1.

Significance of Studying the Human Nervous System Physiology in

Relation to Lie Detection

Studying the human nervous system physiology is crucial for understanding how
the body reacts during deception. This is significant in the context of lie detection
for the following reasons:

 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Response: Deception triggers the

autonomic nervous system, leading to physiological responses like
increased heart rate, sweating, and changes in breathing patterns, which
can be monitored and analyzed during lie detection tests.
 Identification of Stress Indicators: The nervous system’s physiological
markers such as skin conductance, blood pressure, and respiration rate
are often linked to emotional stress, which may be elevated when a
person is lying. These physiological changes can provide clues for
identifying deception.
 Cognitive Load and Emotional Regulation: Lying is cognitively
demanding and can cause stress, which engages different brain regions
and influences nervous system activity. Understanding how these
processes affect the body helps in refining lie detection techniques.

2. Outline of the Historical Development of Lie Detection

Ancient Times:

o Early Beliefs: In ancient civilizations, there were superstitions and

beliefs that certain behaviors or physiological responses (e.g.,
sweating, heartbeat) could indicate truthfulness or guilt.

Pre-Polygraph Era:

o 19th Century - Physiological Response Observations: Early

attempts at lie detection focused on the physical signs of anxiety,
such as increased heart rate and blood pressure, that were
associated with stress during deception.
o Cesare Lombroso: An Italian criminologist who contributed to
early physiological theories linking lie detection to bodily
reactions, including heart rate and respiration.

Early 20th Century:

o Invention of the Polygraph (1920s): Dr. John Augustus Larson

developed the first polygraph machine, which measured
physiological responses such as heart rate, blood pressure, and
respiration while an individual was asked a series of questions.
 o Expanded Use of Polygraphy: It became widely used by law
enforcement agencies to assess truthfulness in criminal
investigations.

Mid-20th Century:

o Refinement of Polygraph Techniques: More sophisticated

polygraph techniques and methods for analyzing physiological
data were developed.
o Legal and Ethical Concerns: The legal and ethical implications of
polygraph use started being debated, particularly regarding its
admissibility in court.

Late 20th Century to Present:

o Alternative Technologies: New methods of deception detection,

such as functional MRI (fMRI) and EEG, have been explored, which
measure brain activity in response to deceptive behavior.
o Polygraph Use Today: Despite technological advancements, the
polygraph remains one of the most widely used tools for detecting
deception, though its reliability and legality continue to be
debated.

3. Underlying Principle of Each Scientific Method of Detecting Deception

1. Polygraphy (Lie Detector Test):

o Principle: Polygraphy measures physiological responses (heart

rate, blood pressure, respiration, and skin conductance) that can
be indicative of stress or anxiety, often triggered by deception.

2. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI):

o Principle: fMRI detects changes in brain activity by measuring

blood flow to different brain areas. Deceptive behavior is thought
to engage cognitive areas of the brain, which fMRI can capture.

3. Electroencephalogram (EEG):

o Principle: EEG measures electrical activity in the brain. Certain

brainwave patterns have been associated with deception, as lying
involves cognitive load and specific neural processing.

4. Voice Stress Analysis:

 o Principle: This method monitors subtle changes in voice pitch and
frequency, which may be affected by stress when a person is being
deceptive.

4. Principal Uses, Procedures, and Objectives of Polygraphy

Uses of Polygraphy:

 Criminal Investigations: To assess truthfulness in suspects and

witnesses.
 Pre-Employment Screening: To evaluate the honesty of candidates for
positions that require high levels of trust (e.g., law enforcement or
intelligence).
 Security Clearances: Used by government agencies to assess applicants
for sensitive positions.
 Internal Affairs and Civil Litigation: To help resolve disputes or
allegations of misconduct.

Procedures of Polygraphy:

 Pre-Test Phase: The examiner explains the procedure, ensures informed

consent, and establishes a baseline by asking neutral questions.
 Testing Phase: The examinee is asked a series of relevant and control
questions while physiological responses are recorded.
 Post-Test Phase: The examiner analyzes the results, discusses findings
with the subject, and may conduct a follow-up interview.

Objectives of Polygraphy:

 Detect Deception: To determine whether a person is being truthful or

deceptive based on their physiological responses.
 Evaluate the Emotional State: To assess the emotional responses
(stress, anxiety, etc.) during questioning.
 Assist in Decision-Making: Provide law enforcement or employers with
additional information to guide their decisions.

5. Formulating Questions, Chart Markings, and Interpreting Chart Probing

in Polygraphy

Formulating Questions:

 Relevant Questions: Directly related to the investigation (e.g., "Did you

steal the money?").
 Control Questions: General questions to establish a baseline (e.g., "Is
your name John?").
  Irrelevant Questions: Neutral questions to distract and establish
baseline responses (e.g., "Are you sitting down?").

Chart Markings:

 Polygraph charts typically show physiological responses (heart rate,

blood pressure, respiration, skin conductance) as continuous lines.
Significant changes in these lines can indicate stress or anxiety related to
deception.

Interpreting Chart Probing:

 Peak of Tension: Significant spikes in physiological responses (especially

for relevant questions) suggest the presence of deception.
 Comparison with Control Questions: Differences in responses to
relevant vs. control questions help assess the truthfulness of the subject.

6. Qualifications and Responsibilities of the Polygraph Examiner

Qualifications:

 Educational Background: A polygraph examiner typically needs a

background in criminal justice, psychology, or forensic science.
 Training and Certification: Extensive training in polygraph techniques
and certification from a recognized polygraph organization is required.
 Experience: Practical experience in conducting polygraph tests and
analyzing results is crucial.

Responsibilities:

 Conducting Tests: The examiner is responsible for administering

polygraph tests according to established protocols.
 Analyzing Data: They must analyze the polygraph charts objectively and
accurately interpret the physiological data.
 Reporting Findings: The examiner provides a clear and unbiased report
of the test results.
 Ethical Conduct: The examiner must adhere to ethical standards,
including maintaining confidentiality and ensuring the integrity of the
test.

