Theories of Counselling

Adler
https://www.verywellmind.com/alderian-theory-definition-techniques-and-
efficacy-5213796
https://www.apa.org/pubs/books/Alderian-Psychotherapy-Intro-Sample.pdf
https://www.simplypsychology.org/adlerian-therapy.html
Alfred Adler, a contemporary of Sigmund Freud and one of the pioneers of
psychotherapy, developed his own psychodynamic theory known as Individual
Psychology. Adler's approach differs from Freud's in several key aspects, offering
a unique perspective on human behavior and therapy. Below, I'll outline Adler's
psychodynamic view and therapy, including key concepts, therapeutic goals,
therapist function and role, techniques, and criticisms:

Key Concepts:
1. Inferiority Complex: Adler believed that feelings of inferiority, stemming from
childhood experiences of inadequacy or powerlessness, are central to human
behavior. These feelings can motivate individuals to strive for superiority,
seeking to overcome their perceived deficiencies.

2. Striving for Superiority: Adler proposed that individuals are driven by a

universal desire to overcome feelings of inferiority and achieve personal
mastery and excellence. This striving for superiority is a fundamental
motivator of human behavior.

3. Social Interest: Adler emphasized the importance of social connectedness

and community feeling. He believed that individuals with a strong sense of
social interest are more likely to contribute positively to society and
experience greater psychological well-being.

4. Birth Order: Adler placed significant emphasis on the influence of birth order
on personality development. He suggested that the position a person holds
among siblings can shape their personality traits and behavioral patterns.

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 5. Holism: Adler viewed individuals as holistic beings, meaning that
psychological problems cannot be understood in isolation from the social,
cultural, and environmental contexts in which they occur.

Therapeutic Goals:
1. Enhancing Social Interest: The primary goal of Adlerian therapy is to help
clients develop or strengthen their sense of social interest and community
feeling. This involves fostering empathy, cooperation, and a sense of
belonging.

2. Encouraging Responsibility and Self-Actualization: Adlerian therapy aims to

empower clients to take responsibility for their lives and work towards
realizing their full potential. This includes identifying and pursuing meaningful
goals aligned with their values and interests.

3. Promoting Equality in Relationships: Adlerian therapy seeks to help clients

establish healthy, egalitarian relationships characterized by mutual respect,
cooperation, and communication.

Therapist Function and Role:

1. Collaborative Relationship: The Adlerian therapist adopts a collaborative
stance, working with clients as equal partners in the therapeutic process. They
provide support, encouragement, and guidance while respecting the client's
autonomy and self-determination.

2. Encouragement and Empathy: The therapist fosters an atmosphere of

encouragement and empathy, affirming the client's strengths and capabilities
while acknowledging their challenges and struggles.

3. Exploration of Early Experiences: Adlerian therapists explore the client's early

experiences, particularly those related to feelings of inferiority and early
childhood dynamics. This exploration helps clients gain insight into the origins
of their current patterns of behavior and beliefs.

Techniques:
1. Lifestyle Assessment: Adlerian therapy typically begins with a
comprehensive assessment of the client's lifestyle, including their family

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 background, early memories, social relationships, and current life
circumstances.

2. Encouragement and Affirmation: Therapists use encouragement and

affirmation to build the client's confidence and sense of self-worth. This
involves highlighting the client's strengths, resilience, and past successes.

3. Guided Imagery and Role-Playing: Adlerian therapists may employ techniques

such as guided imagery or role-playing to help clients gain insight into their
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. These techniques can facilitate
perspective-taking and promote behavioral experimentation.

Criticisms:
1. Lack of Empirical Support: Some critics argue that Adlerian therapy lacks
empirical support compared to other therapeutic approaches. There is limited
scientific evidence to validate its effectiveness, which may raise questions
about its validity as a psychotherapeutic modality.

2. Overemphasis on Subjectivity: Adlerian therapy's focus on subjective

experiences and individual perceptions may be seen as limiting its applicability
and generalizability. Critics argue that it may overlook broader social and
cultural factors that influence human behavior.

