fields are generated by electric charge in motion, and their effect is

measuredbytheforcetheyexertonamovingcharge.Asyoumayrecallfromprevious

physics courses, the vector force f exerted on a charge of q moving at velocity u in

the presence of a magnetic field with flux density B is given by

f = qu×B

Where the symbol × denotes the (vector) cross product. If the charge is moving at a

velocity u in a direction that makes an angle θ with the magnetic field, then the

magnitude of the force is given by

f = quBsin θ

and the direction of this force is at right angles with the plane formed by the

vectors B and u.
The magnetic flux φ is then defined as the integral of the flux density over some

surface area.

φ =  A BdA in webers

  B.A

Faraday’s law states that a time-varying flux causes an induced electromotive

force, or emf

d
e 
dt

In practical applications, the size of the voltages induced by the changing magnetic

field can be significantly increased if the conducting wire is coiled many times

around, so as to multiply the area crossed by the magnetic flux lines many times

over. For an N-turn coil with cross-sectional area A, for example, we have the emf

d
e  N 
dt
 When N-turn coil linking a certain amount of magnetic flux, then the flux linkage

  N 

d
 e  
dt

The relation between flux linkage and current is gven by   Li

so that the effect of a time-varying current was to induce a transformer voltage

across an inductor coil, according to the expression v  L di

dt

L is the self-inductance which measures the voltage induced in a circuit by

magnetic field generated by a current flowing in the same circuit.

 Magnetic circuit:

To analyse the operation of electromagnetic devices the approximation is taken

that a mean path for the magnetic flux and that the corresponding mean flux

density is approximately constant over the cross-sectional area of the magnetic

structure. When a coil is wound around a core with cross-sectional area A will

have flux density as B  , where area is assumed to be perpendicular to the
A

B 
direction of the flux lines. The field intensity obtained to be H  

 A


mmf of the coil can be represented by the product of magnetic field intensity and

the length of the magnetic field

F  N .i  H .l

l
F
A
 l
The term is known as reluctance of magnetic circuit.
A

The relation between inductance and reluctance derived as

 N N Ni N2
L    H
i i i R R

In many magnetic structures and in rotating machines air gaps are very common.

The effect of air gap is to break the continuity of the high-permeability path for the

flux, adding a high reluctance component to the equivalent circuit. The situation is

analogous to adding a very large series resistance to a series electric circuit. In this

case the basic concept of reluctance still applies, although now two different

permeabilities must be taken into account.

lg
Hence reluctance of the air gap is Rg 
 A0 g

Where Rg = reluctance of air gap

0 = permeability

Ag = cross-sectional area of the air-gap in the given structure

l g = length of air gap

Ag is different from the other cross-sectional area of the structure because of the

phenomenon known as Fringing as they cross an air gap.

Magnetic materials and B-H curves:

The relationship between the magnetic flux density B and the associated field

intensity H is expressed by B   H ,where  = permeability of magnetic material.

From the above expression flux density increases in proportion to field intensity

upto a saturation point reaches. But in general all magnetic material shows a

nonlinear B-H curve, depending upon the value of permeability, which can be

better explained by eddy currents and hysteresis. Eddy current caused by any time-

varying flux in the core material. It will induce a voltage , and therefore current.

The induced voltage will cause eddy current, which depends on the resistivity of

the core. Hysteresis is another loss mechanism in magnetic materials. It shows a

complex behaviour related to the magnetization properties of the material which

can be shown as

Here the core has been energized for some time ,with a field intensity of H 1 A-

turns/m. as the current decreases curve follow from the point α to the point β. At

this point mmf is zero to bring the flux density to zero ,mmf is further deceased

until the field intensity reaches to –H0. As mmf value is made more negative , the

curve eventually reaches to the point α‘. The excitation current is now increased,

the magnetization curve will follow the path α‘ = β‘ = γ‘= α, and finally returns to

the original point of B-H curve.

Hysteresis loss:- During the complete cycle, the magnets within the magnetic

material try to align first in one way and then in reverse way. The tendency to turn

around of elementary magnets give rise to mechanical stresses in the magnetic

material, which in turn produces heat which is a waste form of energy. The
dissipitated heat energy during the cycle of magnetization is given by the area

within the hysteresis loop and is called hysteresis loss.


Hysteresis power loss = Ph  K fB V m ax
x

Where, K= Hysteresis coefficient

f= frequency of magnetization

V= volume of the material (m3)

Bmax = Maximum flux density (wb/m2)


x = 1.5-2.5 



 Steinmetz law:-
Ph   f B

1.6

max
V
Where, = Steinmetz constant or hysteresis coefficient

f= frequency of magnetization

V= volume of the material (m3)

Bmax = Maximum flux density (wb/m2)

Bm lies between 0.1 to 1.2 wb/m2 , when B is not between 0.1

Eddy current loss: During the cycle of magnetization, the change in flux density

induces an emf in the core of an electromagnet. The effect sets up small locally

circulating currents called eddy currents. These currents are of no practical

significance but produce heat which means some loss of energy. This loss of

energy is called eddy current loss.

Pe  K et 2 f 2V
Eddy current loss:-

Where, Ke= Eddy current constant

t= thickness of the lamination of the pole core and armature

B= Flux density

F= Frequency

V= Volume of iron subject to change of flux

Points to Remember:

• The eddy current loss can be minimized by using thin laminated cores.

• Use of laminations increase the resistance of eddy current path and thereby

reduces its magnitude

• The hysteresis loss can be minimized by choosing the material having low

hysteresis coefficient. e.g:- silicon steel:- 1.91

 The hysteresis and eddy current losses are together known as iron loss or

core loss.

 For any machine , Bm and f are also nearly constant. Hence these are also

called constant loss.

 Hysteresis loss = xy(area of B/H loop)

where, x and y are scales of B& H.

 Unit of hysteresis loss is J/m3/cycle or watt/m3

Permeability: Every substance possesses a certain power of conducting magnetic

lines of force (iron is better conductor for magnetic lines of force than air).

Permeability of a material is its conducting power for magnetic lines of force. It is

the ratio of flux density (B) produced in a material to the magnetic field strength i.e

= B/H

Absolute & Relative Permeability: For measuring relative permeability, vaccum

or free space is chosen as the reference medium.

Absolute permeability 0 = 4 x 10-7 H/m

Now, take any medium other than vaccum. If its relative permeability as

compared to vaccum is r , then =0r

In other words, r indicates the extent to which the given material is a better

conductor of magnetic flux than air.

Reluctance: (S) is a measure of the opposition offered by a magnetic circuit to the

setting up of flux.

S=MMF/ , S = l/ 0 r A [unit- AT/wb]

Example: The hysteresis loop of an iron ring was found to have an area of 10 cm2

on a scale of 1 cm = 1000 AT/m (X-axis); 1 cm = 0.2 wb/ m2 (Y- axis). The ring
has a mean length of 100 cm and cross-sectional area of 5 cm. Compute the

hysteresis loss in watts for a frequency of 50 Hz.

