156 PROTECTION AND CONTROL OF MODERN POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 9, NO.

6, NOVEMBER 2024

Advancements in Protection Coordination of

Microgrids: a Comprehensive Review of
Protection Challenges and Mitigation
Schemes for Grid Stability
Pratibha Singh, Graduate Student Member, IEEE, Uttam Kumar, Niraj Kumar Choudhary,
Senior Member, IEEE, and Nitin Singh, Senior Member, IEEE

Abstract—The advancement accomplished in power NOMENCLATURE

systems over the last decade has enabled the extensive
integration of renewable energy sources. It has resulted in A. Abbreviations
enhanced efficiency and reliability of the system by meet-
CCA critical clearing angle
ing the load demand from small, local sources known as
distributed generators (DGs). Consequently, this has led to CCT critical clearing time
the concept of microgrids (MGs). Nevertheless, there are CB circuit breaker
operational challenges such as bidirectional power flow, DFIG doubly fed induction generator
fluctuations in fault current level, and protection issues DOCR directional overcurrent relay
such as blinding, false tripping, and unintentional island- DG distributed generator
ing. Synchronous generator-based distributed generators DN distribution network
(SGDGs) may experience a loss of synchronism across the
DS distribution system
generators due to undesirable events, such as abrupt
changes in demand or faults. Similarly, voltage instability FCL fault current limiter
concerns may arise with inverter-based distributed gen- FRT fault ride through
erators (IDGs). This paper provides a thorough review of GA genetic algorithm
the concepts of critical clearing time (CCT) and grid code GC grid connected
compliance in relation to SGDGs and IDGs, respectively. GWO grey wolf optimization
It provides a comprehensive analysis of the existing liter- IDG inverter based DG
ature on several protection strategies used for reducing the ISL islanded
adverse effects of DG integration. It highlights the char-
acteristics, benefits, and constraints of these schemes. Fi-
MAS multi-agent system
nally, this paper presents the conclusion and outlines the MG microgrid
potential areas for future study in the field of protective MINLP mixed integer nonlinear program-
relaying methods, specifically addressing the issues posed ming
by current power systems. PCC point of common coupling
PD protection device
Index Terms—Directional overcurrent relays, fault ride PS power system
through, microgrid, protection coordination, transient PSO particle swarm optimization
stability, user-defined protection.
PV photovoltaic

RES renewable energy sources
ROT relay operating time
SCC short-circuit current
_____________________________________ SGDG synchronous generator-based DG
Received: December 23, 2023 UI unintentional islanding
Accepted: July 12, 2024
Published Online: November 1, 2024
VSG virtual synchronous generator
Pratibha Singh (corresponding author), Uttam Kumar, Niraj
Kumar Choudhary, and Nitin Singh are with the Department of Ⅰ. INTRODUCTION

L
Electrical Engineering, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Tech- arge-scale power generation from fossil fuels is
nology, Prayagraj 211004, India (e-mail: pratibha.2021ree54@
mnnit. ac.in; [email protected]; [email protected]; associated with various issues, including green-
[email protected]). house gas emissions, larger carbon footprints, and low
DOI: 10.23919/PCMP.2023.000250 energy efficiency. A decade-high surge in coal and gas
SINGH et al.: ADVANCEMENTS IN PROTECTION COORDINATION OF MICROGRIDS: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW… 157

prices due to recent conflict in Europe and around the protection challenges such as unintentional islanding,
world has raised the thermal power plant’s operational blinding of protection, and false tripping [6].
costs since 2022. Renewable energy sources (RESs) Some of the key factors influencing the steady-state
such as wind, solar photovoltaic (PV), hydropower, and current and voltage levels are discussed in [7] and
biofuel technologies are integrated into the modern highlighted as follows:
distribution systems (DSs). This integration has many 1) Mode of operation of microgrids (MGs).
benefits, including enhanced overall efficiency, lower 2) Type of DGs connected.
carbon footprints, conversion into smaller renewable 3) The size of the connected DGs.
energy source-based MGs, and reduced equipment ex- 4) The bus voltage at which DGs are to be connected.
penses resulting from shorter transmission distances. 5) Type of fault present in the system.
Integrating distributed generators (DGs) into the sys- 6) Short circuit level at the point of DG integration,
tems offers supplementary benefits, including localized and earthing conditions.
generation, continuous power supply, energy manage- Figure 2 shows the integration of different types of
ment, voltage support, and demand response [1]. DGs in a radial DS, classified as rotating machine-based
In accordance with the United Nations’ objective to and inverter-interfaced DGs.
achieve net-zero emissions by 2050, there has been a Under undesirable events, such as a fault, the fault
significant increase in dependency on wind and current and voltage levels vary depending on the type
PV-based distributed generation systems. This trend has and location of DGs. SGDGs, offer a high short-circuit
been particularly pronounced since the COVID-19 current (SCC) capacity of up to 56 times the nominal
pandemic and the resulting shifts in world diplomacy. load current [8]. On the other hand, IDGs limit the SCC
The implementation of environment-friendly technol- between 0.52 p.u. [9]. The high current contribution of
ogy, such as automobiles powered by liquid hydrogen SGDGs may disrupt the transient stability of the system,
fuel, offers a significant role in mitigating global resulting in a loss of synchronization among the SGs.
warming and fostering international research collabo- The loss of synchronism is a crucial issue for the gen-
rations, as shown in Fig. 1. erators, as it can lead to generator damage, frequent load
shedding, and a shift in the operating mode of the MG
from grid-connected (GC) to islanded (ISL) mode.
Similarly, if the IDG integrated systems fail to meet the
LVRT grid code criteria during a fault scenario, it may
result in instability of voltage and frequency in the
system [10].
References [11][14] specifically address the stabil-
ity analysis and control of virtual synchronous genera-
tors (VSGs) in grid-forming operation. The studies use
FACTs devices to improve stability in various MG
configurations and present a virtual power calculation
approach to facilitate a smooth transition from ISL to
GC mode. Such transition is essential for maintaining
the stability of the MG throughout different operating
Fig. 1. Electricity generation and projections by different sources.
modes. References [15][17] address the stability issues
As of 2022, India’s total installed generation capacity in different types of wind generator-based systems,
was 410 GW, including 236 GW fossil-fuel powered including LVRT challenges faced by the doubly-fed
plants, 52 GW hydroelectric power plants, and 115 GW induction generators (DFIGs) and the decentralized
RESs such as solar PV and wind. India has planned to hybrid systems consisting of wind-diesel-battery energy
increase the 115 GW RESs to 500 GW by 2030 [2]. storages. The studies also delve into the methods for
With the increasing population and climatic concerns, it enhancing LVRT capabilities, such as using braking
is crucial to increase the use of DGs in the DSs. resistors. The stability issues in solar PV-based systems
Nevertheless, the increase in DG penetration creates are discussed in [18], [19], where the transient voltage
new challenges, e.g., bi-directional power flow resulting stability issue in low-voltage distribution networks
in fluctuating current levels in transmission and distri- (DNs) is analyzed using solid-state transformers during
bution lines. It also leads to voltage sag/swell conditions disturbances, and the effect of fault location on transient
[3], power quality degradation, loss of synchronism voltage stability is studied. The stability analysis of
among synchronous generators (SGs) [4], and impacts multiple parallel IDGs using VSG schemes with
on the sensitivity of protection devices (PDs) causing non-linear loads is discussed in [20], in which a
poor coordination [5]. Additionally, it presents various small-signal model is derived for such systems.
158 PROTECTION AND CONTROL OF MODERN POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 9, NO. 6, NOVEMBER 2024

Fig. 2. DG integrated radial DS.

The current techniques available to address stability and VSG control are often used to promote voltage and
issues in DG-based systems are as follows: frequency stability. Droop control involves the adjust-
1) Optimal size of the incoming DG. ment of voltage and current sharing, while VSG control
2) Addition of an enhanced relaying system for emulates the behavior of grid-forming inverters as volt-
proper coordination between PDs. age sources. Both control techniques aim to stabilize the
3) Employing additional PDs such as fault current power level of the MGs, especially in the presence of
limiters (FCLs), surge arresters, etc. uncertainties and fluctuations caused by the DGs.
4) Implementing enhanced fault detection techniques. Most DGs inject active and reactive power into the
5) Implementing voltage regulation and power factor grid. MGs need active energy management and effec-
control strategies in DG-based systems. tive control strategies to operate reliably and efficiently.
These solutions are crucial since DGs have varying
6) Utilizing advanced control systems and 5G com-
power outputs as compared to conventional power
munication protocols for coordinated DG operation.
sources.
7) Implementing proper grounding techniques for This review paper primarily focuses on the protection
DG integration. coordination strategies for minimizing stability issues in
Furthermore, system stability is impacted by the type DG-based systems. Figure 3 illustrates a notable ad-
of load connected and the effectiveness of the control vancement in protective relaying systems, transitioning
approach used for the DG interface. The control strategy from traditional methods based on current, voltage,
of the IDGs has a significant impact on the stability of the distance, and differential approaches to modern us-
MGs. In islanded MGs, control techniques such as droop er-defined numerical relays.
SINGH et al.: ADVANCEMENTS IN PROTECTION COORDINATION OF MICROGRIDS: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW… 159