7. Legal Implications of Observing Ethics in Criminal Interrogation

 Protection of Rights: Ethical interrogation ensures that the rights of

suspects are respected, and that coercive or manipulative methods are
avoided.
  Admissibility of Evidence: Improper interrogation techniques, including
the use of deceptive or misleading tactics, can lead to the inadmissibility
of the evidence gathered during the interrogation.
 Avoiding False Confessions: Ethical interrogation practices minimize
the risk of false confessions, ensuring that confessions are voluntary and
accurate.
 Legal Precedents: Courts may rely on the adherence to ethical standards
to determine whether a confession or evidence obtained during
interrogation is legally valid. Violations of ethical interrogation practices
can lead to the exclusion of evidence and the dismissal of charges.

Introduction to Polygraphy and Lie Detection

Polygraphy, commonly known as the lie detector test, is a scientific method of

detecting deception by measuring physiological responses such as heart rate,
blood pressure, respiration rate, and skin conductance. These physiological
changes are believed to be indicative of emotional or psychological stress, which
can occur when an individual is being deceptive. Polygraphy is widely used in
various fields, including criminal investigations, pre-employment screening, and
security assessments, although its accuracy and legal status remain debated.

The primary assumption behind polygraphy is that deceptive behavior is

associated with physiological responses due to the emotional tension that comes
with lying. Therefore, by examining how the body reacts to specific questions or
stimuli, polygraph examiners aim to determine whether the person is being
truthful or deceptive.

Relevance of Studying Polygraphy

Studying polygraphy is crucial because it provides insight into the physiological

processes that occur when a person is deceptive, and it offers practical
applications in law enforcement, national security, and other high-stakes fields.
Understanding polygraphy can help:

1. Enhance Deception Detection: It offers a reliable, scientific tool for

detecting lies based on physiological data.
2. Improve Criminal Investigations: Polygraph tests can help investigators
assess the truthfulness of suspects, witnesses, or individuals involved in
criminal cases.
3. Screening and Security: Polygraphy is used in security clearances, pre-
employment evaluations, and as a counterintelligence measure.
4. Ethical Considerations: Studying polygraphy also involves
understanding the ethical, legal, and psychological implications of using
such technology in interrogations.
The study of polygraphy not only involves its technical aspects but also explores
its limitations, ethical concerns, and its legal and psychological implications in
various settings.

Pneumograph, Cardiograph, and Galvanograph

These three devices are integral to the polygraph's operation, each measuring a
specific physiological response to help assess the subject’s emotional and
physical reaction during questioning.

1.

Pneumograph:

2.

1. Definition: A pneumograph measures the respiratory rate

(breathing patterns) during a polygraph test. The device records
changes in the chest or abdominal movement as a person inhales
and exhales.
2. Role in Polygraphy: Rapid or irregular breathing can indicate
stress, which may be associated with deception.

3.

Cardiograph:

4.

1. Definition: A cardiograph records the heart rate and blood

pressure of the subject. It typically uses a cuff that inflates around
the arm to measure blood pressure, while heart rate is measured
through sensors placed on the skin.
2. Role in Polygraphy: Elevated heart rate or blood pressure can be
a response to anxiety or emotional stress, which may occur when a
person is lying.

5.

Galvanograph:

6.

1. Definition: A galvanograph measures skin conductivity or the

galvanic skin response (GSR). It is based on the principle that
sweat gland activity increases with emotional arousal (e.g., stress,
fear, or nervousness).
 2. Role in Polygraphy: Increased sweat, particularly on the palms or
fingers, can indicate anxiety and is used to detect deceptive
behavior.

Definition of Terms

 Polygraph: A device used to detect deception by measuring physiological

responses such as heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and skin
conductivity.
 Lie Detection: The process of identifying whether someone is being
truthful or deceptive, often using physiological measurements such as
those recorded by the polygraph.
 Pneumograph: A device used to measure and record respiratory activity,
specifically the rate and depth of breathing.
 Cardiograph: An instrument used to record the electrical activity of the
heart and blood pressure during polygraph testing.
 Galvanograph: A device that measures the skin’s electrical conductivity,
often used to assess the level of emotional arousal or stress in response to
questioning.
 Deception: The act of intentionally misrepresenting or withholding the
truth.
 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): The part of the nervous system that
regulates involuntary bodily functions such as heart rate, respiration, and
sweating, often implicated in the physiological responses measured
during polygraph tests.

Early Methods of Detecting Deception

The quest to identify deception has a long history, with various methods used
over the centuries. Early methods relied heavily on superstition, belief in divine
intervention, or physical signs of stress.

1.

Trial by Ordeal:

2.
1. Ancient and Medieval Times: Deception was often tested
through ordeals, which were physical trials that supposedly
revealed the truth by the outcome. For example, in medieval
Europe, an accused person might be forced to hold a red-hot iron
or plunge their hand into boiling water. If they were not burned,
they were presumed to be innocent.
3.

Use of Physical Signs:

 4.

1. Heart Rate and Breathing: Ancient civilizations noted that liars

might exhibit unusual physical responses, such as faster breathing
or an increased heart rate. However, this was more of an
observation than a formal method of deception detection.

5.

Trial by Water (Ancient Greece and Rome):

6.

1. Ordeal by Water: This was a common form of trial in which the

accused person was immersed in water to see if they floated or
sank. It was believed that innocent people would float due to their
purity, while those who were guilty would sink. The ordeal often
resulted in physical harm or death.

7.

The Use of "Lie Detectors" in Ancient China:

8.

1. Mouth and Rice Grain Test: Ancient Chinese practices included

testing suspects by forcing them to chew dry rice, which would
stick to the inside of the mouth. If the accused could not speak
coherently, it was considered a sign of guilt. This method relied on
the idea that anxiety could cause physical responses affecting
speech.

Types of Ordeals

Ordeals were used throughout history to determine guilt or innocence, often

based on the belief that the divine would intervene and reveal the truth. Some
notable types of ordeals include:

1.

Trial by Fire:

2.

1. Involved the accused walking over hot coals or holding a red-hot

iron. If the person was unharmed, they were deemed innocent; if
they were burned, they were considered guilty.
 3.

Trial by Water:

4.