Ans. Area of hysteresis loop = 10 x 0.2 x 1000 AT-wb/m3 = 2000 AT-wb/m3

Hysteresis loss = 2000 x 50 = 10,0000 J/m3/s [f= 50 cycle/s]

Volume = 1 x 5 x 10-4 m3

Hysteresis loss = 100000 x 1 x 5 x 10-4 W = 50 W

TRANSFORMER

One of the more common magnetic structures in everyday applications is the

transformer. An ideal transformer is a device that can step an AC voltage up or

down by a fixed ratio, with a corresponding decrease and increase in current. A

simple magnetic transformer is shown as below

Here coil L1 represents the input side of the transformer or primary winding of it,

where as the coil L2is the output coil or secondary winding ; both winding are

wound around the same magnetic structure. The operation of a transformer

requires a time-varying current; if a time-varying voltage is applied to the primary

side of the transformer, a corresponding current will flow in L1;this current acts as

an mmf and causes a (time-varying) flux in the structure. But the existence of a

changing flux will induce an emf across the secondary coil! Without the need for a

direct electrical connection ,the transformer can couple a source voltage at the

primary to the load; the coupling occurs by means of the magnetic field acting on

both coils. Thus, a transformer operates by converting electric energy to magnetic,

and then back to electric energy. When a time-varying voltage source is connected

to the input side, then by Faraday‘s law, a corresponding time-varying flux dφ/dt is

established in coil L1:

d 
e1  N 1  v1
dt

Due to flux an emf induced across the secondary coil is

d
e2  N 2  v2
dt

v2 N2
So the relation between the input and output voltage is 
v1 N1

As mmf in transformer remains same though out the core i.e.

i1 N 1  i2 N 2

i2 N1

i1 N 2
Here N1 and N2 are the primary and secondary turns, respectively. As the ideal

transformer does not dissipate any power, since

v1i1  v2i2

Another important performance characteristic of a transformer is its power

efficiency

Power efficiency η = Output power/ Input power

Definition:

 It is a static device used for the purpose of transferring electrical energy

from one circuit to another at same frequency but at different voltage (or
current or both).
 It is used for raising or lowering the voltage of an a.c. supply with
corresponding decrease or increase in current.
 It is an a.c. device

Some more aspects of transformer:-

It consists of two windings, primary and secondary wound on a common laminated

magnetic core.
The winding connected to the a.c. source is called primary winding and one
connected to the load is called secondary winding.

V1 is applied to primary. Depending upon N1& N2, E2 is induced in the secondary.

This E2 causes a secondary current I2 .consequently terminal voltage V2 appears
across the load.

If V1 >V2, it is called a step up transformer.

If V1 <V2, it is called a step down transformer.

Two types-core type and shell type

Core type: In core type the winding surrounds the steel core. The core consists of
two vertical logs limbs with 2 horizontal section called yokes.
To keep the leakage flux to a minimum , half of each winding is placed on each lag
of core. The low voltage winding is placed adjacent to the steel core and high
voltage winding is placed outside to reduce the insulating material required.

Shell type: In shell type transformer, steel core surrounds windings.LV and HV
windings are wound over central lump.

Core type is used for high voltage and shell type is used for low voltage.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

It is based on the principle of mutual induction i.e. whenever the amount of

magnetic flux linked with the coil charges, and emf is induced in the coil.

Whenever alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary winding,I0 (exciting

current) flows which sets up ∅ in magnetic core. This flux links with both windings
and E1& E2 are induced.

From Lenz‘s law, E1 = -V1

If N2>N1 then E2> E1 and it becomes step up transformer

If N2<N1 then E2< E1 and it becomes step down transformer

Here E2 is in phase opposite to V1.

If the secondary is open circuited, then the terminal voltage V2 at secondary is

equal in magnitude and in phase with the induced emf at the secondary, i.e. E2=
V2..

IDEAL TRANSFORMER

An imaginary transformer which has the following properties

1- Primary and secondary winding resistance are negligible, hence no resistive

voltage drop.

2- leakage flux and leakage inductance are zero. There is no reactive voltage drop
in the windings.

3- power transformer efficiency is 100% i.e. there are no hysteresis loss, eddy
current loss or heat loss due to resistance.

4- permeability of the core is infinite so that it requires zero mmf to create flux in
the core.

Power In the primary= power in the secondary .

E 1I1= E2I2

I1 /I2= E 2 /E1 = N2 /N1 = K= V2 /V1

1 – when transferring resistance or reactance from primary to secondary, multiply

it by K2
 2- when transferring resistance or reactance from secondary to primary, divide it
by K2

3- Transferring voltage or current, only K is used.

a) Any voltage V in primary becomes KV in secondary.

b) Any voltage V in secondary becomes V/Kin primary.
c) Any current I in primary becomes I /K in secondary.
d) Any current I in secondary becomes KI in primary.
e) A resistance R in primary K2R in secondary.
f) A resistance R in secondary becomes R/K2.

EMF Equation:

φ= φ m sinw t
dφ d
e1 =-N1 =-N 1 φ m sinwt 
dt dt
e1 =-N 1 w φ m cosw t=-N 1 × 2 πfφ m coswt


e1 = N 1 2πfφ m sin wt-90 o  E m 1 = 2 πfN 1φ m 
 Em 1 2 πfN1φ m = 4 .44 fN φ
R.M .S value of E is: E = =
1 1 1 m

E 2 = 4 .44fN 2 φ m

Voltage Transformation Ratio:

E2 N2

E1 N1
• N2/N1 is known as voltage transformation ratio and represented by K.

• If N2>N1 or K>1 then step up transformer

 • If N1>N2 or K<1 then step down transformer

Practical Transformer on no load:

• A transformer is said to be on no load if its primary winding is connected to

AC supply and secondary is open. i.e secondary current is zero

• When an A.C voltage is applied to primary, a small current I0 flows in

primary.

• I0 = N0-load current
• Im = magnetizing current. It magnetizes the core and sets flux. So, in phase

with it.

• Im is called the reactive or wattless component of no load current

• Iw produces eddy current and hysteresis losses in the core and very small

copper loss in primary. It is called active or wattful component of no load

current.

• Iw is in phase with the applied voltage (V1) at the primary.

• No load current I0 is small. So drops in R1 and X1 on primary side are very

small. At no load V1= E1.

• No load primary copper loss (I02R1) is very small. So, no load primary input

power is equal to iron loss

2 2
Iw =I0 cosφ0 , Im =I0sinφ0 , I0 = Im +I w
Iw
No load power factor,cosφ =
0
I0
No load input power (active power)=V1I0 cosφ0 ,
No load reactive power =V1I0sinφ0
• Winding resistance

• Leakage reactance

• Iron losses

 Depends on supply frequency,

 Maximum flux density in the core

 Volume of the core

• Impedance reflection and power transform:-

 I 2 R =I 2
R
P P S S
2
I  I N
RP =  S  RS [since, NPIP =NSIS; P = S =K]
 IP  IS NP
1
RP = 2 RS
K
1
Similarly,XP = 2 XS
K
Equivalent Circuit of a loaded transformer:

Example: The primary winding of a single phase transformer is connected to a 220

V, 50 Hz supply. The secondary winding has 2000 turns. If the maximum value of
the core flux is 0.003 wb, determine i) the number of turns on the primary winding
ii) the secondary induced voltage

Ans.