assessment of abstracts, usage of methodology, test bus

system (experimental or simulation-based), publication
date within the previous ten years, and availability of
full text are among the criteria considered. As shown in
Fig. 4, 214 references are selected for further evaluation
after rigorous screening. The main contributions of this
research are as follows:
1) To assess the impact of DGs on the transient sta-
bility of the system to understand the dynamic behavior
and stability margin under different fault scenarios and
DG penetration levels.
2) To investigate the effects of IDGs on voltage sta-
bility and fault ride-through capability to address the
issues of voltage regulation, reactive power compensa-
tion, and islanding detection.
3) To conduct a comparative analysis between con-
Fig. 3. Evolution of protection coordination schemes over the
past five years.
ventional and modern technology-based protection
schemes to evaluate the performance of relay charac-
Reference [21] suggests a cost-efficient method that teristics, MG operational modes, methodologies, and
involves disconnecting DGs during fault occurrences. optimization algorithms. It is beneficial to identify the
This strategy relies on the optimal setting of relays to advantages and limitations of different protection
provide effective coordination among PDs. In [22], the schemes, and to propose the best-suited scheme for any
deployment of various fault isolating devices, such as system configuration.
circuit breakers (CBs) and relays, is explored. The typ- 4) To present the comprehensive survey of protection
ical protection methods consist of overcurrent and schemes influenced by transient stability and voltage
overvoltage relays, fault current limiters (FCLs), direc- considerations, such as voltage sag and swell duration.
tional overcurrent relays (DOCRs), fuses, and reclosers. It is beneficial to provide an overview of the existing
Due to notable advancements in the architecture of PSs, literature, and highlight the research gaps and future
researchers have proposed contemporary technologies scope of work.
such as blockchain [23] as a supervisory scheme to
protect the system’s security, prevent cyberattacks, and
improve coordination among PDs.
Additionally, data mining technology is employed for
efficient and real-time coordinated control. Reference
[24] utilizes data mining technology to create an intel-
ligent protection technique for various operational faults
by combining the ideas of decision tree and wavelet
transform. Multi-agent systems (MAS) technology is
used to enhance the protection of MG by enabling the
system to be autonomous, self-healed, and more resilient.
Reference [25] presents a MAS architecture designed for
grid protection, fault identification, isolation, and service
restoration. In [26][28], several novel soft computing
strategies used with traditional protection systems are
explored, including user-defined protection coordination
techniques that consider the particular attributes of
DG-based systems to enhance the reliability and stability
Fig. 4. Selection procedure of relevant articles for the literature
of the system. The primary objective of these advanced
survey.
protection coordination schemes is to address the stabil-
ity issues in DG-based systems by using state-of-the-art The study also presents a critical analysis and com-
technologies and intelligent algorithms. parison of different protection schemes, and identifies the
This paper highlights the significance of protection key challenges and opportunities for future research. The
coordination schemes in DG-based systems for main- subsequent sections of this article are outlined as follows.
taining transient and voltage stability. This study is Section Ⅱ presents the literature survey, emphasizing the
based on the thorough evaluation of 389 references. To adverse effects of DG integration on the stability of MGs.
identify papers relevant to this research, topic relevancy, Section Ⅲ overviews the protection challenges associ-
160 PROTECTION AND CONTROL OF MODERN POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 9, NO. 6, NOVEMBER 2024

ated with modern PSs due to DG integration, while Sec- possessed by an SG result in reduced responsiveness of
tion Ⅳ delivers an in-depth survey of diverse protection its rotor, leading to acceleration or deceleration. There-
schemes to mitigate the adverse effects of DG integration. fore, due to the substantial rotating mass within inter-
Finally, Section Ⅴ presents concluding remarks and out- connected PSs, it is desirable for these systems to remain
lines future research prospects. stable following a disturbance. However, in the case of a
critical fault, such as a three-phase fault, the change in
Ⅱ. EFFECT OF DG INTEGRATION ON THE STABILITY OF the power-rotor angle curve is shown in Fig. 5(b). As
THE SYSTEM seen, the state of active power before, during, and after
Incorporating DGs into MGs raises several stability the fault occurrence clearly shows that the system op-
issues that must be addressed to ensure reliable and erates at reduced power (curve d-e-f) if the fault is not
secure operation. This research aims to comprehen- cleared before the critical fault clearing time. The tran-
sively analyze these challenges and provide efficient sients continuously persist in the system and degrade
techniques to alleviate them effectively. the power quality.
The integration of IDGs into the grid, as explained in
A. Transient Stability [29], follows similar principles and considerations for
A key aspect of this study is to analyze the impact of maintaining overall system stability. However, power
DGs on the transient stability of the system. Transient generations of by DGs such as solar PVs, and fuel cells,
stability, also known as rotor angle stability, pertains to do not contribute additional inertia to the system. Fur-
the ability of a power system to retain synchronized thermore, power electronic interfaces also separate the
operation of SGs following a disturbance. Figure 5(a) frequency of rotating machine-based DGs from the
illustrates that in a system integrated with SGDGs, the grid’s frequency, effectively hiding the inertia contri-
transients occurring under the fault events may cause a bution from such DGs behind the interface. Examples
loss of synchronism among the SGs. include wind turbines equipped with either a DFIG or a
direct-drive SG. Figure 6 shows a radial system com-
prising two SGs, i.e., SG1 and SG2. The fault location is
denoted by F at the mid-point of line 2.

Fig. 6. Single line diagram of a DS integrated with SGDGs.

In this scenario, SG1 and SG2 oscillate and may
become unsynchronized, resulting in the inability to
satisfy the required load demands. This results in the
absorption or injection of real power, causing the pro-
duction of substantial current and torque [30]. Conse-
quently, it becomes necessary to isolate the unstable
SGs, and therefore, an effective protection scheme is
extremely crucial. Figure 7(b) illustrates the impact of
an effective protection system, noting a synchronized
Fig. 5. Transient stability influenced by DG and different power operation of SGDGs and maintaining the transient sta-
angle curves. (a) Impact of DG integration on the transient sta- bility of the system. The protective relaying schemes
bility of the system. (b) Power-angle curve under fault condition. measure the transient stability margin in terms of criti-
The stability under this condition is upheld by the cal clearing time (CCT) and critical clearing angle
inertia of the SGs. A higher amount of rotational mass (CCA) under contingency conditions.
SINGH et al.: ADVANCEMENTS IN PROTECTION COORDINATION OF MICROGRIDS: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW… 161

2H
TCCT  ( cr   0 ) (1)
Pm 0 f
where H is the inertia constant; Pm 0 is the mechanical
power; and f is the frequency of operation.
Similarly, the rotor angle corresponding to the TCCT
is expressed as  CCA as:
CCA  cos1 (  2 0 )sin  0  cos  0 
(2)
The trajectory sensitivity analysis method is used in
[31] to calculate the CCT in a three-level protection
strategy. In this strategy, the relay characteristics are
adjusted based on stability constraints. On the other
hand, reference [32] demonstrates the implementation
of the single-machine equivalent method for transient
stability analysis using support vector machines,
whereas [33]–[35] are based on phasor measurement
unit methods, widely used for detecting loss of syn-
chronism. A summary of various methods of CCT
evaluation is shown in Table Ⅰ. As the operating condi-
tions of PSs constantly change in real time, there is a
significant variation in stability and corresponding TCCT
values. To ensure satisfactory operation, it is necessary
to periodically update the offline computed TCCT values
for the online operational environment of modern PSs.
Fig. 7. Rotor angle trajectory depicting. (a) Transient instability. In [36], the concept of equal active power loading of all
(b) Transient stability in SGDG-based systems. generators is used to enhance the transient stability and
1) Importance of CCT Evaluation the protection coordination of DS by considering the
CCT refers to the maximum duration for which a transient constraints, shown as:
disturbance can affect the system without compromis- tprim ＜ TCCT  tCB (3)
ing its ability to return to a stable operation. Mathe-
matically, CCT is represented by TCCT as:

TCCT  min TCCTDG1 , TCCTDG 2 , , TCCTDGn  (4)

TABLE Ⅰ
VARIOUS METHOD FOR THE EVALUATION OF CCT
CCT evaluation
Citation Advantages Limitations
method
4th order Runge–Kutta method is used for numerical
Critical trajectory The computational time on a CPU is less than
[37] integration with a time step of 0.001. Thus, more time is
method 0.01 s.
required for the computation of minima.
Neural network The system is trained against undesirable Data management and storage.
method and extreme [38]–[40] events. Large computation of data is done using the New-
learning machine Makes the system robust and reliable. ton-Raphson method.
AI-based method [41]–[44] Higher accuracy; easy prediction. Risk of cyberattacks.
Power synchronization Theoretical examination based on nonlinear differential
[45] Possesses a self-restoration property.
control method equations can be challenging.
Lyapunov’s direct The effect of reactive power control on rotor angle Involves large computation due to the inclusion of state
[46]
method stability is illustrated through the P-δ curve. variables and state estimation.
The damping energy method is used; It is an An extension of the classical Lyapunov method is used
Damping energy
enhanced version of the equal area criterion for computation, and an additional linear function of
visualization and
[47] method where the damping energy area before, damping energy is taken.
geometry approxima-
during, and after the fault is taken and critical Large and complex calculations for multi-machine
tion
damping energy is computed. systems.

B. Voltage Stability coupling (PCC), i.e., VPCC as depicted in Fig. 8(a).

DG integration impacts not only the voltage stability During faults, the DGs must remain connected to the
and LVRT capabilities but also the transient stability of grid for a specific time duration, depending on the
modern PSs. Voltage stability is a critical issue in
DG-integrated modern PSs. The effect of DG integration magnitude of VPCC . This time delay is determined ac-
can be observed on the voltage at the point of common cording to the flowchart shown in Fig. 8(b).
162 PROTECTION AND CONTROL OF MODERN POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 9, NO. 6, NOVEMBER 2024