1. Suspects were submerged in water. If they sank (a sign of guilt),

they were condemned; if they floated (a sign of innocence), they
were acquitted. This was based on the belief that "pure"
individuals would be supported by water.

5.

Trial by Combat:

6.

1. The accused and the accuser would engage in physical combat. The
outcome of the fight was considered the will of the gods, with the
victor being presumed to be in the right.

7.

Trial by Stone or Weighing:

8.

1. The accused might be required to carry a heavy stone or be

weighed against a sacred object. If they were found wanting, it was
seen as a sign of guilt.

9.

Trial by Ordeal of Bread:

10.

1. A suspect was given a piece of bread to eat. If they could swallow

it, they were considered innocent; if they choked, they were
considered guilty. This was more common in some medieval
European cultures.

11.

Bloodletting:

12.
 1. In some cultures, bloodletting (the act of drawing blood from a
person) was used to assess guilt. It was believed that the act would
reveal the truth by exposing the accused to physical risk.

Polygraphy Personalities and Their Contributions

Polygraphy, as a formalized system of detecting deception, owes much of its

development to key individuals and their contributions. Below are some of the
notable personalities in the history of polygraphy:

1.

William M. Marston (1893–1947):

2.

1. Contribution: An American psychologist, inventor, and pioneer in

the development of the polygraph. Marston invented the systolic
blood pressure test, which became the foundation for the
polygraph.
2. Influence: Marston’s work laid the groundwork for using
physiological responses to detect deception. His research on blood
pressure and emotions was crucial in the creation of modern
polygraph techniques.

3.

John Augustus Larson (1892–1965):

4.

1. Contribution: An American physician and the inventor of the first

modern polygraph machine. Larson designed the polygraph to
measure multiple physiological responses (heart rate, blood
pressure, respiration) simultaneously, improving the accuracy and
reliability of deception detection.
2. Influence: Larson’s polygraph, created in the 1920s, was the first
device to be used in law enforcement and criminal investigations.
His work set the stage for the widespread adoption of polygraphy
in various fields.

5.

Leonard Keeler (1903–1949):

6.
 1. Contribution: A key figure in the development of the polygraph,
Keeler worked alongside Larson and made several improvements
to the original design. He added the galvanograph (skin resistance
monitor) to the polygraph, which provided additional
physiological data.
2. Influence: Keeler's innovations made the polygraph more
practical and effective in real-world applications, such as criminal
investigations and security screenings. He is considered one of the
most important early proponents of polygraphy.

7.

William C. Langenbach (1917–2012):

8.

1. Contribution: An American polygraph examiner who helped to

standardize polygraph testing and improve training and
certification for polygraph examiners.
2. Influence: Langenbach’s efforts contributed to the establishment
of the American Polygraph Association (APA) and the
professionalization of the polygraph field, which helped ensure
better reliability and ethical standards.

9.

Fred E. Inbau (1909–1997):

10.

1. Contribution: A forensic psychologist and law professor who

significantly influenced the use of polygraphy in criminal justice.
He authored books and conducted research on the psychological
aspects of interrogation and polygraph techniques.
2. Influence: Inbau's work helped shape modern polygraph
interrogation methods and reinforced the importance of ethical
practices in polygraph testing.

These key figures played vital roles in the scientific and technological
advancements of polygraphy, establishing its role as a tool for law enforcement
and other security-related fields. Their innovations have allowed polygraphy to
evolve into a widely-used practice today, despite ongoing debates about its
accuracy and effectiveness.

Psychophysiology of Lying

The psychophysiology of lying refers to the physiological and psychological

responses that occur when a person is being deceptive. When an individual lies,
their body often experiences a stress response, which can be measured through
changes in several physiological parameters. These physiological responses are
believed to be related to the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which regulates
involuntary functions such as heart rate, breathing, and sweating.

1.

Emotional Stress: Lying often creates psychological stress, particularly

when individuals are aware that they could be caught. This emotional
stress is thought to trigger the autonomic nervous system, leading to
noticeable physiological changes such as increased heart rate, blood
pressure, respiratory rate, and skin conductance.

2.
3.

Fight-or-Flight Response: The body's "fight or flight" response, which is

activated by stress or perceived threats, can be triggered during
deception. This includes heightened physiological responses such as
faster breathing, sweating, and changes in blood pressure, all of which can
be measured by the polygraph.

4.
5.

Lying and Cognitive Load: When a person lies, the brain works harder to
create a false story, maintain consistency, and monitor for signs of
detection. This cognitive load may increase physiological stress, further
amplifying the physiological indicators that polygraphs measure.

6.

Tripod Foundation of Polygraphy

The "tripod foundation" of polygraphy refers to the three primary physiological

responses that polygraphy measures to detect deception. These three
measurements are believed to correlate with stress responses that occur during
deception:

1.

Cardiovascular Activity (Heart Rate and Blood Pressure):

2.

1. Heart Rate: Increased heart rate is a common physiological

response to anxiety or emotional stress, often seen during
deception.
 2. Blood Pressure: A rise in blood pressure can be indicative of
stress, particularly when a person is being deceptive. Elevated
blood pressure may occur when a person feels tense or anxious
while lying.

3.

Respiratory Activity (Breathing Patterns):

4.

1. Respiration Rate: Changes in breathing patterns, such as

irregular or shallow breathing, can occur when a person
experiences emotional stress. Polygraphs measure both the rate
and depth of respiration to detect signs of deception.

5.

Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) or Skin Conductivity:

6.

1. Sweating: When a person experiences stress or anxiety, the body’s

sweat glands become more active, particularly on the palms,
fingers, and other areas of the body. The polygraph measures
changes in skin conductance, which is influenced by the amount of
sweat present on the skin.

The combined analysis of these three physiological responses—cardiovascular,

respiratory, and skin conductance—forms the foundation of polygraphy and
helps polygraph examiners determine whether a subject is experiencing
physiological changes associated with deception.

Two Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates involuntary physiological

functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, and respiration. The ANS
is divided into two primary branches, each with specific roles in the body’s
response to various stimuli, including stress and deception:

1.

Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS):

2.
 1. Function: The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for
activating the "fight-or-flight" response. It prepares the body for
stress or danger by increasing heart rate, dilating the pupils,
increasing blood flow to muscles, and inhibiting digestive
functions. When a person is under stress, such as when they are
lying, the sympathetic system is activated.
2. Polygraph Relevance: The SNS is associated with physiological
changes measured in polygraphy, such as elevated heart rate,
increased blood pressure, rapid breathing, and sweating. These
signs can be indicative of deception or emotional arousal.

3.

Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS):

4.

1. Function: The parasympathetic nervous system works to

counterbalance the actions of the sympathetic nervous system and
promote relaxation and recovery. It helps to slow the heart rate,
reduce blood pressure, and stimulate digestive functions. The PNS
is activated during calm or restful states.
2. Polygraph Relevance: The PNS works to counteract the
heightened physiological responses caused by the sympathetic
nervous system. In situations where a person is lying, the balance
between the SNS and PNS is disrupted, and polygraphs measure
this imbalance as part of the analysis.

Together, these two divisions of the autonomic nervous system govern the
body’s responses to various emotional and psychological stimuli, including the
stress that may be associated with deception. The polygraph relies on detecting
changes in these physiological responses to assess whether a person is likely
being truthful or deceptive.

Major Components of Polygraph

A polygraph machine, also known as a lie detector, is composed of several major

components that measure specific physiological responses to determine
deception. These components include the pneumograph, galvanograph, and
cardiograph, each of which has sub-parts that contribute to the overall
functioning of the polygraph.

Pneumograph and Its Subparts

The pneumograph measures respiratory activity, primarily the rate and

depth of breathing. This component helps to detect changes in the breathing
patterns of a person, which can indicate emotional stress associated with
deception.

Subparts of Pneumograph:

1.

Respiratory Belt or Pneumograph Pneumobelt:

2.
1. Function: A band or belt is placed around the chest or abdomen to
monitor the expansion and contraction of the chest or abdominal
area during breathing. The belt is connected to a sensor that
measures the movement as the individual breathes.
2. Role: This subpart records the breathing rate and can detect
irregularities such as shallow, rapid, or deep breathing, which may
be indicative of stress or deception.
3.

Pressure Transducer:

4.

1. Function: A device that detects changes in the pressure within the

respiratory belt as the person breathes in and out. The sensor
translates the pressure changes into an electrical signal, which is
recorded and displayed on the polygraph chart.
2. Role: The pressure transducer helps to capture subtle changes in
the respiration rate, which is crucial for detecting physiological
responses to anxiety and deception.

Galvanograph and Its Subparts

The galvanograph measures skin conductance, which is also known as the

Galvanic Skin Response (GSR). It monitors the electrical conductance of the
skin, which increases with sweat gland activity (which is often heightened by
stress, anxiety, or deception).

Subparts of Galvanograph:

1.

Electrodes:

2.
 1. Function: Electrodes are placed on the subject’s fingertips, palms,
or other areas of the skin that are known to be sensitive to
sweating. These electrodes measure the electrical conductivity of
the skin, which increases when the person is sweating due to
emotional arousal.
2. Role: The electrodes pick up small changes in electrical
conductivity, which are then amplified and recorded on the
polygraph chart as a response to stress or anxiety, potentially
linked to deception.

3.

Skin Conductance Sensor:

4.

1. Function: This is the component that connects to the electrodes

and measures the level of electrical conductance in the skin. When
sweat is produced by sweat glands, the skin's conductivity
increases, which the sensor detects and records.
2. Role: It helps to quantify the physiological response associated
with sweating, which can indicate emotional tension, often linked
to the stress of lying.

Cardiograph and Its Subparts

The cardiograph measures cardiovascular activity, particularly the heart rate

and blood pressure of the individual. These measurements help detect
increases in heart rate or fluctuations in blood pressure, both of which are
common physiological responses to stress, anxiety, or deception.

Subparts of Cardiograph:

1.

Blood Pressure Cuff:

2.

1. Function: A cuff is placed around the upper arm, inflating to

measure the subject’s blood pressure. The cuff has sensors that
detect the systolic and diastolic pressures as the blood flows
through the arteries.
2. Role: This subpart helps to assess the level of stress and anxiety
based on blood pressure changes, which are often elevated when a
person is under pressure or lying.
 3.

Heart Rate Sensor (or Electrocardiogram - ECG):

4.

1. Function: This component detects the electrical signals generated

by the heart. Electrodes are typically placed on the chest or wrist
to pick up the heart's electrical activity.
2. Role: The heart rate sensor records any changes in the heart’s
rhythm or rate, helping to detect stress-related increases in heart
rate, which can be indicative of emotional arousal during
deception.

5.

Sphygmomanometer:

6.

1. Function: This is the device used to measure the blood pressure,

often integrated into the polygraph's cardiograph system. It
applies pressure around the arm to measure the systolic and
diastolic pressures.
2. Role: By measuring blood pressure, it helps the polygraph
examiner observe any sudden or sustained increases in blood
pressure, which may occur during periods of stress or deception.

Summary of Major Components and Their Functions

 Pneumograph: Measures respiratory activity (rate and depth of

breathing) through a respiratory belt and pressure transducer.
 Galvanograph: Measures skin conductance (sweating response) using
electrodes and skin conductance sensors.
 Cardiograph: Measures heart rate and blood pressure using a blood
pressure cuff, heart rate sensor (ECG), and sphygmomanometer.

These components work together to measure the physiological responses of a

subject, which are then analyzed to help determine whether a person is
experiencing stress potentially linked to deception. The polygraph combines
these responses to form a comprehensive view of the physiological reactions that
may indicate truthfulness or deceit.

Formulation of Questions in Polygraph Testing

The formulation of questions is a critical aspect of the polygraph examination

process. The questions posed during a polygraph test must be clear, precise, and
designed to elicit truthful physiological responses. Poorly worded or leading
questions can result in unreliable data, making it crucial for the examiner to
carefully craft each question.

Guidelines for Formulating Polygraph Questions:

1.

Relevant Questions:

2.
1. These questions are directly related to the issue under
investigation (e.g., "Did you steal the money?"). Relevant questions
are designed to assess the truthfulness of the subject's response to
specific issues involved in the examination.
3.