E 1 = 2 2 0 V ,f= 5 0 H z
N 2 = 2 0 0 0 ,φ m = 0 .0 0 3 w b
i) E 1 = 4 .4 4 fφ m N 1
E1 2 20
N = = =330
4 .4 4 fφ m 4 .4 4 × 5 0 × 0 .0 0 3
i i) E 2 = 4 .4 4 fφ m N 2 = 4 .4 4 × 5 0 × 0 .0 0 3 × 2 0 0 0 = 1 3 3 2
 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC MACHINES

The operation of the three major classes of electric machines—DC, synchronous,

and induction—first is described as intuitively as possible. The second part of the
chapter is devoted to a discussion of the applications and selection criteria for the
different classes of machines. The emphasis of this chapter is on explaining the
properties of each type of machine, with its advantages and disadvantages with
regard to other types; and on classifying these machines in terms of their
performance characteristics and preferred field of application.

ROTATING ELECTRIC MACHINES

The range of sizes and power ratings and the different physical features of rotating
machines are such that the task of explaining the operation of rotating machines in
a single chapter may appear formidable at first. Some features of rotating
machines, however, are common to all such devices. This introductory section is
aimed at explaining the common properties of all rotating electric machines. We
begin our discussion with reference to Figure 14.1, in which a hypothetical rotating
machine is depicted in a cross-sectional view. In the figure, a box with a cross
inscribed in it indicates current flowing into the page, while a dot represents
current out of the plane of the page.
In Figure 14.1, we identify a stator, of cylindrical shape, and a rotor, which, as the
name indicates, rotates inside the stator, separated from the latter by means of an
air gap. The rotor and stator each consist of a magnetic core, some electrical
insulation, and the windings necessary to establish a magnetic flux (unless this is
created by a permanent magnet). The rotor is mounted on a bearing-supported
shaft, which can be connected to mechanical loads (if the machine is a motor) or to
a prime mover (if the machine is a generator) by means of belts, pulleys, chains, or
other mechanical couplings. The windings carry the electric currents that generate
the magnetic fields and flow to the electrical loads, and also provide the closed
loops in which voltages will be induced.

BASIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRIC MACHINES

An immediate distinction can be made between different types of windings

characterized by the nature of the current they carry. If the current serves the sole
purpose of providing a magnetic field and is independent of the load, it is called a
magnetizing,or excitation, current, and the winding is termed a field winding.
Field currents are nearly always direct current (DC) and are of relatively low
power, since their only purpose is to magnetize the core (recall the important role
of high-permeability cores in generating large magnetic fluxes from relatively
small currents). On the other hand, if the winding carries only the load current, it is
called an armature. In DC and alternating-current (AC) synchronous machines,
separate windings exist to carry field and armature currents. In the induction
motor, the magnetizing and load currents flow in the same winding, called the
input winding, or primary; the output winding is then called the secondary. As we
shall see, this terminology, which is reminiscent of transformers, is particularly
appropriate for induction motors.

It is also useful to classify electric machines in terms of their energy conversion

characteristics. A machine acts as a generator if it converts mechanical energy
from a prime mover, say, an internal combustion engine, to electrical form.
Examples of generators are the large machines used in power generating plants, or
the common automotive alternator. A machine is classified as a motor if it
converts electrical energy to mechanical form. The latter class of machines is
probably of more direct interest to you, because of its widespread application in
engineering practice. Electric motors are used to provide forces and torques to
generate motion in countless industrial applications. Machine tools, robots,
punches, presses, mills, and propulsion systems for electric vehicles are but a few
examples of the application of electric machines in engineering.
Note that in Figure 14.1 we have explicitly shown the direction of two magnetic
fields: that of the rotor BR and that of the stator BS. Although these fields are
generated by different means in different machines (e.g., permanent magnets,
alternating currents, direct currents), the presence of these fields is what causes a
rotating machine to turn and enables the generation of electric power. In particular,
we see that in Figure 14.1 the north pole of the rotor field will seek to align itself
with the south pole of the stator field. It is this magnetic attraction force that
permits the generation of torque in an electric motor; conversely, a generator
exploits the laws of electromagnetic induction to convert a changing magnetic field
to an electric current. To simplify the discussion in later sections, we now
introduce some basic concepts that apply to all rotating electric machines.
Referring to Figure 14.2, we note that for all machines the force on a wire is given
by the expression

f = iwl × B

Where iw is the current in the wire, l is a vector along the direction of the wire, and
×denotes the cross product of two vectors. Then the torque for a multi-turn coil
becomes

T = KBiwsin α

Where
B = magnetic flux density caused by stator field
K = constant depending on coil geometry
α = angle between B and normal to plane of coil
In the hypothetical machine of Figure 14.2, there are two magnetic fields: one
generated within the stator, the other within the rotor windings. Either (but not
both) of these fields could be generated by a current or by a permanent magnet.
Thus, we could replace the permanent-magnet stator of Figure 14.2 with a suitably
arranged winding to generate a stator field in the same direction. If the stator were
made of a toroidal coil of radius R (see Chapter 13), then the magnetic field of the
stator would generate a flux density B, where

B = µ H = µ Ni
2nR

and where N is the number of turns and iis the coil current. The direction of the
torque is always the direction determined by the rotor and stator fields as they seek
to align to each other (i.e., counterclockwise in the diagram of Figure 14.1). It is
important to note that Figure 14.2 is merely a general indication of the major
features and characteristics of rotating machines. A variety of configurations exist,
depending on whether each of the fields is generated by a current in a coil or by a
permanent magnet and whether the load and magnetizing currents are direct or
alternating.

DC MACHINE

FUNDAMENTAL:

Emf induced in coil e = -N d/dt volt

Emf induced in a conductor e = Blv volt

Force developed in a conductor F = BIL N

Electrical energy En = VIt Whour

Electrical power (Active) P=VI Watt

Resistance of conductor R=l/a Ohm

Eqn. of current by Ohm‘s law, I=V/R A

Magnetizing force, H=NI/L AT/m

Flux density, B=/A

Electrical field intensity, E=V/d V/m

Current density, J=I/a A/m2

INTRODUCTION :

DC machine is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical

energy and vice versa.
 When the device acts as a generator (or dynamo), mechanical energy is
converted into electrical energy.

On the other hand, when the device acts as a motor, electrical energy is
converted into mechanical energy.

ESSENTIAL FEATURES:

There is no real difference between a dc. motor and dc generator either from
the point of view of the essential components or of the fundamental principles
involved.