1) Significance of Grid Code Compliance

Grid codes are the rules and regulations defined by the
regulatory bodies to integrate generators into the grid
effectively. Since the structure of PS is rapidly changing,
the use of grid codes helps increase transparency in the
operation of the PS and enhance the grid interoperability
and safety of the grid operators, as these rules remain the
same for all technologies. These standards are designed
in anticipation that decentralized IDG-based systems
will be the dominant sources in the network.
In European countries such as Spain, the voltage sag
condition due to disturbances can be tackled by the grid
for 200500 ms, while the grid configuration of the
system does not change. Similarly, the Central Electric-
ity Authority controls the grid codes in India. In the case
of IDG integrated systems, the grid configuration can be
maintained for up to 300 ms after the fault event to re-
cover the voltage and maintain grid stability. However,
in the case of a voltage swell condition in South Africa,
there is no disconnection of DG units for a larger time
Fig. 8. PCC and LVRT. (a) Fault current contribution by an interval of 2000 ms. Table Ⅱ shows the LVRT and
IDG-based system connected at PCC. (b) Flowchart of LVRT HVRT requirements of different countries [49], [50].
requirements in IDG-based systems.
TABLE Ⅱ
According to the IEEE Std. 1547, 2018, the faulty FAULT RIDE THROUGH (FRT) REQUIREMENTS ACCORDING TO
section is disconnected from the system if VPCC is be- VARIOUS COUNTRY GRID CODES
low 0.5 p.u. The transition from GC to ISL mode causes Voltage Voltage
under Time of Time of
under
the steady-state current and voltage to change and may Country LVRT normal
HVRT
normal
lead to voltage instability. It is a crucial challenge as the condition operation operation
condition
(ms) (ms)
penetration of DG is increasing globally. (p.u.) (p.u.)
Let us consider a three-phase, near-end fault occurring South
0 150 ≥1.2 2000
at t  0 s at line 2, as previously shown in Fig. 5. The Africa
Spain 0.2 500 1.21.3 250
voltage magnitudes before, during, and after the fault are Italy 0 200 1.11.3 100
shown in Fig. 9. Under normal conditions, the Japan 0.3 1000
steady-state voltage ranges between 0.81.1 p.u. In Fig. 9, Germany 0 150 ≥1.2 100200
VPCC  0.5 p.u. , while the voltage sags for about 0.8 s. US 0.15 625 ≥1.2 1000
Therefore, to comply with the LVRT grid code, the CB UK 0.15 140
must trip after 160 ms for voltage recovery. During Australia 0 450 1.3 1000
New
voltage recovery, DGs must stay connected to the grid Zealand
0 140
[48]. However, if VPCC is less than 0.5 p.u. during a fault, Canada 0 150
CBs trip immediately to isolate the faulty section. For China 0 150 1.21.3 500
Taiwan 0 625
VPCC between 0.70.88 p.u., the grid remains connected
Norway 0.15 400
for a specified time, meeting voltage and frequency dip India 0.15 300
conditions as per regional grid codes.
If the system is not restored to its normal state, then
the disturbance is considered a permanent fault leading
to a voltage sag, also known as a brownout condition.
The regulatory bodies have an easy-to-access pathway
for end-users with the implementation of standardized
and certified equipment at a subsidized cost. Grid code
compliance also includes communication peripherals to
monitor and control the smart grids. However, the ex-
isting grid codes are also linked to challenges such as
being less effective in regulating frequency due to the
increased level of variable RESs integration and others,
Fig. 9. Voltage sag under a three-phase short circuit. as discussed in [51].
SINGH et al.: ADVANCEMENTS IN PROTECTION COORDINATION OF MICROGRIDS: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW… 163

C. Existing Protection Schemes with Stability Consid- Depending on the linear or mixed integer nonlinear
erations programming (MINLP) approach for finding the opti-
SGDGs in the system may cause transient stability mal relay settings, the DOCRs must satisfy the follow-
issues, whereas IDGs may affect the voltage stability ing constraints:
and LVRT conditions under fault events. These stability TMSmin ≤ TMS ≤ TMSmax (7)
concerns can be handled by implementing an efficient I p,min ≤ I p ≤ I p,max (8)
protection system. The most widely used protection
schemes can be categorized as conventional DOCRs tmin ≥ 0.05 (9)
and user-defined DOCRs from the perspective of mod- 2) User-defined DOCRs
ern PSs. Reference [54] introduces an innovative protection
1) Conventional DOCRs scheme based on dual settings of DOCRs for forward (F)
The advancements in PSs have facilitated the in- as well as reverse (R) directions of the flow of fault
troduction of more sophisticated and efficient DOCRs. current. The dual-setting DOCRS (DS-DOCRs) pro-
However, these modern DOCRs retain functional sim- poses a different set of relay settings for forward and
ilarity to conventional relays. This section conducts a reverse modes ( TDSF , I p,F , TDSR , and I p,R ) since the
literature survey on various protection schemes ad- relays operate in a bi-directional mode due to the inte-
dressing stability concerns in DG-integrated systems. gration of DGs in the system (see Fig. 11). Such relays
As per IEC 60255-3 Std. [52], the operating time of are ideal for DG-based systems, and can be imple-
conventional DOCRs is defined as: mented in both SGDGs and IDGs-based systems. Ref-
A  TMS erence [55] proposes a DS-DOCR-based protection
t B scheme for the IEEE 30-bus system under the condi-
 If  (5) tions: (a) with DG integration; and (b) without DG in-
   1 tegration. The MATLAB in-built optimization tool
I
 p
“fmincon” is implemented to obtain the optimal relay
where A and B are the relay coefficients; I p is the settings in both the GC and ISL modes with the objec-
pickup current; I f is the fault current magnitude; and tive function, defined as:
TMS is the time multiplier settings of the DOCRs. C N M
 K
bk 
minimise T    tF,p ij   tR, cij  (10)
The values of relay coefficients A and B vary for c 1 i 1 j 1  k 1 
standard inverse, very inverse, and extremely inverse
where c is the configuration identifier; i is the relay
relay characteristics, and the inverse time-current
identifier; j is the fault location identifier; p is the pri-
characteristics of these relays are shown in Fig. 10.
mary relay; and b is the backup relay.
Reference [53] discusses the selectivity problem
amongst relays in IDG-based systems and its mitigation
using adaptive protection scheme. To signify the sensi-
tivity of the relays, the term CTI is introduced, which
refers to the gap between the operation of primary and
backup relays and is expressed as:
tb  tp ≥ CTI (6)
where tp and t b are the operating times of the primary
and backup relays, respectively. The typical value of
CTI ranges between 0.20.5 s, and the minimum oper-
Fig. 11. Inverse time-current characteristics of DS-DOCRs for
ating time of relays is assumed to be 0.05 s.
TMS  0.1 and 0.2 s.
Reference [56] shows the implementation of a double
inverse type DOCR (DI-DOCR). In this relay type, a
combination of the primary relay and the first backup
relay is considered for satisfying the CTI constraints,
and the combination of the primary relay and second
backup relay is considered for meeting the TCCT con-
straints. An additional high-set relay is used to signify
the type of relay characteristics. Similarly, reference [57]
highlights the operating conflicts and voltage regulation
issues that often arise when DGs are integrated into the
Fig. 10. Inverse time-current characteristics for different types of system. In [58], an improvement in voltage stability is
conventional DOCRs. proposed by coordinating the reactive power output of
164 PROTECTION AND CONTROL OF MODERN POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 9, NO. 6, NOVEMBER 2024

the DG system with its real power output. This coordi- improving grid stability.
nation method helps in regulating the PCC voltage and
TABLE Ⅲ
LITERATURE SURVEY OF THE PROTECTION SCHEMES TO MITIGATE DGS IMPACT ON THE SYSTEM STABILITY
System
Features/operation Research gaps found
dynamics
 Instability conditions still exist due to other DGs in the
 Modified IEEE 14-bus meshed system and IEEE 33-bus systems are system.
taken.  Only two types of relay characteristics are considered:
 The simplex optimization algorithm is used to evaluate the optimal standard inverse and very inverse.
TDS settings [67].  Only the modified IEEE 14-bus mesh system is con-
sidered as the test system.
 IEEE 33-bus system with SGDG integration is taken into consider-
 An additional definite time relay is used whose tripping
ation.
Transient times have to be evaluated.
 A hybrid communication-assisted protection scheme is implemented.
stability  Increased computation time.
 The ROT depends on the position of the CCT curve for each relay.
 Prone to cyberattacks due to the presence of communi-
 A communication channel is used to detect the fault condition.
cation links.
 The definite time (DT) stage is advantageous in reducing the ROT [68].
 Communication assisted DS-DOCRs are used.  Transient stability constraints are considered only for
 User-defined relay characteristics are used. the primary relays.
 Seeker algorithm optimization tool [69].  Sensitivity problem for far-end faults.
 An adaptive auto reclosing scheme is used to preserve network stability.  Relay operation in fault isolation is not taken.
 Fault location is determined by discrete wavelet transform [70].  Protection coordination study has not been performed.
 Ring bus structure; SGDG and PV-based IDGs are taken with  Only the islanded mode is considered.
standard inverse characteristic relays.  Restrictions in utilizing the ride-through capabilities as
Voltage  OPAL-RT 5600 industrial PC; Python API is used to validate the it can function only when phase-locked loop (PLL) is in
stability/FRT settings obtained for different fault types and possible locations [71]. sync with positive sequence voltage.
capability  Voltage and current are assumed to be balanced.
 Modified superconducting FCL (SFCL) ( Z FCL ) is used; SGDGs and
 The effect on the CCT in the case of the SGDGs is not
IDGs integrated system with FRT operation of IDGs [72], [73]. considered.
 The crow search algorithm is used to evaluate optimal relay settings;  Bus voltages before fault occurrence are taken.

less standard deviation from the optimal value; DS-DOCRs are  LVRT conditions are not taken into account.

considered.  Effect of the size of energy storage systems is not

 Suitable for both GC and ISL modes of operation. considered.

 Optimal sizing of FCL is done; energy management in terms of  Only considers a single MG in both operating

optimal power flow and load shedding costs are taken to evaluate the modes. Other scenarios, such as multi-MG, networked
MG, and hybrid MGs, could be explored for optimal
I PC value [74].
protection coordination.
 Initial values of X FCL is not considered.