Control Questions:

4.

1. These questions are unrelated to the issue being investigated but

are used to establish a baseline physiological response for
comparison. Control questions often involve general truths that
can be answered easily (e.g., "Have you ever told a lie in your
life?").
2. Control questions help identify physiological responses that are
normal for the individual, aiding in distinguishing between
reactions to relevant questions and the physiological baseline.

5.

Irrelevant Questions:

6.

1. These questions are neutral and unrelated to the investigation,

used to further establish baseline physiological data. For example,
"Is today Monday?" These questions are intended to produce
responses that elicit little or no emotional reaction, offering a
standard for comparison.

7.

Yes/No Questions:

8.
 1. Polygraph questions are typically formulated in a yes/no format to
elicit a clear and simple response. This format helps to minimize
confusion and ensures that the physiological responses can be
more easily interpreted.

9.

Avoidance of Leading Questions:

10.

1. Questions should be framed in a way that does not suggest a

specific answer, which could bias the results. For example, instead
of asking "Did you steal the money, as you’ve been accused?" a
more neutral question would be "Did you steal the money?"

11.

Clarity and Precision:

12.

1. Questions should be straightforward and easily understood by the

subject, ensuring that there is no ambiguity. Vague or complex
questions may confuse the subject and produce unreliable
physiological responses.

13.

Timing of Questions:

14.

1. The timing of when questions are asked can influence the

physiological responses. Questions should be spaced appropriately
to give the subject time to respond and to allow for accurate
readings of physiological changes.

Types of Polygraph Techniques/Tests

Polygraph examinations are performed using various techniques to detect

deception. Each technique involves different strategies for formulating questions
and analyzing the subject's physiological responses.

**1. The Relevant-Irrelevant Technique

  Description: This is one of the oldest and simplest polygraph techniques.
In this method, the examiner uses relevant questions (directly related to
the case), irrelevant questions (neutral questions not related to the
case), and control questions (general questions used to establish a
baseline for comparison).
 Procedure: The polygraph records the physiological responses to these
different types of questions, and the examiner compares the physiological
data from relevant questions with the responses from the control
questions to assess truthfulness.
 Use: Primarily used in situations where the questions are straightforward
and the examiner has a clear idea of the subject's possible involvement.

**2. The Comparison Question Technique

 Description: This technique is more sophisticated than the relevant-

irrelevant technique. It focuses on comparing the subject’s physiological
responses to relevant questions (related to the specific issue) with
responses to comparison questions (general questions designed to
provoke emotional responses).
 Procedure: The examiner records the subject's responses to both types
of questions, which are analyzed to look for discrepancies in physiological
patterns. The comparison questions are meant to create a physiological
reaction similar to that caused by relevant questions if the subject is being
deceptive.
 Use: This method is widely used in criminal investigations, as it provides
a more effective way to assess deception.

**3. The Zone of Comparison (ZOC) Technique

 Description: The Zone of Comparison technique involves grouping

questions into two zones: one for relevant questions and another for
comparison questions. The physiological responses to these zones are
measured and compared.
 Procedure: The examiner formulates control and relevant questions
based on the particular subject matter of the investigation. The subject’s
physiological responses to both zones are analyzed for differences. If a
subject’s responses to relevant questions deviate significantly from those
in the comparison zone, this suggests potential deception.
 Use: This technique is used in more complex cases where a broader range
of questions is necessary to determine deception, often used for deeper
investigations.

**4. The Directed Lie Test (DLT)

 Description: The Directed Lie Test is a method where the subject is first
asked to lie deliberately. This establishes the baseline physiological
responses that are associated with lying.
 Procedure: The subject is asked a question (e.g., “Is your name [insert
false name]?”) and is expected to provide a deliberate false answer. The
 examiner then measures the subject’s physiological responses to this false
answer, establishing a "lie baseline" to compare against responses to
subsequent relevant questions.
 Use: This technique is typically used when an examiner wants to observe
how the individual’s body responds to deception in a controlled setting
before conducting the actual test.

**5. The Control Question Test (CQT)

 Description: This is one of the most commonly used polygraph

techniques. It involves asking both relevant and control questions,
comparing the physiological responses to both to determine deception.
 Procedure: The subject is asked a set of questions that include control
questions (which are typically broader and often unrelated to the
investigation) and relevant questions (which are directly related to the
case). The examiner uses the physiological differences in responses to
these questions to detect deception.
 Use: It is widely used in criminal investigations and security screenings.

**6. The Concealed Information Test (CIT)

 Description: The Concealed Information Test (also called the Guilty

Knowledge Test) is used to determine whether a subject has knowledge
of facts only known to the perpetrator of a crime, such as details of a
crime scene or specific information about a victim.
 Procedure: In this method, the subject is shown a series of multiple-
choice questions where one option contains correct, secret information
related to the crime (e.g., details of a crime scene). The subject’s
physiological responses to the different options are recorded.
 Use: This method is often used in criminal investigations when
investigators have specific details of a crime and need to determine
whether the suspect possesses concealed knowledge of those details.

Summary of Polygraph Techniques:

 Relevant-Irrelevant Technique: Simple method involving comparison

of physiological responses to relevant and irrelevant questions.
 Comparison Question Technique: Focuses on comparing responses to
relevant and comparison questions.
 Zone of Comparison Technique: Categorizes questions into two zones
(relevant and comparison) for analysis.
 Directed Lie Test: Establishes baseline physiological responses by asking
the subject to lie deliberately.
 Control Question Test (CQT): Involves asking both relevant and control
questions to detect deception.
 Concealed Information Test (CIT): Used to determine if a subject knows
specific information related to a crime.
Each of these polygraph techniques serves different purposes and is used
depending on the nature of the investigation and the goals of the examiner. The
examiner's expertise in selecting the appropriate technique plays a significant
role in the accuracy and effectiveness of polygraph testing.

Qualifications of a Polygraph Examiner

A polygraph examiner plays a critical role in administering polygraph tests and

interpreting the results. Due to the sensitive nature of lie detection and its use in
various legal and security contexts, polygraph examiners must possess specific
qualifications to ensure the integrity and reliability of the process.