In the generator there is a conversion of mechanical to electrical energy

while in the motor there is the reverse conversion of electrical to mechanical
energy. The structure difference is merely one of the enclosure. Most generators
work in sheltered situations e.g. in power stations and an open type of construction
is thus possible, the advantage being that all the parts are in consequence, easily
accessible. Motors often work in exposed

Situations, where there are dirt as damp, chemical fumes, explosive gases and so
on, and it may therefore be necessary to enclose all the working parts.
CONSTRUCTION:

STATOR ROTOR

Yoke/Frame Armature core

Field magnet Armature winding/ conductor

(pole core &pole shoe)
Main field winding Commutator & Brushes

Interpoles/commutating poles Shaft

Interpoles winding Bearings

STATOR & ROTOR

All conventional electrical machines consist of a stationary member called

the stator separated by an air gap from a rotating member called rotor.

In d.c machines the stator usually consists of salient poles with coils wound
round them so as to produce a magnetic field.

The rotor is familiarly called the armature and consists of a series of coils
located in slots around its periphery and connected to a commutator.

Yoke/Frame

Yoke is the outer frame dc m/c. It carries the magnetic flux provided by the
pole and acts as a protecting shield for the entire machine. In small generators
yokes are made of cast iron whereas in large machine cast sheet is used.
Field magnet :

It is a strong permanent magnet (in case of a small dynamo) or an

electromagnet (in case of large dynamo) of intense magnetic field.

Pole core & Pole shoe : The field magnet has two parts

Pole core (pole pieces)

Pole shoes.

Pole core is made of cast steel or cast iron with laminated pole shoes
screwed on to the holes in the yoke.
 Pole shoes spread out the flux in the air gap and reduce the reluctance of the
magnetic path due to its large cross -section.

Poles shoes support the exciting coils.

Pole coils (field winding)

 It is otherwise known as exciting winding

 These are fine copper wire (or strip) wound around the pole pieces
 The flux produced by the winding is cut by the revolving armature

ARMATURE CORE:

 It houses armature coils in the slots. It is cylindrical or drum shaped.

 Armature is placed in between the two poles of field magnet and is
rotated about its central axis mechanically (by a prime mover)

 It is usually made of circular sheet steel disc or laminations.

  Thickness of laminations is of the order of 0.5mm. Perforations exist
in these laminations to provide axial flow of air through the armature
for cooling purposes.
 Armature core is keyed to the shaft.
 During rotation it cuts the magnetic flux of the field magnets.
 It also provides a path of very low reluctance to the flux from north
pole to south pole.

ARMATURE WINDING:

 It is made up of copper.
 It consists of large no. of insulated coils, each coil having one or more
turns.
 Armature conductor are placed in armature slots.

Commutator:

 It converts the alternating current produced in the armature conductors

into direct current.
 It consists of wedge shaped copper segments (Insulated from either
side to form a ring. The number of segments of commutator equals the
no. of armature coils.
 It facilitates the collection of current from the armature conductors.

Brushes

 They are fixed on the commutator by pressure springs.

 They are usually made of a high grade carbon or graphite and are in
the shape of rectangular block.
  These are housed in a brush holder.
 They collect the current from the commutator and finally they pass on
the EMF generated to load.

Bearing

 The armature shaft is supported at the commutator end on ball or

roller bearings which are packed in hard oil.
 They provide quieter operation, together with reduced wear and tear.
 Ball bearings are frequently employed for their reliability.
 Roller bearings are preferable for heavy duties.

Interpoles

 In addition to the main poles, the dc machines are usually fitted with
auxiliary poles placed between the main poles and they are called interpoles,
the purpose of which is to provide better commutation.
 It minimizes sparking at the commutator.

Types of Armature Winding

These are of two types : Lap winding

Wave winding

Pole Pitch

 It is defined as the no of armature conductors per pole.

 If there are 80 conductors and 8 poles, pole pitch is 80/8 = 10.
Conductor

 It is defined as the length of a wire lying the magnetic field as shown in fig1.

Coil

 Two conductors with their end connections shown in fig1 from one coil.

 Coil may be single turn coil or multi-turn coil.

 End connections are called overhang.

Coil Pitch

 It is defined as the distance between two sides of a coil in terms of armature

slots.
 It is defined as the periphery of the armature between two sides of a coil.
 If the coil pitch is equal to the pole pitch, the winding is said to be full
pitched, otherwise it is half-pitch

Pitch:

It is defined as the distance between the second conductor one coil and the
first conductor of the next coil as shown in fig.2 & 3.
Back Pitch :

It is defined as the distance measured in terms of armature conductors that a

coil advances on the back side of the armature as shown in fig.2 & 3.

Resultant Pitch: (YR)

It is defined as the distance between the beginning of one coil and the
beginning of the next coil or

lap winding YR = YB - YF

wave winding YR = YB + YF

Coil Pitch (Yc):

It is defined as the distance between the beginning of one coil to the

beginning of the next coil as shown in fig 2 & 3 for lap and wave winding
respectively.
 Lap winding:

To get these type foe dg following rules are commonly used: winding must be
full pitched i.e.

YB + YF = Pole Pitch

1. To place the coil properly on the armatures, the front pitch as well as back
pitch must be odd.
2. No. of commutator segment = no. of coils.
3. winding must close upon itself.
4. Yc = ± 1
For Progressive or right handed winding
YF = Z/P – 1 and YB = Z/P + 1
For Retrogressive or left handed winding

YF = Z/P + 1 and YB = Z/P – 1

Wave Winding:

1. YB & YF are odd and of opposite sign.

2. YB & YF are nearly equal to the pole pitch and differ by 2.
3. YC = (No. of commutator bars ± 1) / No. of pairs of pole

Comparison:

Lap winding Wave winding

No. of parallel paths = no. of poles No of parallel path = 2
No. of brushes sets = no. of poles No. of brushes sets = 2
Used for high current & low voltage Used for low current & high voltage
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DC GENERATOR:

Principle:

Faradays law of electromagnetic induction according to which emf is

induced in the conductors which drives the current through the conductor.

Fig below shows a single turn generator.

The coil is rotated in anticlockwise direction with the help of prime mover.

Fig. shows the different instants of the induced emf due to different positions
of the coil.

Magnetic field is produced either by a permanent magnet or an

electromagnet energised by the DC supply.

When the angle ө = 0o , the coils is perpendicular to the magnetic field and
the instantaneous component of velocity of conductors ab and cd is parallel to the
magnetic field .

The flux linked with the coil is maximum but the rate of change of flux is
minimum. Hence emf cannot be generated . Therefore current flows through the
conductors.
When 0 <<90, due to the rotation of the coil in the anticlockwise direction, the
velocity of the conductor has two components that is vsin and vcos . Therefore
the conductors will cut the flux due to vsin. Hence emf is induced in the
conductors and current flows in the conductors.

If when  = 90o, coil is parallel to the magnetic field and the instantaneous
component of velocity of conductors ab and cd is perpendicular to the magnetic
field. The flux linked with the coil is minimum but the rate of change of flux is
maximum. Hence emf generated is maximum . Therefore maximum current flows
through the conductors.
When the coil rotates from 8 = 90o to
8 = 180o, the components of velocity that is
sin 8 of conductors perpendicular to the field decreases and hence emf is induced
in the conductor and current flow in the conductors.