 Does not consider the impact of different types of DGs,

Both modes of operation are considered; genetic algorithm (GA) is
such as wind turbines, PV, and fuel cells, on the pro-
taken to evaluate the optimal size of DGs
tection coordination.
 X FCL constraints are taken to obtain minimum operating time, top  Does not compare the performance of GA with other
[75]. optimization methods, such as particle swarm optimi-
zation (PSO), market-based optimal power flow (OPF),
and mixed-integer linear programming (MILP).
 The capacity of DG installation at other locations affects the max-
imum DG penetration at a specific location.  A higher rating DG cannot be installed at an existing
 Optimal sizing and allocation of FCLs is taken for maximum DG DG location because the I PC values decrease.
penetration and consequently PCI. FCL increases the feeder’s im-
PCI  A smaller step size should be taken for more precise
pedance, influencing the steady state voltage level.
optimization; 20% step size is assumed.
   Violation of grid code limits due to the presence of FCL.
 A 
[76]. tij ( SDG , X FCL )  TDS j    Additional voltage constraints have to be taken into
B
  ISCj  SDG , X FCL   1  consideration leading to increased complexity.
 I pj 
 

 DS-(t-I-V)-based characteristics of DOCRs is considered; studies
 Requires careful selection of initial states to obtain a
the effect of DS-user defined DOCRs on PCI.
better convergence rate.
 IEEE 14-bus and 30-bus meshed and multi-source test systems.
 Increased complexity for the system with a higher
 Comparison of the results obtained by GA and grey wolf optimiza-
number of relay pairs.
tion (GWO) algorithm [77].
 Uncertainties in the load parameters and DGs are not
 39-bus and 119-bus DN with SGDGs. considered.
 Hybrid sine cosine algorithm and GWO algorithm [78].  The impedance of the series transformer of SGDGs is
assumed as 0.0027 p.u.
 Precise selection of the initial conditions, number of
 IEEE 30-bus ring and IEEE 69-bus radial DNs with SGDGs are used decision variables and Lagrange’s multipliers are re-
as test systems. quired to obtain a global optimal solution with better
 Hybrid PSO-crow search algorithm; voltage security index has been convergence characteristics.
considered as constraints [79].  Does not validate the scheme on real-world DNs with more
complex topologies, load profiles, and protection schemes.
SINGH et al.: ADVANCEMENTS IN PROTECTION COORDINATION OF MICROGRIDS: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW… 165

To obtain voltage stability in MGs, reference [59] PDs such as relays, fuses, breakers, and reclosers, can
proposes a protection strategy to reduce the fault mitigate DGs’ adverse effects. This section outlines the
clearing time, T, and thus the voltage sag lost energy protection challenges in DG-integrated systems. The
index (VSLEI). VSLEI is defined as the index that gives performance of PDs may deteriorate due to DG con-
the lost energy to the loads during the voltage sag events, nection [80]. Therefore, it is crucial that the PDs exhibit
denoted by W, as: properties such as selectivity, sensitivity, reliability, fast
3.14
 V  operation, easy installation, and cost-effectiveness for
W  1   T (11) fault detection, isolation, and service restoration.
 Vnom 
where V is the phase voltage in p.u.; Vnom is the nominal A. Protection Challenges
voltage during a sag event; and T is the voltage sag The key protection challenges in DG-integrated sys-
duration in ms. tems are illustrated in Fig. 12 and are described as fol-
Reference [60] proposes a protection coordination lows.
scheme in a system deeply penetrated by six different 1) Change in the SCC Level
types of DGs. The optimal relay setting of such a system The presence of DGs can change the magnitude and
is obtained by implementing a stochastic fractal search direction of the fault current. The variation in the cur-
algorithm. Reference [61] proposes a protection coor- rent magnitude depends on the operating mode, size and
dination scheme suitable for both GC and ISL opera- type of DGs installed, point of DG integration, power
tional modes based on the symbiotic organism search converter ratings, etc.
algorithm by taking additional LVRT considerations. Assuming a 3-bus system with DG integration at bus
The implemented control scheme uses an intelligent
2, as shown in Fig. 12(a), the fault occurs at point F
central controller system, thus requiring a communica-
tion channel. between buses 2 and 3. It causes a variation in the fault
Apart from the coordination schemes, an important current magnitude and, hence, disturbs the operation of
parameter, the protection coordination index (PCI), is the protection system. Reference [81] shows the im-
introduced in [62], [63]. The term PCI is used to de- plementation of various AI techniques for optimal siz-
termine the size of incoming and installed DGs into the ing and placement of DGs. Since the fault current
system that would not hamper the sensitivity and selec- magnitude differs for a system operating in ISL mode,
tivity of the PDs. PCI is denoted by I PC in the expres- reference [82] discusses the fault current contribution
sion below as: by the DGs alone and relevant protection coordination
P schemes.
I PC  (12) 2) Blinding of Protection
CTI Figure 12(b) illustrates the concept of blinding of pro-
where P is the change in the penetration level, and tection in a 3-bus system with DG connection at bus 2.
CTI is the change in the CTI.
Assuming that a fault occurs at point F in the system.
The analysis in [64] shows that the maximum DG
The protection blinding occurs due to the contribution
penetration at a given location is influenced by the in-
stalled capacity of the DGs at other locations. The of DG impedance to the overall impedance of the sys-
tem. The increased impedance value causes the fault
higher is the value of the I PC , the lesser will be the
current to decrease, and thus decreases the pickup cur-
effect of DG penetration on the sensitivity of the PDs. rent of DOCRs. It causes the reach of the relay R1 to
Reference [65] considers the protection coordination
decrease. The reduced reach of R1 with respect to the
scheme as a two-phase nonlinear programming opti-
mization problem in the IEEE 30-bus system. In phase Ⅰ, location of DGs and fault location fails to sense the fault
the conventional coordination constraints are developed, and trip the circuit breaker. In [83], the protection
while phase Ⅱ involves maximizing the penetration blinding issue in the case of a real DN is addressed and a
level of DGs. The two-step proposed strategy gives the neural network-based fault detection technique is uti-
optimal relay settings for the minimum overall relay lized to overcome its adverse effects.
operating time (ROT). In [66], an adaptive central con- 3) False / Nuisance Tripping
troller-based system integrated with the DGs is consid- A 4-bus system is considered, as shown in Fig. 12(c).
ered. This system combines two-stage FCL and DOCRs With no DG integration, the utility grid provides current
to protect against undesirable events, while the optimal to loads 1 and 2. In the case of a fault event occurring at
settings of the DOCRs are evaluated using the differ- location F, the primary relays R2 and R3 operate and
ential evolution algorithm. isolate the faulty section. However, this process is af-
fected by the presence of DG in the system. The fault
Ⅲ. PROTECTION COORDINATION CHALLENGES IN DG current level of DOCR, R1, increases depending on the
INTEGRATED SYSTEMS size of the DG. Hence, its pickup current value increases,
The integration of DGs introduces challenges to leading the section between buses 1 and 3 to trip imme-
protection schemes. Proper selection and placement of diately. This false tripping eliminates a healthy grid
166 PROTECTION AND CONTROL OF MODERN POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 9, NO. 6, NOVEMBER 2024

portion, and seriously damage the PDs and other com- IDG-based DS under the UI condition.
ponents. It also affects the system’s reliability, decreases 5) Auto Recloser Issues
power quality, and increases the maintenance cost [84]. Reclosers, a specialized type of CB, swiftly detect
4) Unintentional Islanding Condition and isolate transient faults through rapid open and close
Islanding is a condition where MGs connected to the operations. Unlike regular CBs, reclosers assess fault
loads are isolated from the grid under abnormal condi- nature (transient, semi-permanent, or permanent) and
tions. An islanding event leads to a deficiency of active respond accordingly. Auto reclosers, comprising relays,
and reactive power. This power is compensated through automatically operate the recloser for swift system
reactive power injection, which allows the SGs to restoration after fault clearance. In Fig. 12(e), a sin-
maintain the voltage and frequency of the system and gle-machine infinite bus system with integrated DG is
produce real power to fulfill the load demands. depicted, assuming a fault at point F. Without a DG
Islanding can be categorized as intentional and un- connection, the auto recloser attempts multiple cycles to
intentional (UI). Intentional islanding mainly occurs clear the fault. If unsuccessful, it remains permanently
during a system outage. Under such circumstances, open, potentially making a transient fault permanent.
selected islands are formed, each comprising a DG such
6) Proper Selection of PDs
that there is a minimal mismatch between the demand
The selection of the PDs is based on the severity of
and the generation. Figure 12(d) shows a 3-bus system
the fault, the type of DGs integrated, the characteristics
with a high penetration of SGDG and IDG at bus 2, and
induction-based DGs at bus 3. For a fault occurring in of the PDs, and their availability. The higher the mag-
the section between buses 1 and 2, R1 and R2 act as the nitude of the SCC, the shorter the operating time of the
primary relays, thus isolating the DGs from the utility PDs. The switching speed of the PDs depends on the
grid. In this islanding condition, the DGs continue to magnitude and direction of the current along with the
serve the loads. However, the system faces problems voltage parameter. Reference [87] discusses a central-
with abnormal voltage and frequency outside of grid ized PS in which the settings of the PDs depend on the
code compliance during the resynchronization of SGs real-time magnitude of current, voltage, phasor angle,
during the transition from ISL to GC mode at the load and impedance. The integration of DGs into the system
end [85]. Reference [86] illustrates the droop control has enabled the researchers to develop different types of
method for controlling the transient power of an non-standard relays, as discussed in the next section.

Fig. 12. Protection challenges in DG integrated systems. (a) SCC in different operating modes of MG. (b) Blinding of protection. (c) False
tripping. (d) Unintentional islanding. (e) Auto-recloser problem with DG. (f) Effect of DG on fuse-recloser coordination integration.
SINGH et al.: ADVANCEMENTS IN PROTECTION COORDINATION OF MICROGRIDS: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW… 167

Ⅳ. AVAILABLE SOLUTIONS FOR MITIGATION OF modern-day technology-based schemes.