3. Limited Techniques: Compared to more structured and directive therapies,

Adlerian therapy's reliance on open-ended exploration and dialogue may be
perceived as lacking in concrete techniques for addressing specific
psychological issues.

In summary, Adlerian psychodynamic therapy offers a holistic approach to

understanding human behavior, emphasizing the importance of social
connectedness, personal responsibility, and self-actualization. While it has its
critics and limitations, many practitioners value its emphasis on encouragement,
collaboration, and empowerment in the therapeutic process.

INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
Adler established the psychological concept of Individual Psychology, often
misinterpreted as focusing predominantly on individuals.

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 This theory suggests that individuals are better comprehended as a whole, not
as a collection of parts, rejecting reductionism and accepting holism.

Adlerian therapy aims to discern how someone proceeds in life as a whole.

Consequently, it seeks to understand an individual's lifestyle, uniqueness, and
personality structure to understand each person better

VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE

Adler believed that behavior is socially embedded from birth because no one
functions autonomously.

The behavior of seeking to belong and having a place or role in human groups
is universal. Adler viewed that the fundamental essence of people is being
social.

Every individual is born in an environment where he or she must engage in

reciprocal relationships.

Inferiority complex: inferiority feelings can be the wellspring of creativity.

They motivate us to strive for mastery, success (superiority), and completion.

Adlerian therapy assumes that people are motivated by social factors, are
responsible for their own thoughts, feelings, and actions, are the creators of
their own lives, and are impelled by purposes and goals, looking more toward
the future than back to the past. Adler believed that the individual begins to
form an approach to life somewhere in the first six years of living. He focused
on the person’s past as perceived in the present. Adler's theory starts with a
consideration of inferiority feelings, which he saw as a normal condition of all
people and as a source of all human striving. Rather than being considered a
sign of weakness or abnormality, inferiority feelings can be the wellspring of
creativity. They motivate us to strive for mastery, success (superiority), and
the useful side of life. The main aim of therapy is to develop the client’s sense
of belonging and to assist in the adoption of behaviors and processes
characterized by community feeling and social interest. This is accomplished
by increasing the client’s self-awareness and challenging and modifying his or
her fundamental premises, life goals, and basic concepts.

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 Key concepts
Adlerians attempt to view the world from the client’s subjective frame of
reference,
an orientation described as
phenomenological

From the Adlerian perspective, objective reality is less important than how we
interpret reality and the meanings we attach to what we experience.

assumes that all human behavior has a purpose and is goal-oriented. The
theory emphasizes the importance of understanding the client's goals and
purposes to fully understand their behavior.

Although Adlerians focus on the future, they also recognize the importance of
past experiences in shaping a person's decisions.

The direction in which a person is moving is considered the most important

factor in understanding their behavior. Adlerians look for continuity by
identifying themes that run through a person's life.

Many Adlerians use the term fictional finalism to refer to an imagined life goal
that guides a person’s behavior.

Adler’s concept of striving for perfection implies striving for

greater competence, not only for oneself but for the common good of others

Adlerian therapy is a goal-oriented and purposeful approach that emphasizes the

importance of social factors in human behavior. Here are the key concepts of
Adler's therapy:

1. Purposeful and goal-oriented behavior: Adlerian therapy assumes that all

human behavior has a purpose and is goal-oriented. The theory emphasizes
the importance of understanding the client's goals and purposes to fully
understand their behavior.

2. Inferiority and superiority: Adler believed that inferiority feelings are a normal
condition of all people and are a source of all human striving. Rather than

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 being considered a sign of weakness or abnormality, inferiority feelings can
be the wellspring of creativity. They motivate us to strive for mastery, success
(superiority), and the useful side of life.

3. Subjective view of reality: Adlerian therapy assumes that people's behavior is

influenced by their subjective view of reality. The therapist helps the client to
identify and change their mistaken beliefs about themselves, others, and life.

4. Unity of personality: Adlerian therapy assumes that the individual is a whole

person, and that all aspects of their personality are interconnected. The
therapist helps the client to develop a sense of belonging and to adopt
behaviors and processes characterized by community feeling and social
interest.

5. Lifestyle: Adlerian therapy assumes that the individual begins to form an

approach to life somewhere in the first six years of living. The therapist helps
the client to challenge and modify their fundamental premises, life goals, and
basic concepts.