Key Qualifications:

1.

Educational Background:

2.
1. Minimum Education: Most polygraph examiners must have at
least a bachelor's degree in a related field such as criminal justice,
psychology, forensic science, or law enforcement.
2. Advanced Education: Some polygraph examiners may pursue
further studies or certifications related to forensic science,
psychology, or law enforcement to enhance their skills and
expertise.
3.

Polygraph Training:

4.

1. Certified Polygraph School: The examiner must complete formal

training at a recognized polygraph school accredited by a
professional organization such as the American Polygraph
Association (APA) or the National Polygraph Association
(NPA). This training typically lasts 8-12 weeks and covers various
aspects of polygraph theory, techniques, and equipment operation.
2. Hands-On Training: Along with theoretical knowledge, practical,
hands-on experience in administering polygraph exams is
essential. Trainees usually practice under the supervision of
experienced examiners during their training.

5.

Certification:

6.
 1. Upon successful completion of polygraph training, candidates must
pass a certification exam conducted by a recognized polygraph
organization (e.g., APA or NPA). Certification ensures that the
examiner is competent and adheres to the standards and ethical
guidelines set by the polygraph community.
2. Ongoing Education: Polygraph examiners are often required to
complete continuing education courses or workshops to stay
updated on new developments in polygraph technology,
techniques, and legal guidelines.

7.

Experience:

8.

1. Many polygraph examiners must have previous experience in

law enforcement, security, or criminal justice fields. Experience in
these areas is critical to understanding the context of
investigations, criminal behavior, and how to interpret polygraph
data effectively.
2. Internship: During training or after certification, aspiring
examiners often gain experience by working under a licensed
examiner's supervision to further develop their skills in real-world
applications.

9.

Physical and Mental Health:

10.

1. Polygraph examiners should maintain good physical and mental

health, as their ability to remain focused and interpret data
accurately can be impacted by physical or psychological
conditions.
2. Some organizations may require a health assessment or
background check to ensure the examiner is in a condition to
perform the job competently.

11.

Ethics and Integrity:

12.

1. Polygraph examiners must demonstrate high ethical standards

and integrity in their work. Since polygraph results can
significantly affect individuals' lives, an examiner must adhere to
 strict ethical guidelines, maintaining impartiality and avoiding
biases.

Responsibilities of a Polygraph Examiner

The polygraph examiner's primary responsibility is to administer the polygraph

test, analyze the results, and interpret the data accurately. However, there are
several other crucial duties and responsibilities associated with this role.

Key Responsibilities:

1.

Preparing for the Examination:

2.

1. Case Review: Before administering the polygraph, the examiner

should review the case thoroughly, understanding the background
and context of the investigation. This includes reviewing case files,
conducting interviews, and understanding the specific questions
that need to be asked.
2. Subject Screening: Examiners must screen the subject to ensure
they are fit for polygraph testing. This may involve ensuring the
subject is not under the influence of drugs or alcohol, checking for
medical conditions that could affect results, and explaining the
polygraph process to the subject.

3.

Conducting the Polygraph Examination:

4.

1. Question Formulation: The examiner formulates relevant,

control, and irrelevant questions that are clear, precise, and
neutral. The questions must be designed to assess the subject's
truthfulness regarding the matter at hand.
2. Monitoring Physiological Responses: During the examination,
the examiner attaches the polygraph sensors (for respiration, skin
conductance, and heart rate) and ensures the equipment is
functioning properly.
3. Administering the Test: The examiner asks the questions and
monitors the subject’s physiological responses throughout the
process, making note of any significant changes in breathing, heart
rate, or skin conductance.
 5.

Analyzing and Interpreting Results:

6.

1. Data Interpretation: After the polygraph test, the examiner

analyzes the data and compares the physiological responses to the
relevant, control, and irrelevant questions. The examiner looks for
patterns or changes that indicate stress or deception.
2. Evaluating Deception: The examiner must use their training and
experience to evaluate the results objectively and determine
whether the physiological responses suggest truthfulness or
deception.

7.

Providing Reports:

8.

1. Documentation: The examiner must document all aspects of the

polygraph examination, including the subject’s responses, the
questions asked, the physiological readings, and the examiner’s
conclusions. A clear and comprehensive report is critical for legal
or investigative purposes.
2. Reporting Results: After the analysis, the examiner provides an
assessment of the test results, including whether deception was
detected, typically in the form of a written report. This report
should be unbiased and based on the evidence collected during the
test.

9.

Testifying in Court or Legal Proceedings:

10.

1. Expert Testimony: In some cases, the polygraph examiner may be

called to testify in court regarding the polygraph examination
results. The examiner must be prepared to explain the polygraph
process, the data, and the interpretation of the results in a clear,
professional manner.
2. Adherence to Legal Protocols: The examiner must ensure that
the examination follows legal protocols and is admissible in court
if required. This includes ensuring that the subject's rights are
protected during the test and that all ethical guidelines are
followed.
 11.

Maintaining Confidentiality:

12.

1. Protecting Privacy: Polygraph examiners must ensure that the

information obtained from the test is kept confidential. This
includes protecting the subject's personal information, test results,
and any other sensitive details related to the investigation.
2. Integrity of Data: Examiners must ensure the integrity of the
polygraph data, avoiding tampering or bias that could affect the
outcome of the examination.

13.

Continuing Education and Professional Development:

14.

1. Staying Updated: Polygraph examiners must stay current with

advances in polygraph technology, research, and legal standards.
Regular participation in workshops, training, and certification
programs ensures that examiners continue to operate within the
highest standards of the profession.

15.

Ethical Considerations:

16.

1. Impartiality: Polygraph examiners must remain neutral and

impartial throughout the examination process, ensuring that
personal biases or external pressures do not influence the results.
2. Avoiding Misuse of Results: The examiner must ensure that the
polygraph results are used ethically and are not misinterpreted or
misused to harm individuals or their legal rights.