PROTECTION CHALLENGES IN MGS
A. Conventional Protection Schemes
This section critically analyzes the different types of The conventional protection schemes immediately
protection schemes to tackle the aforementioned pro- disconnect the DGs in the case of single-setting DOCRs
tection challenges. These schemes are designed to de- in a GC operational system. Such relays are unsuitable
tect and isolate faults in the system, thereby preventing for stability and safety reasons in the ISL mode of MGs.
further damage and maintaining overall stability. The The conventional approaches for system protection are
categorization is performed using conventional and surveyed and presented in Table Ⅳ.
TABLE Ⅳ
CONVENTIONAL PROTECTION SCHEMES TO MITIGATE THE IMPACT OF DG INTEGRATED SYSTEMS
Features and operations Merits Challenges
Current-based:
 MINLP is used to obtain common optimized values of  MG operation may be severely affected if
 Efficient and economical.
relay parameters for both modes. Different combinations no effective protection is present for the
 Current harmonics are not consid-
of relays taken (all very inverse (VI), extremely inverse bidirectional flow of fault currents.
ered as their magnitude is
(EI), normal inverse (NI), and VI-EI-NI mix-up); GA  The sensitivity of the OCRs may be
non-substantial.
optimization tool [93]. compromised.
 Computation and monitoring of
 DOCRs with wind turbine-based DGs and SGDGs are  Unwanted power outage.
current are easier compared to a
used; GA optimization tool is used to obtain optimal relay  In the case of non-linear loads, total
voltage-based or any other protec-
settings; ROT is considered as a function of voltage; Co- harmonic distortion has to be taken into
tion scheme.
ordination of fuse and relays is done for additional pro- account.
tection [94].
Voltage-based:
 SGDG and IDGs-based system is taken.  Additional cost of controllers is gener-
 In the case of IDGs, the fault current
 Pre-fault and post-fault voltages are considered in the case ated.
is limited to 23 times the line cur-
of an SGDG, whereas only post-fault voltage and current  Compensators may be installed to
rent, so it is not easily detectable.
are taken for IDGs. achieve stable voltage levels and reduce
Therefore, bus voltages are used to
 OCRs and voltage-restrained frequency relays are used harmonics.
detect faults.
[95]. • Maloperation of the voltage-based
 Easy computation.
 Bus voltages are compared to the synchronous machine relays can result in a voltage drop within
 Less complex.
reference and this difference is taken for generating a the MG.
tripping signal for the PDs [96].
 The design and implementation of dis-
tance relay schemes can be complex,
particularly for large PSs with multiple
Distance-based: protection zones and coordination re-
 Measured values of currents and voltages are used to quirements.
calculate impedance/admittance.  Mainly used for line segment pro-  Disturbances may cause stable or unsta-
 Based on the impedance/admittance, the FL is identified. tection. ble power swings in the system, which
 Inverse time-admittance characteristics-based relays are  High sensitivity to change in current. can affect the apparent impedance
used to protect the MG.  They are inherently directional. measured by the relay and, hence, may
 The fault impedance before and after the fault occurrence  Enhanced performance, accuracy, cause their maloperation.
is evaluated, and the zone of protection is identified [97]. and sensitivity.  It may be unreliable in the case of
 Distance protection in a STATCOM enhanced system DG-based systems.
gives better voltage stability [98].  May severely faces the problem of under
and over-reach.
 Errors may be caused by fault resistance
and admittance during computations.
Differential-based:  High computation time and complexity.
The current at the two ends of the feeder is retrieved to  Transient during the switching of DGs
 Sensitivity to noise is reduced.
obtain differential energy. may cause problems.
 Reduces the aliasing effect.
A threshold-based protection scheme using  Additional wiring, communication
 High speed and sensitivity
time-frequency transform with Hilbert transform [99]. channels, and testing equipment are
 Suitable for primary protection in
 Differential energy is computed using S-transform for MG needed to ensure proper operation and
transmission systems, where a fast
protection [100]. maintenance.
response is critical to prevent cas-
 Differential frequency protection scheme for protection of  Any errors or mismatches in the current
cading failures and widespread
islanded IDGs [101]. or voltage transformers can affect the
blackouts.
 Use of optical fiber-based current differential protection sensitivity and security of the differen-
scheme in MGs [102]. tial relay.

1) Current and Voltage-based Relays these protection schemes can quickly identify and re-
Conventional current-based protection schemes in spond to faults, minimizing the impact on the system
MGs rely on the measurement of current at different and preventing widespread disruptions.
points in the system to detect abnormal conditions or Similarly, voltage-based protection schemes measure
faults. This information is then used to activate PDs, the voltages at various points in the MG to ensure that
such as relays or CBs, to isolate the faulted section from the voltages remain within acceptable limits. If a fault or
the rest of the MG. By monitoring the current levels, abnormal condition is detected, such as a voltage sag or
168 PROTECTION AND CONTROL OF MODERN POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 9, NO. 6, NOVEMBER 2024

swell, the PDs are triggered to isolate the affected area tected area by continuously monitoring the difference
and prevent further damage to the system. However, between the currents. With the increasing penetration of
these conventional protection schemes have limitations DGs on DNs, the traditional protection schemes must be
in terms of their ability to accurately detect and mitigate updated by incorporating differential and dis-
certain types of faults or attacks in MGs. tance-based relays with new protection algorithms spe-
2) Distance-based Protection Relays cifically designed for these PSs [90].
Distance-based protection relays are widely used in Overall, differential-based protection relays and
PSs to detect and locate faults in transmission lines. Most technological advancements, such as digital relays and
importantly, power utilities are concerned about the in- optical fiber communication systems, have revolution-
creased proliferation of intermittent DGs in the distribu- ized the field of fault detection and location in PSs.
tion system, which may threaten its stability and reliabil- These fiber-based systems offer numerous advantages,
ity [88]. Distance-based protection relays are commonly including improved accuracy and faster response times,
employed in PS to address these concerns, and play a compared to conventional distance-based protection
crucial role in fault detection, fault clearance, and mini- methods. With the proliferation of differential relays in
mizing disruption to the system. However, it is important transmission lines and the advancements in communi-
to note that the assumption of constant pickup values for cation technologies, current differential protection has
these protective relays may not hold true in dynamic PSs, become widely used to protect SGs and transformers
especially following a large-scale disturbance. It is thus [91]. However, one limitation of current differential
particularly relevant when considering the integration of protection is its sensitivity to load current, fault re-
intermittent DGs, such as solar PV and wind power, into sistance, and distributed capacitive current [92].
the grid. In dynamic system conditions, the performance B. Modern Technology-based Protection Schemes
of distance relays can be compromised due to the dy- Modern-day technology-based protection coordina-
namic behavior of wind power plants and the decoupling tion schemes have been developed for MGs to over-
of mechanical and electrical parameters in DGs [89]. come the abovementioned limitations. These schemes
Therefore, it is crucial to decouple the mechanical rotor utilize advanced communication and control systems to
speed of the SGDGs with the electrical frequency of the enhance the overall reliability and security of the grid.
grid through power electronic interfaces to ensure accu- One such scheme uses intelligent electronic devices
rate and reliable operation of distance-based protection (IEDs) that are capable of monitoring and analyzing
relays. In conclusion, constant advancements and im- various grid parameters in real time. These devices can
provements in distance relays have contributed to en- quickly detect and classify faults, including those
hanced performance, accuracy, and sensitivity. caused by cyberattacks or malicious intrusions. By
3) Differential-based Protection Relays integrating communication networks, IEDs can ex-
Differential-based protection relays are another type change information with each other and with the central
of relay commonly used in PSs to detect and locate control system, allowing for coordinated protection
faults. These relays operate based on comparing the actions across the MG.
currents entering and leaving a protected area, such as a A literature survey of modern day protection schemes
generator, motor, or transformer. These relays can is shown in Table Ⅴ. Various modern-technology-based
quickly detect any imbalance or fault within the pro- protection schemes are categorized as follows.
TABLE Ⅴ
MODERN TECHNOLOGY-BASED PROTECTION SCHEMES FOR DG-BASED SYSTEMS
Protection scheme and its features Operation Merits and limitations
 A new bat algorithm with a fuzzy interference Merits:
system; additional feature of self-adaptive char-  Requires no need for the initial parameters of the
acteristics using the concept of setting groups DOCRs.
[116].  Improves the reliability, selectivity, and sensitivity of
 MCC reconfiguration algorithm is used to re- the protection system by adapting to the dynamic na-
Adaptive protection configure the system when a fault occurs, and the ture of MGs.
Communication Assisted: fault bus is isolated to form sub-MGs [117].  Reduce the number of false trips and mal-operations
 Centralized adaptive MG pro-  Both GC and ISL modes are considered; com- by using real-time data and communication.
tection is done using microgrid mon optimized relay settings for both modes are  Prevent data theft and sabotage, contain a threat when
central controller (MCC), which obtained; VI relay characteristics are taken for it occurs instantly, and lessen the dwell time of threats
communicates with each relay primary protection and NI relay for backup pro- by using adaptive security.
and fuse. tection [118]. Limitations:
 MCC observes the dynamic  Fuzzy logic-based settings of the DOCRs with a  The protection may be affected by the communication
nature of the system and updates reduction in ROT while ensuring a stable system delay.
its relay settings and numbers. operation; teleprotection is used to send a “trip”  No communication amongst relays is taken.
signal to CB when ttop and for setting the CTI  Prone to cyber-attacks.
[119].  The cost related to the installation of communication
 ANN is used for fault detection and fault loca- channels is higher.
tion; protection settings are modified by the data  It may fail during high-impedance faults.
concentrator in PLC SCADA [120].  Not a reliable protection solution.
SINGH et al.: ADVANCEMENTS IN PROTECTION COORDINATION OF MICROGRIDS: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW… 169