When 8 = 180o, the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field and the
instantaneous components of velocity of conductors ab and cd is parallel to the
magnetic field.
The flux linked with the coil is maximum but the rate of change of flux is
minimum. Hence emf cannot be generated. Therefore the current flows through the
conductor.

When 180o,< 8 < 270o due to rotation of the coil in the anticlockwise direction, the
velocity of the conductors has two components that is vsin 8 and vcos 8 and the
direction is opposite to the case when 00 < 8 < 900 . Therefore the conductor have
the flux due to vsin 8 .
Hence emf is induced in the conductors in the direction opposite to the cases of 00
< 8 < 900 and current flows in the conductors in the direction opposite to the 00 <
8 < 900 . Similarly the other case till 8 = 3600 .

The direction of flow of current through the conductor can be found by Flemings
right hand rule.To have a unidirectional current communicator is used.

Fig below shows a split ring where two segments A and B are separated by an
insulating material. Let the conductor 1 be connected to segment A and conductor
2 be connected to segment B.

The conductor 1 carries current in the downward direction while the conductor 2
carries current in the upward direction and current through the resistance R flows
from P to Q. After one half of rotation, conductor 1 and 2 come under the influence
of south and north pole respectively.

The split ring is mounted on the shaft and it rotates with the armature. The split
ring will reverse this positions with the reversing of the position of the conductors,
but the direction of current flow through the conductor remains unaltered because
the P & Q are stationary.

Equivalent circuit of a DC Machine

Vf  I f R f
Vt  Ea  Ia Ra

Generated EMF and Electromagnetic Torque

Vf  I f R f
Vt  Ea  Ia Ra
Motor: Vt > Ea

Generator: Vt > Ea

Voltage generated in the armature circuit due the flux of the stator field current:

Ea  Ka d m
Ka: design constant

Electromagnetic torque:

Te  K a d Ia

Pem  Ea Ia  Tem
Types of DC Machines

Both the armature and field circuits carry direct current in the case of a DC
machine.

Self-excited DC machine: when a machine supplies its own excitation of the field
windings. In this machine, residual magnetism must be present in the
ferromagnetic circuit of the machine in order to start the self-excitation process.

Separately-excited DC machine: The field windings may be separately excited

from an eternal DC source.

Shunt Machine: armature and field circuits are connected in parallel. Shunt
generator can be separately-excited or self-excited.

Series Machine: armature and field circuits are connected in series.

Separately-Excited and Self-Excited DC Generators
 MODULE-III (10 HOURS)
AC MACHINES
AC machines have large advantages over DC machines. They are,
 Since basic generation of electricity is in the form of AC voltage, no
converting device is necessary.
 Suitable for large ratings (upto more than 500 MW)
 Cost of an AC machine for same power and voltage rating is less than that
of DC machines
 Since transformers are used in AC only, AC generation is must for
commercial purpose operation.
AC machines are broadly classified as:-
 Synchronous machine
 Operates at constant speed and constant frequencies under steady state
condition
 Generator known as alternator
 Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction
 Does not have commutator
 EMF is generated from mutual interaction between conductors and
magnetic flux.
 Asynchronous machine
 Operates with variable speed
 Induction machine
 Induction motor application in air conditioning, industrial use (rolling mills)
 Induction generator application in wind generating system :- convert wind
energy to electrical energy at constant frequency irrespective of wind speed
Three phase Induction Motor:
• Three-phase induction motors are the most common and frequently
encountered machines in industry
– simple design, rugged, low-price, easy maintenance
– wide range of power ratings: fractional horsepower to 10 MW
– run essentially as constant speed from no-load to full load
– Its speed depends on the frequency of the power source
 Construction:-
 Stator :- three phase winding in star or delta
 Rotor :-
 Squirrel cage rotor
 rotor windings are shorted internally
 Slip ring or phase wound rotor
 rotor windings are short circuited externally through three slip rings
 Rotor windings are short circuited
 Slip (S) :- difference between the speed of rotor (N) and the speed of
rotating magnetic field (Ns). It is expressed in % as:
S= [ (Ns – N)/ Ns] x 100
 Slip varies from syn. Speed (Ns) to 1 (When the rotor is at rest)
Rotating Magnetic Field
• Balanced three phase windings, i.e. mechanically displaced 120 degrees
form each other, fed by balanced three phase source
• A rotating magnetic field with constant magnitude is produced, rotating with
a speed

ee
ssyynncc

Where fe is the supply frequency and

P is the no. of poles and nsync is called the synchronous speed in rpm (revolutions
per minute)
Principle of operation:
• This rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor windings and produces an induced
voltage in the rotor windings
• Due to the fact that the rotor windings are short circuited, for both squirrel
cage and wound-rotor, and induced current flows in the rotor windings
• The rotor current produces another magnetic field
A torque is produced as a result of the interaction of those two magnetic fields

 ind  kBR  Bs
Where ind is the induced torque and BR and BS are the magnetic flux densities of
the rotor and the stator respectively
Slip: The difference between synchronous speed Ns and actual speed N of the rotor
is known as slip.
N S -N
% Slip= × 100 %
NS
Sometimes, Ns- N is called slip speed
Frequency of rotor (f) :

120f
N S N 
P
120f
N S 
P
N  N f 
S

N S f

f  sf

Torque Equation:

60
TE  * rotor .input
2 NS
M

Unit- synchronous watt

 TORQUE- SLIP OR TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS

180 SE R
 2N
2 2
T EM * 2 2
S
R 2  SX 2 


For a constant supply voltage, E2 is also constant. So we can write torque equation
as:-

SR
T
2

R 2   S X 2 2
As R2 is constant.
1) HIGH SLIP REGION –
Here S is high

So,

SR 1
T  
2

SX 2 
2
S

As R2 and X2 are constants

TFu Load <TM

ll
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Introduction to 1-phase induction motor:

 Used for domestic application
 1-phase IM are fractional KW motors
o Rotor – squirrel cage
o Stator – distributed
Types of 1-phase IM:

 Resistance split phase IM

 Capacitor split phase IM
o Capacitor start IM
 o Capacitor start capacitor run IM
o Capacitor run IM

Synchronous Machine Construction:

 Field :- carrying a DC excited winding

 Armature : three phase winding in which emf is generated

 Armature stationary and rotating field structure

 Armature winding is built of sheet-steel laminations having slots on its

inner periphery

 Three phase winding is placed in these slots and serves as armature

winding.