Summary of Qualifications and Responsibilities:

 Qualifications: A polygraph examiner must possess the necessary

education, training, certification, and experience in polygraphy, including
knowledge of ethical standards and legal requirements.
 Responsibilities: Key responsibilities include preparing for and
administering polygraph tests, analyzing results, documenting findings,
testifying in court, maintaining confidentiality, and ensuring the accuracy
 and integrity of the examination process. The examiner must also stay
current with advancements in polygraph techniques and maintain ethical
standards in all aspects of their work.

Stages in the Conduct of a Polygraph Test

The process of conducting a polygraph test involves several key stages, each
designed to ensure that the examination is thorough, ethical, and legally sound.
These stages are crucial for obtaining accurate and reliable results. Below is a
breakdown of the stages involved in conducting a polygraph test:

1. Pre-Test Stage

This stage involves all the preparations needed before the polygraph test begins.

A. Subject Screening

 Purpose: Ensure that the individual is fit for polygraph testing and there
are no medical, psychological, or environmental factors that could
interfere with the test.
 Steps:
o The subject’s health and medical history are reviewed to check for
conditions such as heart problems, neurological disorders, or drug
use that might affect the results.
o The examiner checks if the subject is under the influence of
alcohol, drugs, or any other substance.
o A brief interview is conducted to clarify the subject’s
understanding of the polygraph process.

B. Informed Consent

 Purpose: Ensure that the subject understands the test and voluntarily
agrees to participate.
 Steps:
o The examiner explains the polygraph procedure and the
importance of honesty.
o The subject is informed about the implications of the test and signs
an informed consent form.

C. Explaining the Polygraph Process

 Purpose: To ensure that the subject is fully informed and comfortable

before the test.
 Steps:
o The examiner explains the polygraph procedure, the equipment
used, and what will happen during the test.
 o The subject is reassured about the non-invasive nature of the
procedure.
o The examiner also informs the subject about the types of questions
that will be asked and the control questions used to measure their
physiological responses.

2. Test Data Collection Stage

This stage involves the actual process of administering the polygraph test.

A. Sensor Attachment

 Purpose: To monitor the physiological responses of the subject during

the examination.
 Steps:
o Pneumograph: A device is attached to the subject’s chest to
measure respiration (breathing rate and patterns).
o Cardiograph: A blood pressure cuff or similar device is placed
around the subject’s arm to measure heart rate.
o Galvanograph: Electrodes are attached to the subject’s fingers to
measure skin conductance (sweating).

B. Baseline Measurement

 Purpose: To establish baseline physiological responses before asking the

main questions.
 Steps:
o The examiner asks a series of neutral questions (control
questions) to measure the subject’s normal physiological
responses.
o The responses to these questions help establish baseline data for
comparison with responses to relevant questions.

C. Questioning Phase

 Purpose: To ask relevant, control, and irrelevant questions while

recording the physiological responses.
 Steps:
o Relevant Questions: These questions are directly related to the
issue under investigation.
o Control Questions: These are neutral or unrelated questions used
to measure the subject’s baseline physiological responses.
o Irrelevant Questions: Questions that have no bearing on the
investigation, used to establish baseline data.
o The examiner observes and records the physiological data while
asking the questions.
3. Post-Test Stage

This stage involves analyzing the data obtained during the test and making
conclusions based on the physiological responses.

A. Data Analysis

 Purpose: To interpret the physiological data collected during the test.

 Steps:
o The examiner analyzes the physiological responses recorded
during the test (heart rate, breathing, and skin conductance).
o The responses to relevant, control, and irrelevant questions are
compared to identify any significant variations.
o The examiner looks for signs of stress or deception, indicated by
physiological changes such as increased heart rate or sweating.

B. Evaluation of Results

 Purpose: To determine if the subject was truthful or deceptive.

 Steps:
o The examiner compares the subject’s physiological responses to
control and relevant questions.
o Significant differences in responses may indicate that the subject is
being deceptive.
o The examiner looks for patterns in the data, such as increased
physiological activity when answering relevant questions.

C. Report Preparation

 Purpose: To document and communicate the results of the polygraph

examination.
 Steps:
o The examiner prepares a written report detailing the results of the
polygraph test.
o The report includes an analysis of the physiological responses and
a conclusion as to whether the subject was truthful or deceptive
based on the data collected.

4. Post-Test Interview

This final stage involves discussing the results of the polygraph test with the
subject and conducting any necessary follow-up actions.

A. Sharing Results
  Purpose: To inform the subject of the results of the polygraph test.
 Steps:
o The examiner may share the preliminary findings of the test with
the subject.
o If deception is detected, the examiner may discuss the results with
the subject and attempt to clarify discrepancies or contradictions.

B. Follow-Up Actions

 Purpose: To determine what actions should be taken based on the results

of the polygraph test.
 Steps:
o If deception is indicated, the examiner may recommend further
investigation or follow-up interviews.
o In some cases, the subject may be given the opportunity to explain
discrepancies or answer additional questions.

C. Confidentiality

 Purpose: To ensure that the results are handled ethically and legally.
 Steps:
o The examiner maintains confidentiality regarding the polygraph
results.
o The information from the polygraph test is shared only with
authorized parties, such as law enforcement or legal
representatives, as per ethical guidelines and legal requirements.

Summary of Stages in Polygraph Testing:

1. Pre-Test Stage: Screening, informed consent, and explaining the process.

2. Test Data Collection: Attaching sensors, establishing baselines, and
conducting the questioning phase.
3. Post-Test Stage: Analyzing the data, evaluating results, and preparing the
report.
4. Post-Test Interview: Sharing the results, conducting follow-up actions,
and ensuring confidentiality.

Each of these stages is designed to ensure the polygraph test is conducted

systematically, ethically, and with the highest degree of accuracy.

Interpretation of Polygraph Data: Accuracy and Reliability of Results - A

Comprehensive Review

Polygraph tests, commonly referred to as lie detector tests, are used to measure
physiological responses—such as heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate,
and skin conductivity—in response to a series of questions. These physiological
responses are believed to change when a person is lying due to the psychological
stress that deception causes. The interpretation of polygraph data plays a critical
role in determining the accuracy and reliability of the test results. However, the
effectiveness and credibility of polygraphy are often debated in scientific, legal,
and ethical contexts.