Protection scheme and its features Operation Merits and limitations

 Predefined specific harmonics are injected into Merits:
the system and superimposed with the output  No risk factors related to communication failure and
current only under the fault condition; harmonics cyber-attacks.
Non-communication assisted:
are assumed as 10% of fault current [121].  Reduce the cost and complexity of installing and
 Communication structure is not
 The dual-settings of relays common for both GC maintaining communication channels and devices.
used making it less complex.
and ISL mode are evaluated and the direction of Limitations:
 The operating delay of the
fault current is assumed to be forward only [122].  Real-time data is not accessed due to the absence of a
communication channel is re-
 Natural logarithmic (t-I-V) function-based relay communication channel.
duced; faster and more reliable
characteristics for obtaining common settings for  Due to the absence of a communication channel,
operation is achievable.
GC and ISL mode of operation under different reconfiguration of relay settings has to be done for any
fault conditions in IEEE 30-bus system and Ira- change in the topology of the MG or for increased DG
nian radial DS [123]. penetration.
Merits:
 The inter-operating feature of MAS affects the per-
 MG agents are located in the distribution lines to
formance of one agent due to other agents.
measure the phase angle difference of the current
 Automatic adaptability to the changes in PS.
at buses [124].
MAS-based  Real-time integration of an expert system with
 The hybrid protection scheme is adaptive and
 MG agents are present in the SCADA; this expert system divides the power grid into
MAS-based for MG. For single-event faults,
three layers (system, substation, different protection zones.
equipment layer agents calculate the system
and equipment layer).  Robust and reliable.
parameters, and relay settings are updated. For
 MAS contains an intelligent Limitations:
multi-event faults, online calculations are done at
controller, interconnected  Higher complexity.
the substation layers [125].
equipment, and DGs.  The decrease of fault current in ISL mode is due to the
 Adaptive protection-based MAS control for the
topology change, bidirectional current, and telecom-
protection of MGs using communication struc-
munication, which are the most critical issues.
ture [126].
 Lack of reliability of the central adaptive protection
schemes.
 Ant colony optimization algorithm-based linear
Soft computing techniques-based Merits:
optimization to find optimal values of relay pa-
Most recent techniques:  It is a predictive method that can predict the nature and
rameters [127].
Includes techniques such as status of the PDs for any change in current/voltage
 Artificial neural network-based linear optimization
artificial bee colony, biogeogra- under different conditions of the MGs.
to find optimal values of relay parameters [128].
phy, bat, gravitational search,  Gives unbiased results.
 Cuckoo-based linear optimization algorithm for
firefly, differential, harmonic Limitations:
optimal relay operating time [129].
search algorithms and artificial  It requires multiple relay settings that may increase
 Gorilla troops optimization algorithm is used to
neural network complexity.
improve the convolution neural network for
 Separate relay settings for both the operation modes of
measuring current and voltage for fault detection
Most successful techniques: MG.
and isolation [130].
Includes techniques such as GA,  Convergence time may be high for some AI tech-
 PSO-based linear optimization to find optimal
PSO, GWO, cuckoo algorithm, niques.
values of relay settings [131].
and hybrid cuckoo algo-  A large amount of data is required to train the system
 GA-based linear optimization and nonlinear optimi-
rithm-linear programming. in the case of ANN/CNN.
zation to find optimal values of relay settings [132].
Merits:
 Improves the accuracy, reliability, and speed of fault
diagnosis using ML algorithms that can learn from
historical and real-time data.
 Handles the complexity, uncertainty, and nonlinearity
Data mining-based
 A deep neural network-based method is used for the MG by using soft computing techniques.
A large volume of current, voltage,
fault detection and computation of the relay  Increases the security and privacy of the data exchange
and power data is collected and
settings [133]. among the MG protection relays by using encryption
utilized to identify the pattern of
 Discrete fourier transform-based data mining and anonymization techniques.
the MG under different scenarios,
technique for protection of MGs [134].  Enhances the decision-making process and the coor-
such as different types of faults,
 A dual-tree complex wavelet transform is used dination of the PDs to discover the hidden patterns and
the effect of fault resistance, FL,
for fault detection and classification [135]. rules in the data.
and type of topology.
Limitations:
 A large size of data is required for higher efficiency.
 Additional computer peripherals are required for data
storage and processing.
 Increased cost and risk of cyberattacks.
Merits:
 Fault identification and protection of MG improves.
 Additional features of fault prediction may be added
since the technology is purely data-driven.
Limitations:
Blockchain and machine  The data extracted by the user may contain human errors.
 The rate of change of bus current is calculated for
learning-based  Requires additional structure for processing, storing,
evaluating the zone of protection and fault isola-
It is a data-driven method of and accessing data.
tion using blockchain and machine intelligence
training the system for different  Scalability and performance may be affected by the
[136].
states of the MGs. large amount of data and transactions involved in the
MG operation.
 The accuracy and robustness of the ML models may be
influenced by the uncertain and dynamic elements in
the MG environments.
 Concerns related to data privacy and interoperability.
170 PROTECTION AND CONTROL OF MODERN POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 9, NO. 6, NOVEMBER 2024

fault occurrence is discussed, and its concepts are uti-

1) Adaptive Protection
lized in conjunction with multi-agent technology.
Adaptive protection schemes in DG-based systems
3) Data Mining and Big Data-based Protection Schemes
take the concept of current differential protection fur-
Another notable development in PS protection uti-
ther by introducing advanced features that address the
lizes the concepts of data mining and big data to develop
challenges associated with DG integration. These
enhanced protection schemes. These schemes use the
schemes adapt to changing system conditions, and en-
vast amount of data generated by power systems to
sure coordinated and reliable protection for DG systems.
improve fault detection, prediction, and restoration
This approach allows for accurate fault detection and
processes. For example, data mining techniques such as
location in DG systems, ensuring prompt and efficient
clustering and classification algorithms can identify
response to faults.
patterns and anomalies in power system data, allowing
Furthermore, this scheme utilizes optical fiber-based
for early detection of potential faults and prompt miti-
communication systems to achieve high-speed and
gating actions. Furthermore, big data analytics can
reliable communication between the relays. Moreover,
handle and process large volumes of data in real time,
multi-zone-based backup protection has been proposed
enabling faster and more accurate decision-making in
to enhance the reliability and efficiency of the protec-
protection relays. One example of the application of
tion system [103]. These schemes minimize outage
data mining and big data-based protection schemes is
areas and prevent delays by employing communication
the work conducted in [113], where a powerful machine
and cooperation between IEDs, enabling them to coor-
learning algorithm is developed based on a big data
dinate and implement adaptive protection strategies
support platform. This algorithm utilizes large amounts
[104]. Despite several drawbacks of communica-
of power data to train a machine-learning model that can
tion-assisted protection schemes, such as increased
accurately predict faults in the power system and pro-
complexity, high costs, and susceptibility to interfer-
vide effective relay protection. These techniques ana-
ence from low-communication bandwidth signals and
lyze massive datasets to identify patterns, trends, and
the transmission channels, their widespread use is
anomalies that can quickly and accurately indicate po-
documented in [105]–[108]. Reference [109] updates
tential faults or vulnerabilities in the PS.
the operating current of the PDs and sets appropriate
4) Blockchain Technology-based Protection Schemes
time delay between relays for effective fault isolation by
Blockchain technology is employed in the protection
continuously monitoring the status of all the compo-
strategy to securely store events and incidents in PSs.
nents via central controller and communicating through
Originally developed for cryptocurrency, blockchain
IEC 61850’s GOOSE protocol. Recent advancements in
this scheme include integrating wireless networks with ensures secure and transparent recording and validation
optical fiber communication systems, offering lower of information. Reference [114] proposes the steps to
costs and faster response times. detect the outliers using an unsupervised learning algo-
2) MAS-based Protection Schemes rithm. Although ML focuses on PS cybersecurity, ref-
These schemes utilize multi-agent technology, where erence [115] highlights research gaps in applying ML to
multiple intelligent agents with specialized functions protective relays, necessitating further exploration.
work together to achieve a common goal. In the context Blockchain technology offers several advantages, in-
of the protection system, a MAS involves the coordi- cluding:
nation and cooperation between multiple protection 1) Ensuring the integrity and traceability of data and
relays, each acting as an intelligent agent. These relays enhancing the security and reliability of the grid.
communicate and exchange information in real time, 2) Serving as a decentralized and transparent plat-
enabling them to respond to faults and disturbances in form for storing and sharing data related to PS events
the PS collectively. This approach allows for the adap- and incidents.
tive and dynamic adjustment of protection settings 3) Analyzing large amounts of data and identifying
based on system conditions, ensuring efficient and ac- patterns or anomalies that may indicate a cyberattack or
curate fault detection and isolation. References [110], other malicious activities.
[111] explain the MAS-based adaptive protection 4) Ensuring the integrity and authenticity of the data
scheme at several layers of a PS, such as equipment, by system operators, making it tamper-proof and re-
substation, and system layers, for single and multi-event sistant to unauthorized modifications.
fault events. With the rapid development of 5G com- 5) Facilitating secure and efficient communication
munications technology in the past few years, its use in among different entities in the PS ecosystem.
the field of PS protection is of particular importance as Using ML, big data, MAS, and blockchain enables
it enables the grid operator to fast fault detection and the protective relays to boost fault diagnosis decision
restoration. In [112], the importance of 5G network accuracy, data security, and speed for MG protection.
end-to-end communication in system restoration after a The ML algorithms can choose relay parameters from
SINGH et al.: ADVANCEMENTS IN PROTECTION COORDINATION OF MICROGRIDS: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW… 171

sample data of normal and emergency states, which introduced by the IDGs during the fault events is used,
helps prevent cyberattacks on the systems. and the relay characteristics are designed as an expo-
5) Soft Computing Techniques-based Protection Schemes nential function of voltage alongside the standard
AI-based protection schemes utilize techniques such characteristics per IEC 60255-3 Std., represented as:
as ML and data fusion to enhance the accuracy and effi-  1 
K
ATMS
ciency of relays. These schemes utilize advanced algo- t  h 

  p    B
1V
(13)
rithms to identify patterns and anomalies in large amount e  I
of data from various sources, including sensors and  f  1
communication systems, to make intelligent decisions for  Ip 
faster and more accurate fault diagnosis and restoration.  V  A TMS
trecloser   ( KfVf )   B
The optimization algorithms aim to improve the effi- e  I  (14)
ciency and performance of protection schemes by opti-   1
f