 connected in star

 Field is connected to an external source through slip rings and brushes or

else receives excitation from rotating bodies

 Damper bars on the rotor :- damps the oscillations due to transients

 Depending on rotor construction:-

 Round rotor type

 High speed machine such as turbine generators

 Salient pole type

Low speed such as water wheel generator

Frequency of output voltage:
Let P = no of rotor poles
N= Speed of the rotor in rpm
Number of cycles generated in one revolution = P/2
Time taken for one revolution = 60/N seconds
In 60/ N sec, no. of cycles = P/2
In 1 sec, no. of cycles generated = P/2/60/N = PN/120
So, frequency (f) = PN/120 Hz
Emf equation:
Let P = no of poles
N= speed in rpm
Tph = no of concentric turns
Kd = distribution factor
 = flux produced per pole in weber
In one revolution flux cut by one armature conductor = P=d
Time taken for one revolution = 60/N sec = dt
Therefore average emf induced in the conductor is given by
e= d/dt= p/60/N=PN/60 = 2PN/120
e = 2f volts
therefore, f = PN/120
For a sinusoidal ac voltage,
rms value = average value x form factor
The value of form factor is 1.11 in case of sinusoidal a.c
Rms value of induced emf per conductor = 1.11 x e
= (1.11) x(2f)
=2.22 f volts
Emf per turn = 2 x 2.22f = 4.44f volts (Two conductors constitute one turn)
Therefore, Induced emf per phase = emf per turn x no of turns per phase = 4.44 f
Tph volts
In practice, the stator winding is distributed. So, the actual induced emf will be
slightly less than the calculated value and the induced emf per phase is multiplied
by a factor Kd, known as distribution factor. (Generally Kd varies from 0.96 to
0.98).
Synchronous Motor
Salient features:
 It is not self starting
 It rotates at constant speed irrespective of the load torque
 Speed at which it rotates is synchronous speed (Ns = NP/120 rpm)
 Draws current from the supply at any power factor (lagging, leading and
unity)
 Needs both 3- AC supply (stator) and DC supply (rotor)
 Costlier
Starting of synchronous Motor:
A synchronous motor is not self starting. It can be started by the following two
methods:
1. Starting with the help of an external prime mover
2. Starting with the help of damper windings
Motor starting with external prime mover:
In this method an external motor drives the synchronous motor and brings it to
synchronous speed. The synchronous machine is then synchronized with the bus-
bar as a synchronous generator. The prime mover is then disconnected. Once in
parallel, the synchronous machine will work a s a motor. Now the load can be
connected to the synchronous motor. Since load is not connected to the
synchronous motor before synchronizing, the starting motor has to overcome the
inertia of the synchronous motor at no load. Therefore the rating of the starting
motor is much smaller than the rating of the synchronous motor. At present most
large synchronous motors are provided with brushless excitation systems mounted
on their shafts. These exciters are used as starting motors.
Motor starting with damper winding:
It is the most widely used method. A damper winding consists of heavy copper
bars inserted in slots of the pole faces of the rotor. These bars are short-circuited by
end rings at both ends of the rotor. Thus, these short-circuited bars form a squirrel
cage winding. When a three phase supply is connected to the stator, the
synchronous motor with damper winding will start as a three-phase induction
motor. As the motor approaches synchronous speed, the dc excitation is applied to
the field windings. The rotor will then pull into step with the stator magnetic field.
Hunting: The phenomenon of oscillation of the rotor about its final equilibrium
position is called hunting. The term hunting is used to signify that after sudden
application of load, the rotor attempts to search for or hunt for its new equilibrium
space position. Hunting occurs not only in synchronous motors but also in the
synchronous generators upon the abrupt change in loading. Hunting leads to loss of
synchronism, variation of supply voltage producing undesirable lamp flicker,
increases the possibility of resonance, develops mechanical stress in the rotor shaft,
and increases the losses and the temperature of the machine. Hunting can be
reduced by using damper winding, using flywheel, by designing with suitable
synchronizing power coefficients.
Application of synchronous motor:
 In constant speed application
 Used as high power and high speed compressors, blowers, induced and
forced draft fans, mainline traction, servo drives etc
 Used in power transmission systems to regulate line voltage
 Used to improve overall power factor of the plant
Solved Question:
Q1. A dc shunt generator generates an emf of 520 V at a speed of 1200 rpm. It has
2000 armature conductors and flux per pole is 0.013 wb. The armature winding has
4 parallel paths. i) Determine the number of poles ii) Find the generated voltage, if
the armature winding is wave connected (1st Semester 2004)
Solution. Given: E= 520 V, N= 1200 rpm, Z = 2000,  = 0.013 wb, A= 4
i) E= PZN/60A
 P = 60 AE/ZN= 60 x 4 x 520/0.013 x 2000 x 1200 = 4
ii) E = PZN/60A = 4 x 0.013 x 2000 x 1200 / 60 x 2 = 1040 volts
Electrical Measuring Instruments:-

The instruments in the broadest sense may be divided into two main classes:-

 Absolute instrument
 Secondary instrument
Absolute instruments:-
 These are the instrument which indicate the value of quantity being
measured in terms of the deflection of the needle and a constant
 No calibration is needed as no comparison is required
Example: 1. Tangent Galvanometer (measure current in terms of angle
of deflection, radius, no. of turns, horizontal component of magnetic
field).
2. Rayleigh current balance
Secondary instrument:-
 These instruments are calibrated by comparison with absolute
instrument.
 The magnitude of the quantity can be read directly from the calibrated
scale.
 All most all the instruments in general use such as ammeter, voltmeter,
wattmeter, watt-hour meter, frequency meter and power factor meter
etc belong to this class.
  Indicating instrument: They can measure or indicate the instantaneous
value of an electrical quantity being measured at the time by the help of
pointer moving over a calibrated dial.
 Recording instrument: These instruments are those which instead of
indicating by pointer or scale give a continuous record of the variation of the
electrical quantity over a selected period of time. The moving system carries
a ink pen which rests lightly on a chart or graph and moving uniformly to
record variations.
 Integrating instrument: These instruments measure and read the total
amount of energy supplied to a circuit in a given time.

Indicating instrument

It consist essential systems:-

 A deflecting system – which provides the necessary deflecting

torque
 A controlling system- which offers the necessary restoring
torque
 A damping system- which helps the pointer to come quickly to
the deflected position.
 PMMC Instruments
These instruments are used either as ammeters or voltmeters and are suitable for dc
network only. PMMC instruments work on the principle that, when a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force acts on the
conductor. The current carrying coil, placed in magnetic field is attached to the
moving system. With the movement of the coil, the pointer moves over the scale to
indicate the electrical quantity being measured. This type of movement is known as
D‘ Arsenoval movement.