1. Understanding Polygraph Data Interpretation

Polygraph data interpretation involves analyzing the physiological responses of

the subject during the examination. Key components of the polygraph machine
used for data collection include the pneumograph, cardiograph, and
galvanograph, which record the following physiological metrics:

 Pneumograph: Measures the subject's respiratory rate and breathing

patterns, detecting changes in respiration that might indicate stress or
deception.
 Cardiograph: Measures heart rate and blood pressure, where
significant increases or irregularities in response to relevant questions
could indicate physiological stress associated with deception.
 Galvanograph: Measures skin conductance (sweating), which can
increase when the subject is under stress, often associated with
dishonesty.

The examiner compares the subject’s physiological responses to control

(neutral) questions, irrelevant questions, and relevant questions (directly
related to the investigation) to identify any discrepancies or signs of deception.

2. Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Polygraph Data Interpretation

A. Physiological Factors

 Individual Variability: Not all individuals experience the same

physiological responses under stress. For example, some people may have
a naturally high or low heart rate, making it difficult to differentiate
between genuine stress from deception and baseline responses.
 Medical Conditions: Health issues such as anxiety disorders, heart
conditions, or respiratory problems can affect polygraph results by
causing heightened physiological responses unrelated to deception.
 Drugs and Alcohol: Consumption of substances can alter physiological
responses and interfere with the polygraph's ability to detect truthful or
deceptive responses. Medications, in particular, can mask or exacerbate
physiological changes.

B. Psychological Factors
  Nervousness or Anxiety: A subject's natural anxiety about taking a
polygraph test, regardless of whether they are being truthful or deceptive,
can cause heightened physiological responses, complicating the
interpretation of the results.
 Psychopaths and High-Stress Individuals: Some individuals may not
experience the typical physiological stress response to deception. For
example, psychopathic individuals or those with certain psychological
conditions may not show increased stress when lying, leading to
potentially misleading polygraph results.

C. Examiner Experience and Skill

 Training and Experience: The accuracy of polygraph data interpretation

largely depends on the examiner's expertise. Experienced polygraph
examiners are trained to recognize subtle variations in physiological data
and interpret them within the context of the subject’s baseline responses.
 Bias and Judgment: An examiner’s expectations or biases may influence
the interpretation of the polygraph data. For example, an examiner who
believes a subject is guilty may be more likely to interpret ambiguous
physiological responses as signs of deception.

3. Accuracy and Reliability of Polygraph Results

A. Accuracy

 False Positives: A false positive occurs when a truthful subject is

incorrectly identified as deceptive. This can happen if the subject’s
physiological responses to the questions are misinterpreted due to
anxiety, fear, or medical conditions, leading to the incorrect conclusion
that the person is lying.
 False Negatives: A false negative occurs when a deceptive person is
incorrectly identified as truthful. This could happen if the individual is
able to control their physiological responses through techniques such as
mental concentration or relaxation, effectively masking signs of
deception.
 General Accuracy Rate: Studies on polygraph accuracy have produced
varying results. Some claim polygraphs are accurate around 80-90% of
the time, while others argue that accuracy is significantly lower, especially
in certain contexts (e.g., when individuals are trained to deceive the
polygraph or when they have specific psychological conditions).

B. Reliability

 Reproducibility: The reliability of polygraph results can be affected by

the consistency of physiological responses during different test sessions.
If a polygraph test is repeated under similar conditions, the physiological
 responses may not always be consistent, leading to questions about the
reliability of the test.
 Control Questions: Polygraph tests rely on comparing responses to
control questions and relevant questions. The reliability of these
comparisons depends on the quality of the questions asked and the
examiner’s ability to establish baseline data.

C. Legal and Ethical Implications

 Admissibility in Court: The accuracy and reliability of polygraph results

play a significant role in their admissibility in legal proceedings. In many
jurisdictions, polygraph results are not admissible as evidence in court
due to concerns over their accuracy and reliability. However, in some
cases, polygraph results may be used as a tool for investigation or
negotiation, but they are typically not the sole basis for legal decisions.
 Informed Consent: Ethical issues arise when a subject is not fully
informed about the potential inaccuracies of the polygraph or the
psychological and physiological stress it may cause. Ensuring that
subjects understand the limitations of the test and voluntarily consent is
crucial to maintaining ethical standards in polygraphy.

4. Enhancing the Accuracy and Reliability of Polygraph Results

A. Improved Technology

 Advanced Equipment: Modern polygraph machines and software have

become more sophisticated, offering improved data analysis and greater
accuracy in interpreting physiological responses. Newer systems may
incorporate computer-assisted analysis, providing additional support to
examiners in interpreting results.
 Integration with Other Techniques: Polygraph tests may be used in
conjunction with other investigative techniques (e.g., behavioral analysis,
cognitive interview) to increase the overall accuracy of deception
detection.

B. Standardization of Procedures

 Standardized Questioning Techniques: The use of a standardized set of

questions and questioning techniques can help reduce variability and
improve the consistency of polygraph results.
 Examiners' Protocols: Ensuring that polygraph examiners follow
established protocols for conducting tests, interpreting data, and
reporting results is key to improving the reliability of polygraph
examinations.

C. Ongoing Research
  Scientific Studies: Continued research into the physiological correlates of
deception, as well as the development of new technologies, is essential to
improving the accuracy and reliability of polygraph tests.
 Cross-Disciplinary Approaches: Collaboration between polygraph
examiners, psychologists, and neuroscientists can lead to a more
comprehensive understanding of how physiological responses are
connected to deception, potentially enhancing the accuracy of polygraph
interpretations.

Conclusion

Polygraphy, while widely used in both criminal investigations and employment

screening, is not without its limitations. The interpretation of polygraph data is a
complex process influenced by various physiological, psychological, and
examiner-related factors. Although the test offers valuable insights, its accuracy
and reliability are not foolproof. Advances in technology, ongoing research, and
standardization of procedures can help mitigate these challenges. Ultimately,
polygraph results should be used with caution and in conjunction with other
investigative tools to provide the most reliable outcomes in detecting deception.