mizing various parameters and decision-making pro-  Ip 

cesses. For example, evolutionary algorithms such as where Vf is the fault voltage across the relay, and K is a
genetic algorithms (GA) and particle swarm optimization decision variable defining the contribution of Vf .
(PSO) have been used to optimize the coordination of
DOCRs in DG-based systems. These algorithms help to References [191] and [192] show DOCR character-
find optimal settings for relays, such as the time delays istics as a logarithmic function of fault voltage, repre-
and thresholds for fault detection and isolation. Overall, sented as:
Z
the advancements in signal processing and AI techniques  1  ATMS
t  
have greatly improved digital protection relaying [137].  1  log v   B
a
(15)
Table Ⅵ gives an elaborate literature survey of var-  p  I
 f  1
ious optimization algorithms implemented in the  Ip 
DG-based systems. The compilation of different algo-
1 A  TMS
rithms used in the last five years, i.e., 20182023, is t 
a K B
shown in the table. The trends in Table Ⅵ show that the   vf    If  (16)
1  log      1
focus of the researches has shifted from conventional   v    Ip 
metaheuristic-based algorithms such as GA and PSO to   p 
nature-inspired evolutionary algorithms such as cuckoo where vp is the pickup voltage across the relay. By
search algorithms, whale algorithms, firefly algorithms,
incorporating these characteristics, the relays enhance
ant colony algorithms, and hybrid technologies such as
their performance in weak fault systems and obtain a
GA-ANN, GA-Fuzzy, etc. In recent years, significant
faster response. The simulation study is conducted on an
research and development have been conducted on
IEEE 14-bus test system using the differential evolution
applying AI techniques in PS protection.
algorithm.
6) User-defined Protective Relaying Schemes Reference [193] proposes the relay characteristics to
Previously, faults were addressed based solely on be a logarithmic function of plug setting under the
current. However, advancements in DOCRs also inte- conditions that V ＞1 and V ＜1 as represented in
grate voltages for specific faulty component diagnosis. (17). The paper corresponds to a MINLP problem, and
In recent developments, the negative-sequence com- the ROT is a function of TMS, PSM, and standard
ponents of both current and voltage are incorporated to characteristic curves. Four optimization algorithms are
obtain the relay settings of DOCRs. While some re- implemented to obtain the optimal relay settings of all
searchers suggest to include a voltage parameter in the relay pairs in an IEEE 30-bus system.
standard relay characteristics to accommodate DG
  I 
connections and MG configurations, others propose to  5.8 1.35 V loge  f    TMS ; V ＞1
utilize admittance-based characteristics while main-   I 
 p 
taining the inverse time characteristic. This section t (17)
reviews different types of relay characteristics using   If  
various combinations of measured current and voltage,  5.8 1.35  loge    V  TMS ; V ＜1
as detailed in Table Ⅶ. The benefits of such charac-   Ip  
teristics, including enhanced efficiency, sensitivity, and In [194], the optimal relay settings of DS-DOCRs are
selectivity, and reduced ROT drive researchers to op- obtained as a function of fault voltage. The MINLP
timize relay settings for stability and reliability in solver determines the optimal relay parameters of an
DG-based systems. References [189], [190] represent IEEE 33-bus test system integrated with squirrel cage
the (t-I-V) characteristics of DOCRs in an IDG-based induction generator-based DGs and PV-based DGs.
9-bus Canadian system. The third harmonic voltage Another non-standard expression of ROT [195] is
172 PROTECTION AND CONTROL OF MODERN POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 9, NO. 6, NOVEMBER 2024

shown in (18) for the voltage-constrained OCRs, whose for obtaining optimal recloser-fuse coordination. In
operating times are inversely dependent on the fault [197], the time of operation of the recloser is proposed
voltage and current. Conventional DOCRs and volt- as an exponential function of fault voltage in p.u.
age-constrained OCRs are coordinated using a hy- 28.2
brid-harmony search algorithm. trecloser   0.1217  (Vf  (1  Vf ))  TMS
 If   1 2
ATMS    (1Vf ) 
t D  Ip   e 
 1  Vf   If  (18)
    1 (19)
 1  Vp   Ip  Where trecloser is the recloser operating time.
Reference [196] shows the modified version of (19)
TABLE Ⅵ
LITERATURE SURVEY OF SOFT COMPUTING TECHNIQUES IMPLEMENTED IN DG-BASED SYSTEMS
Year of
Citation Optimization algorithm Test bus Protection strategy
publication
[138] Improvised grey wolf optimizer IEEE 15-bus system DOCRs
ANN-PI controllers with
[139] GA 11 kV Egyptian distribution feeder
adaptive protection
IEEE 30-bus and practical 11-bus
[140] Ant lion optimizer DOCRs
Egyptian west delta distribution utility
[141] Continuous PSO Multi-loop distribution system DOCRs
2018 [142] Invasive weed optimizer IEEE 9-bus system DOCRs
[143] Gravitational search optimizer IEEE 30-bus system DOCRs
[144] Mixed-integer linear programming optimizer IEEE 14 and 30-bus systems DOCRs
[145] Hybrid GA and linear programming 20 kV DN of Sirjan city in Iran DOCRs
[146] GA, PSO, and teaching-learning-based optimizer IEEE 6-bus system DOCRs
[147] Simulated annealing and Brute force optimizers Radial network DOCRs
[148] Water cycle algorithm optimizer IEC MG benchmark DOCRs
[149] Improved firefly algorithm optimizer IEEE 6, 9, and 30-bus systems Numerical DOCRs
[150] Modified water cycle algorithm IEEE 8, 9, 15, and 30-bus systems DOCRs
[151] Hybridized whale algorithm IEEE 8, 9, 15, and 30-bus systems DOCRs
[152] Bio-inspired rooted tree algorithm IEEE 14 and 30-bus systems DOCRs
[153] Crow search algorithm Single mesh distribution system OCRs
2019 Distance relays adaptive
[154] Oppositional Jaya algorithm IEEE 3, 8, 9, and 15-bus systems
protection
IEEE 6-bus, 15-bus, and 42-bus test
[155] Hybrid BBO/DE algorithm DOCRs
systems
IEEE 33-bus radial DN and a local
MINLP solver of general algebraic modeling systems
[172] 40-bus system with multiple SCIG and (t-I-V)-based DS-DOCRs
software
PV-based DGs
[173] Aggrandized class topper optimization algorithm IEEE 3, 4, and 8-bus networks DOCRs
Distance relays and
[174] Improved seagull optimization algorithm IEEE 8 and 14-bus test systems
DOCRs
Modified PSO, teaching learning, grey wolf and
[175] IEC MG and IEEE 9-bus systems Non-standard DOCRs
moth-flame optimization algorithms
Hybrid gravity search algorithm and sequential
[176] 9-bus and 39-bus test systems (t-I-V)-based DOCRs
quadratic programming
2022
Real-time using field-programmable
Hybrid grey wolf optimizer and rule-based fuzzy
[177] gate array DE2-115 board equipped with OCRs
logic controller scheme
Cyclone IV-E device
IEEE 9-bus, IEC radial MG system
GA and hybrid gravitational search algo-
[178] benchmark, and IEEE 30-bus meshed OCRs
rithm-sequential quadratic programming algorithm
system
[179] Fuzzy logic and GA Radial 3-bus system with DG DOCRs
[180] Wild horse optimizer and nonlinear programming 15-bus MG Non-standard DOCRs
8-bus, IEEE 30-bus, and IEEE 39-bus
[181] Modified African vulture’s optimization algorithm Non-standard DOCRs
networks
[182] Dragonfly algorithm 6-bus and IEEE 14-bus test systems Adaptive DOCRs
General algebraic modeling system (GAMS) opti-
[183] Canadian urban DN (t-I-V)-based DOCRs
mization
[184] PSO and GWO Modified 14-bus and 39-bus test systems DS-DOCRs
2023 PSO, water cycle algorithm (WCA), whale optimi-
[185] zation, crow search, evaporation rate WCA and IEC MG benchmark DOCRs
Archimedes algorithm
[186] Elite marine predators’ algorithm 3, 8, 9, and 15-bus test systems DOCRs
Distance relays and
[187] Hybrid GSA-SQP IEEE 9 and 39-bus test systems
(t-I-V)-based DOCRs
[188] Fmincon optimizer IEEE 9-bus test system DS-ROCOV-based relays
SINGH et al.: ADVANCEMENTS IN PROTECTION COORDINATION OF MICROGRIDS: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW… 173

TABLE Ⅶ
VARIOUS TYPES OF USER-DEFINED PROTECTIVE RELAYING SCHEMES
Type of characteristics Features
 Two level user-defined protection relay is used where both primary and backup relays are user-defined with variables
[198].
 Various coordination strategies for different grid-connected MGs for different contingencies under near-end and
far-end faults [199].
 A hybrid GA-NLP approach is used to find the relay settings for near-end and far-end faults. This method also
investigates the impact of DGs on the protection of MG [200].
 A chaotic Cuckoo search algorithm is used, and performance with and without DG is evaluated [201].
User-defined cur-
 Non-standard characteristic features not described in IEC and IEEE are considered; maximum value of PSM is taken
rent-based
as a decision variable and not as a parameter; comparative analysis of various optimization algorithms is done [202].
 A combination of integer linear programming and PSO is employed to determine the optimal setting group activation
for each relay during non-sequential tripping [203].
 GA, PSO, and teaching-learning-based optimization (TLBO) algorithms are used to obtain the optimal relay settings
of the non-standard relays in the IEEE 30-bus system [204].
 Different load conditions (critical, semi-critical, and non-critical) are considered, salp-swarm algorithm and linear
programming are used to obtain the optimal relay settings under pre- and post-contingency conditions [205].
 Networked MGs are taken; LVRT is taken; interior point method is used for optimization; conventional and dual
setting DOCRs are taken [206].
 IEEE 30-bus test system; GA optimization tool; communication aided protection [207].
 The covering zone of each backup relay has increased [208].
Dual setting DOCR  DS-DOCRs, non-standard characteristics; SGDG-based system [209].
 Automated DNs are taken to allow flexible control of DSs; α and β are additional decision variables alongside TMS
and PS in the optimization problem; the PSO optimization algorithm is used [210].
 User-defined dual setting DOCRs with hybrid (t-I-V) characteristics-based protection coordination for active DN,
optimized using MINLP in GA solver [211].
 ROT expression depends on the local voltage at the relay location in place of the line current. (t-V) curve is drawn,
and GA-based non-linear optimization is performed in [212]. This study is extended to different types of faults and
fault resistance values.
User-defined volt-
 The protection scheme develops a VI index based on minimizing the energy-not-supplied concept; the IDG-based
age-based
system is considered in two modes (slow and fast) [213].
 Piece-wise linear characteristics are implemented to obtain the relay settings in an online system that helps reduce the
overall ROT, and they automatically maintain the CTI [214].
 Robust against the change in short-circuit level or change in network operating conditions.

 (t-I-V)-based DS-directional overcurrent protection [215], [216].