It consists of a light rectangular coil of many turns of fine wire wound on an

aluminum former inside which is an iron core as shown in fig. The coil is
delicately pivoted upon jewel bearings and is mounted between the poles of a
permanent horse shoe magnet. Two soft-iron pole pieces are attached to these poles
to concentrate the magnetic field. The current is led in to and out of the coils by
means of two control hair- springs, one above and other below the coil. These
springs also provide the controlling torque. The damping torque is provided by
eddy currents induced in the aluminum former as the coil moves from one position
to another.
Working:-
When the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure current or voltage, the
operating current flows through the coil. Since the current carrying coil is placed in
the magnetic field of the permanent magnet, a mechanical torque acts on it. As a
result of this torque, the pointer attached to the moving system moves in clockwise
direction over the graduated scale to indicate the value of current or voltage being
measured. This type of instruments can be used to measure direct current only.
This is because, since the direction of the field of permanent magnet is same, the
deflecting torque also gets reversed, when the current in the coil reverses.
Consequently, the pointer will try to deflect below zero. Deflection in the reverse
direction can be prevented by a ―stop‖ spring.
Deflecting torque equation:-
The magnetic field in the air gap is radial due to the presence of soft iron core.
Thus, the conductors of the coil will move at right angles to the field. When the
current is passed through the coil, forces act on its both sides which produce the
deflecting torque.
Let B = flux density, Wb/m2
l = length or depth of coil, m
b = breadth of the coil.
N = no. of turns of the coil.
If a current of ‗I‘ Amperes flows in the coil, then the force acting on each coil side
is given by,
Force on each coil side, F = BIlN Newtons.
Deflecting torque, Td = Force × perpendicular distance
= (BIlN) × b
Td = BINA Newton metre.
Where, A = l × b, the area of the coil in m2.
Thus, Td α I
The instrument is spring controlled so that, Tc α θ
The pointer will comes to rest at a position, where Td =Tc
Therefore, θ α I
 Thus, the deflection is directly proportional to the operating current. Hence, such
instruments have uniform scale.

Advantages:-
a) Uniform scale.ie, evenly divided scale.
b) Very effective eddy current damping.
c) High efficiency.
d) Require little power for their operation.
e) No hysteresis loss (as the magnetic field is constant).
f) External stray fields have little effects on the readings (as the operating magnetic
field is very strong).
g) Very accurate and reliable.
Disadvantages:-
a) Cannot be used for ac measurements.
b) More expensive (about 50%) than the moving iron instruments because of their
accurate design.
c) Some errors are caused due to variations (with time or temperature) either in the
strength of permanent magnet or in the control spring.
Applications:-
a) In the measurement of direct currents and voltages.
b) In dc galvanometers to detect small currents.
c) In Ballistic galvanometers used for measuring changes of magnetic flux linkages

EXTENSION RANGE
Shunts are used for the extension of range of ammeters. So a good shunt should have
the following properties:-
1- The temperature coefficient of shunt should be low.
2- Resistance of shunt should not vary with time.
3- They should carry current without excessive temperature rise
4- They should have thermal electromotive force with copper
* ‗Manganin‘ is used for DC shunt and ‗Constantan‘ as AC shunt.
Ammeter:- PMMC is used as indicating device. The current capacity of PMMC is
small.
 It is impractical to construct a PMMC coil, which can carry a current greater than
100 mA. Therefore a shunt is required for measurement of large currents.
Rm = Internal resistance of movement (coil) in Ω
Rsh = Resistance of shunt in Ω
Im = Ifs = Full scale deflection current of movement in Amperes
Ish = Shunt current in Amperes
I = Current to be measured in Amperes
Since the shunt resistance is in parallel with the meter movement, the voltage drop
across shunt and movement must be same.
IshRsh=ImRm
As Ish=I-Im
(I-Im)Rsh=ImRm
Rm/Rsh= (I-Im)/Im
Rm/Rsh=I/Im-1
I/Im=1+ Rm/Rsh
I=Im(1+ Rm/Rsh)
I/Im is known as multiplying power of shunt.
Voltmeter: For measurement of voltage a series resistor or a multiplier is required for
extension of range.
Im = Full Scale Deflection current of movement in Ampere
Vm= Full Scale Deflection Voltage in Volts
Rm = Internal resistance of movement
Rse = Multiplier resistance
V = Full range voltage of instrument
V=Im(Rm+Rse)
V=Vm/Rm(Rm+Rse)
 V=Vm(1+Rse/Rm)

MOVING IRON INSTRUMENT:

M.I instruments are mainly used for the measurement of alternating currents and
voltages, though it can also be used for D.C measurements.
The general principle of a M.I instrument can be explained under;
Let a plate or vane of soft iron or of high permeability steel forms the moving
element of the system. The iron vane is situated so as, it can move in a magnetic field
produced by a stationary coil. The coil is excited by the current or voltage under
measurement. When the coil is excited, it becomes an electromagnet and the iron
vane moves in such a way so as to increase the flux of the electromagnet. Thus, the
vane tries to occupy a position of minimum reluctance. Thus, the force produced is
always in such a direction so as to increase the inductance of the coil.
There are two types of Moving- iron instruments.
i. Attraction type:
In this type of instrument, a single soft iron vane (moving iron) is mounted on the
spindle, and is attracted towards the coil when operating current flows through it.
Deflecting torque equation:
Consider a small increment in current supplied to the coil of the instrument. Due to
this current, let dθ be the deflection under the deflecting torque Td. Due to such
deflection, some mechanical work will be done.
Mechanical work = Tddθ
Let I = Initial current
L= instrument inductance because of the magnetic field.
θ= deflection
dθ=change in deflection
dI=increase in current
dL= change in inductance
The emf induced in the coil given by
e = d/dt(LI)
= IdL/dt + Ldi/dt
Multiplying Idt both side
eIdt= I2dL+LIdt (eIdt is the total energy supplied to the MI instrument)
the stored energy increases from
½ LI2 → ½(L+dL)(I+dI)2
Hence change in stored energy,
½(L+dL)(I+dI)2- 1/2LI2= 1/2I2dL+LIdI (neglecting the higher order terms )
The energy supplied is nothing but stored energy plus work done for deflection.
eIdt= I2dL+LIdI
I2dl + LIdI = 1/2I2dL + LIdI + Tdd8
 1 dL
Td = 2 I2 d8
The controlling torque is given by
Tc = k8
At steady state condition,
1 dL
8= I2
2k d8
Since the deflection is proportional to the square of coil current, the scale of such
instruments is non-uniform (being crowded in the beginning and spread out near
the finishing end of the scale).
ii. Repulsion type:-
In this two soft iron vanes are used; one fixed and attached the stationary coil,
while the other is movable (moving iron), and mounted on the spindle of the
instrument. When operating current flows through the coil, the two vanes are
magnetised, developing similar polarity at the same ends. Consequently, repulsion
takes place between the vanes and the movable vane causes the pointer to move
over the scale. Thus, the deflection is proportional to the square of the coil
current. The scale of the instrument is non- uniform; being crowded in the
beginning and spread out near the finish end of the scale. However, the non-
linearity of the scale can be corrected to some extent by the accurate shaping and
positioning of the iron vanes in relation to the operating coil.
DYNAMOMETER TYPE WATTMETER:
Electric power is the rate of doing work. It is expressed in Watts. The higher units
of power used in practice include kilowatts, megawatts, etc. Pwatt = VI COS φ , i.e.,
a power of one watt is said to be expended when a source of one volt passes a
current of one ampere through a load resistance/ impedance of one ohm at unity
power factor. The power measurements are made with the help of a wattmeter.
Wattmeter is an indicating deflecting type of instrument used in laboratories for
measurement of power in various ranges. A wattmeter consists of two coils as
shown in the schematic representative figure.

Current coil (CC): connected in series with circuit and carries the load current. It is
designed such that it is wound with 2 to 3 turns of thick wire and hence it has a
very low resistance.
Voltage or Pressure or Potential coil (PC): connected across the load circuit and
hence carries a current proportional to the load current. The total load voltage
appears across the PC. It is designed such that it is wound with several turns of thin
wire. Wattmeter Connections hence it has a very high resistance. The wattmeter
can be a UPF meter or LPF meter depending on the type of the load connected in
the measuring circuit. For power measurements in AC circuits, the wattmeter is
widely adopted. In principle and construction, it is a combination of those
applicable for an ammeter and a voltmeter.
An electrodynamometer wattmeter consists of two fixed coils and a moving coil as
shown in figure. The fixed coils are connected in series with the load and hence
carry the load current. These fixed coils form the current coil of the wattmeter. The
moving coil is connected across the load and hence carries a current proportional to
the voltage across the load. A highly non-inductive resistance is put in series with
the moving coil to limit the current to a small value. The moving coil forms the
potential coil of the wattmeter.
The fixed coils are wound with heavy wire of minimum number of turns. The fixed
coils embrace the moving coil. Spring control is used for movement and damping
is by air. The deflecting torque is proportional to the product of the currents in the
two coils. These watt meters can be used for both DC and AC measurements.
Since the deflection is proportional to the average power and the spring control
torque is proportional to the deflection, the scale is uniform. The meter is free from
waveform errors. However, they are more expensive.
Expression for the deflection torque:
Let ic, ip : Current in the fixed and moving coils respectively,
M : Mutual inductance between the two coils,
θ : Steady final deflection of the instrument,
K: Spring constant,
V, I : RMS values of voltage and current in the measuring circuit and
Rp : Pressure coil resistance
Instantaneous voltage across pressure coil, v = √2 V sin ωt
Instantaneous current in the pressure coil, ip = √2 V/RP sin wt = √2 Ip sin ωt
Instantaneous current in the current coil, ic = √2 I sin (ωt-ϕ)
Instantaneous torque is given by: Ti = ic ip ( dM /dθ )
= [√2 I sin (ωt-ϕ) ] [ √2 Ip sin ωt ] (dM /dθ )
Average deflecting torque, Td = (1/T) ∫ Ti dωt
= (1/T) ∫ Ip I [cos ϕ - cos (2ωt - ϕ )] (dM /dθ) dωt
= (VI/Rp) cosϕ (dM /dθ )
Since the controlling torque, Tc=Kθ, we have at balance of the moving pointer,
Td=Tc,
So that, θ = [VI cos ϕ / (KRp)] (dM/dθ) =(K‘dM/dθ)P
Where K‘ = KRp and P is the power consumption. Thus the deflection of the
wattmeter is found to be the direct indication of the power being consumed in the
load circuit.
Advantages:- 1.  Power, the scale is uniform
2. High degree of accuracy
3. It can be used for both AC and DC circuits
4. Free from hysteresis & eddy current loss
Disadvantages: 1. Inductance of voltage coil at low power factor causes serious
error
2. Reading may be affected by stray magnetic field acting on moving coil
Error:- 1. Due to pressure coil inductance
2. Due to connection
3. Due to temperature variation
4. Due to mutual inductance of current coil & pressure coil
Induction Type Energymeter

Induction type energy meters are most commonly form of an A. c. KWh meter
used to measure the energy consumed in any a.c. circuit in a prescribed period
when supply voltage and frequency are constant, in day today life & in industrial
installation. Energy meter is an integrating instrument which measure the total
quantity of electrical energy supplied to the circuit in a given period. These meters
measure electrical energy in Kilowatt hours.

Construction: An Induction type single phase energy meter, has following main
parts of the operating mechanism:

1. Driving System
2. Moving System
3. Braking System
4. Registering System
5. Compensating devices

DRIVING SYSTEM develops torque to rotate the moving system. It consists of

two electromagnets one is formed by current coil & other one is by voltage coil or
pressure coil.

MOVING SYSTEM essentially consists of an aluminum mounted on the spindle

which is supported by Pivot-jewel Bearing system. Since there is not control
spring, the disc makes continuous revolution under the action the deflecting torque.

BRAKING SYSTEM consists of a permanent magnet of C shaped covering a part

of rotating disc to provide braking torque. By changing the position of breaking
magnet, the Flux linkage with the disc can be changed, this torque is opposite to
driving torque.

REGISTERING SYSTEM keeps the record of energy consumed by load through

worm wheel or pinion gear mounted with spindle of moving disc.

COMPENSATING DEVICES: lag adjuster or phase compensator, friction

compensator or low load adjustment.
WORKING

When the energy meter is connected in the circuit, the current coil carries the load
current and the pressure coil carries the current proportional to the supply voltage.
The magnetic field produced by the SERIES magnet (series coil) is in phase with
the line current & the magnetic field produced by the shunt magnet (pressure coil)
is in quadrature with the applied voltage (since the coil is highly inductive). Thus,
a phase difference exists between the fluxes produced by the two coils. This sets up
a rotating field which interacts with the disc and produces a driving torque and,
thus, disc starts rotating. The number of revolutions made by the disc depends
upon the energy passing through the meter. The spindle is geared to the recording
mechanism so that electrical energy consumed in the circuit is directly registered in
KWh. The speed of the disc is adjusted by adjusting the position of the breaking
magnet. For example, if the energy meter registers less energy than the energy
actually consumed in the circuit, then the speed of disc has to be increased which is
obtained by shifting the magnet nearer to the centre of the Disc and vice-versa.

At constant angular speed the power VICos& is proportional to the angular speed
in r.p.s. We calibrate w and energy meter by time test.

Let K be the meter constant of energy meter, which is the number of revolution per
KWh energy consumption. When connected to measure energy, if disc makes R
number of revolution in t seconds. Then the reading of energy meter is:

Et = R/K

Let KW= Power in Kilowatt from wattmeter reading.

R= No. of revolution made by disc in‗t‘ Sec.
revolution
K=
KWℎ
Energy recorded by meter under test (Et) = R KWℎ
K

Let the wattmeter reading be KW watts of energy calculated from the wattmeter &
stop watch is given by
Kw×t
Energy consumed by wattmeter (Es) =
3600
R Kw∗t
–×
Percentage Error = [ K 3600 ] × 100
3600
= [Et–Ec] × 100
Ec

Sources of error

 Phase angle error occurs when the phase difference between pressure coil
flux and supply voltage V is less than 90 - lag adjuster
 The frictional error are prominent at the bearing at light load – by changing
the angle of inclination of friction compensator
 Negligible error due to voltage and frequency variation
 Error is small due to temperature variation
Creeping: It is sometimes observed that a meter rotates slowly even when
there is no load in the circuit. This is called creeping or shunt running
Anticreep devices: 1. Two small holes in the rotor disc at diametrically
opposite points
2. Radial slots are cut in the edge of the disc
3. A short iron wire or tongue is stuck to the surface of disc