 A third harmonic voltage generated by the IDG controller during short-circuit faults is proposed for overcurrent
Rate-of-change-of-voltage protection and (t-I-V) characteristics taken [217].
(ROCOV)-based:  A comparative study of conventional with dual setting and non-standard DS-DOCRs-based on (t-I-V) characteristics
with common relay settings for GC and ISL mode of operation [218].
 The concept of ROCOV is developed and implemented to obtain optimal relay settings of DOCRs in a modified
IEEE 14-bus meshed network with SGDG and IDGs for both GC and ISL modes [219].
 User-defined characteristic curves. ROT is a function of current as well as bus voltage. Additional features of a
duration of voltage sag/ swell may be used for the optimization of overall ROT.
 A minimum CTI margin is obtained in the case of a system consisting of a combination of distance and user-defined
User-defined relays such that the robustness of the system is increased [220].
(t-I-V)-based:  Parametric variation of the pair of relays is taken into consideration, and an invasive weed optimization algorithm is
implemented to obtain proper coordination among the relay pairs and their minimum operating times [221].
 The exponential function of current and voltage is taken [222]. GA, hybrid GA-linear programming, GA-PSO, and
GA-fuzzy techniques are used to obtain optimal relay settings.

Ⅴ. CONCLUSION compliance and its role in augmenting the stability of

This review paper explores the intricate world of MG DG-integrated systems is also highlighted.
protection, addressing critical challenges and exploring 2) Protection challenges: an extensive survey on the
various protective relaying schemes. The investigations operational challenges faced by different types of PDs,
sheds light on the following key aspects: such as FCLs, fuse, CBs, relays, and reclosers in the DG
1) Stability issues: stability is of paramount im- integrated systems, is being carried out. A literature
portance in MGs. Transient and voltage stability during survey is conducted in MGs during GC to ISL mode
GC to ISL transitions, faults and load variations are transitioning, fault events, and load variations. The
examined. Emphasizing the crucial role of CCT, various analysis underscores the need for adaptive protection
techniques for CCT assessment are explored to ascertain schemes and non-standard characteristics of the PDs to
the stability of DG-integrated systems. Additionally, the achieve a stable and well-protected system.
voltage sag/swell under undesirable conditions are 3) Protective relaying schemes: a wide array of pro-
discussed. The significance of adhering to grid code tective relaying schemes is encompassed in this review
174 PROTECTION AND CONTROL OF MODERN POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 9, NO. 6, NOVEMBER 2024

paper. These includes conventional and mod- tronics-based controller strategies and protection coor-
ern-day-based protection schemes. This review paper dination mechanisms among DGs.
recommends the adaption of modern-day technolo- 5) Cybersecurity in DG Systems: With the growing
gy-based protection schemes due to the dynamic nature reliance on communication-assisted protection schemes,
of DG-based systems. future research should address the crucial aspect of
4) The development of different types of user-defined cybersecurity in DG systems. Developing robust cy-
protection relaying schemes is examined, such as du- bersecurity measures becomes imperative to ensure the
al-setting DOCRs, ROCOV-based DOCRs, (t-I-V) relay integrity and secure operation of protection relays and
characteristics, due to their customizable nature ac- communication networks.
cording to the MG configuration. This paper presents 6) Resilience assessment and enhancement: Future
the ability of these relaying schemes to enhance the research can delve into assessing and enhancing the
stability of the DG-integrated systems. overall resilience of power systems with integrated DGs.
5) Implementing soft computing techniques, such as It includes exploring methodologies to quantify and
neural networks and AI techniques, to obtain PD set- improve resilience in the face of various disruptions,
tings, is discussed. This paper recommends the imple- such as extreme weather events or cyber-attacks.
mentation of various nature-inspired evolutionary al- 7) Human-centric approaches: incorporating hu-
gorithms to obtain the optimal setting of the PDs to man-centric approaches into the design of protective
achieve better protection coordination and make the relaying schemes could be an additional area of explo-
system more self-healed and self-reliant. ration. It involves studying user interactions, usability,
and decision-making processes to enhance the overall
Ⅵ. SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK effectiveness and reliability of protection systems.
This section outlines several promising directions for In conclusion, the future research landscape in DG
integration is multifaceted, requiring concerted efforts
future research within the ambit of this study, primarily
to address evolving challenges. It includes developing
emphasizing on the development of diverse protection
advanced stability assessment tools, improved cyber-
schemes to ensure a stable and reliable power system,
security measures, and innovative protective relaying
particularly in the context of challenges posed by DG
schemes. The collaborative pursuit of these research
integration. The following recommendations are put
directions is essential for fostering a sustainable, secure,
forth:
and resilient power infrastructure amid evolving energy
1) Development of real-time fast operating relaying
paradigms.
schemes: Future research endeavors should prioritize
the development of multi-objective protective relays
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
that seamlessly integrate stability constraints. This ap-
proach seeks to enhance relay operation, improve Not applicable.
overall system stability, and elevate selectivity and
sensitivity during load variations or fault events. AUTHORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS
2) Dynamic stability assessment for high DG pene- Pratibha Singh and Uttam Kumar: conceptualized
tration: a critical focus should be placed on advancing research objectives, and methodology, data collection
dynamic stability assessment tools tailored to address and analysis, full-text writing and the construction of the
the unique challenges posed by high levels of DG pen- paper framework. Niraj Kumar Choudhary: conceptu-
etration. It involves a comprehensive exploration of the alization, supervision, review and editing the manuscript.
influence of intermittent RESs on system dynamics, Nitin Singh: review and editing the manuscript. All
coupled with the proposal of innovative techniques to authors read and approved the final manuscript.
enhance overall system stability.
3) Integration of energy storage systems (ESS): In- FUNDING
tegrating ESSs with DGs emerges as a promising ave- Not applicable.
nue for fortifying system stability. Future research could
delve into implementing advanced AI techniques for AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIALS
optimal sizing, placement, and control of ESS. This
initiative aims to mitigate DG variability and enhance Not applicable.
the overall resilience of the system.
4) Decentralized control strategies: Investigating DECLARATIONS
decentralized control strategies for DG units is a sig- Competing interests: The authors declare that they
nificant avenue to contribute to a more resilient and have no known competing financial interests or per-
adaptive power system. Future efforts may explore sonal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
self-healing capabilities with advanced power elec- ence the work reported in this article.
SINGH et al.: ADVANCEMENTS IN PROTECTION COORDINATION OF MICROGRIDS: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW… 175

AUTHORS’ INFORMATION [5] S. D. Saldarriaga-Zuluaga, J. M. López-Lezama, and N.

Muñoz-Galeano, “Optimal coordination of over-current
Pratibha Singh received her M. Tech degree in power relays in microgrids using unsupervised learning tech-
electronics and drives in 2016 from the Department of niques,” Applied Sciences, vol. 11, no. 3, Jan. 2021.
Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technol- [6] W. M. Hamanah, M. I. Hossain, and M. Shafiullah et al.,
ogy, Kurukshetra, India. She is currently working to- “AC microgrid protection schemes: a comprehensive
ward the Ph.D. degree in the Department of Electrical review,” IEEE Access, vol. 11, pp. 76842-76868, Jul.
Engineering, Motilal Nehru National Institute of 2023.
Technology, Prayagraj, India and is a visiting research [7] M. Sarwar, N. A. Warsi, and A. S. Siddiqui et al., “Opti-
scholar at the University of British Columbia, Van- mal selection of renewable energy-based microgrid for
couver, Canada. Her research interests include protec- sustainable energy supply,” International Journal of En-
ergy Research, vol. 46, no. 5, pp. 5828-5846, Apr. 2022.
tion in distribution networks, smart grids, and mi-
[8] J. Li, X. Song, and J. Ma, “A novel adaptive distance
crogrids. protection principle for distribution system with dis-
tributed generators,” in 2015 International Power,
Uttam Kumar is a M. Tech graduate from the De- Electronics and Materials Engineering Conference
partment of Electrical Engineering, Motilal Nehru Na- (IPEMEC 2015), Dalian, China, May 2015, pp.
tional Institute of Technology, Prayagraj, India. His 346-351.
research interests include power system protection. [9] L. G. R. Tonini, R. S. F. Ferraz, and O. E. Batista, “Load
flow and short-circuit methods for grids dominated by
Niraj Kumar Choudhary received the Ph. D. degree inverter-based distributed generation,” Energies (Basel),
vol. 15, no. 13, Jun. 2022.
from the Department of Electrical Engineering, Motilal
[10] A. Gencer, “Analysis and control of low-voltage
Nehru National Institute of Technology, Prayagraj, India ride-through capability improvement for PMSG based
and M.E. degree from IIEST Shibpur, West Bengal, on an NPC converter using an interval type-2 fuzzy
India. He is currently an assistant professor in the De- logic system,” Elektronika ir Elektrotechnika, vol. 25,
partment of Electrical Engineering, Motilal Nehru Na- no. 3, pp. 63-70, Jun. 2019.
tional Institute of Technology, Prayagraj, India. His [11] A. Rupesh Kumar and Z. Hussain, “Investigation of
research interests include renewable energy and distri- stability analysis and control of synchronous generator
bution generation-based power systems, and protection connected infinite bus system under fault condition,”
of power system, microgrids, and smart grids. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engi-
neering, vol. 1228, no. 1, Mar. 2022.
[12] C. Liu, X. Cai, and R. Li et al., “Optimal short‐circuit
Nitin Singh received the Ph. D. degree from the De-
current control of the grid‐forming converter during grid
partment of Electrical Engineering, Motilal Nehru Na- fault condition,” IET Renewable Power Generation, vol.
tional Institute of Technology, Prayagraj, India. He is 15, no. 10, pp. 2185-2194, Jul. 2021.
current an associate professor in the Department of [13] Y. Zhao, J. Chai, and S. Wang et al., “Instantaneous
Electrical Engineering, Motilal Nehru National Institute power calculation based on intrinsic frequency of sin-
of Technology, Prayagraj, India. His research interests gle-phase virtual synchronous generator,” Journal of
include power system planning, electricity markets, arti- Modern Power Systems and Clean Energy, vol. 5, no. 6,
ficial intelligence, implementation of optimization algo- pp. 970-978, Nov. 2017.
rithms and machine learning techniques in power system. [14] A. Abdelrahim, M. Smailes, and K. H. Ahmed et al.,
“New fault detection algorithm for an improved dual
VSM control structure with FRT capability,” IEEE Ac-
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