6. Encouragement: Adlerian therapy assumes that encouragement is a key factor

in helping clients to change. The therapist provides support and
encouragement to help the client achieve their goals.

Overall, Adlerian therapy is an optimistic perspective that views people as

creative, unique, capable, and responsible. The main aim of therapy is to develop
the client’s sense of belonging and to assist in the adoption of behaviors and
processes characterized by community feeling and social interest.

FREUD
Client-Therapist Relationship

In traditional Freudian therapy, the therapist-client relationship is characterized

by a neutral and distant stance adopted by the therapist, often referred to as
the "blank screen" approach.

The therapist maintains professional boundaries, refrains from disclosing

personal information, and interprets the client's unconscious dynamics and
conflicts.

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 The relationship is asymmetrical, with the therapist holding authority and
guiding the therapeutic process.

The client is encouraged to express freely without censorship, while the

therapist interprets and analyzes the client's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

There is also emphasis on reenactment of client’s past relationships with the

therapist. (mention transference and counter transference)

How is the client making me feel in the room?

The therapeutic relationship serves as a vehicle for exploring the client's

unconscious mind and resolving intrapsychic conflicts, ultimately leading to
insight and psychological growth.

Criticisms

1. Overemphasis on the Unconscious: Critics argue that Freudian therapy

places too much emphasis on unconscious processes and childhood
experiences, often neglecting the role of conscious thoughts, behaviors, and
environmental factors in shaping behavior and psychological problems.

2. Lack of Scientific Validity: Freudian concepts, such as the Oedipus complex

and the psychosexual stages of development, have been criticized for lacking
empirical support and scientific validity. Critics argue that Freudian theory
relies heavily on anecdotal evidence and case studies rather than rigorous
scientific research.

3. Focus on Sexuality and Aggression: Freudian therapy has been criticized for
its heavy emphasis on sexuality and aggression as primary motivators of
human behavior. Critics argue that Freudian theory may pathologize normal
human experiences and overlook other important factors, such as
socialization, culture, and individual differences.

4. Limited Scope of Treatment: Freudian therapy tends to focus on long-term,

intensive treatment aimed at gaining insight into unconscious conflicts and
childhood traumas. Critics argue that this approach may be impractical and
inaccessible for many individuals seeking help for more immediate or specific
concerns.

5. Gender Bias and Stereotyping: Freudian theory has been criticized for its
gender bias and reliance on outdated gender stereotypes. Critics argue that

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 Freudian concepts, such as penis envy and castration anxiety, reinforce
traditional gender roles and fail to account for the diversity of human
experiences.

6. Influence of the Therapist: Freudian therapy places a significant emphasis on

the relationship between the therapist and the client, with the therapist often
taking on a dominant and authoritative role. Critics argue that this power
dynamic may be detrimental to the therapeutic process and may inhibit clients
from expressing themselves freely.

7. Resistance to Change: Freudian therapy has been criticized for its resistance
to change and adaptation in response to advances in psychology and
psychotherapy. Critics argue that Freudian therapists may be reluctant to
incorporate new evidence-based techniques and approaches, leading to
stagnation and outdated practices.

8. High Drop-Out Rates: Freudian therapy often requires long-term commitment

and intensive exploration of unconscious conflicts, which may contribute to
high drop-out rates among clients. Critics argue that this approach may not be
suitable for all individuals and may discourage those seeking more immediate
relief from their symptoms.

Overall, while Freudian therapy has made significant contributions to the field of
psychology, it is not without its limitations and criticisms. Critics argue that
Freudian concepts and techniques may be outdated, impractical, and potentially
harmful to some clients. As a result, many therapists today incorporate elements
of Freudian theory into more eclectic and evidence-based approaches to therapy.

JUNG
Basic Assumptions and Views

Carl Jung developed a theory of personality that was different from Freudian
psychoanalysis.

Jung's analytical psychology combines ideas from history, mythology,

anthropology, and religion.

He believed that the unconscious realm played a significant role in personality

development, but he had a different conception of the unconscious than

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 Freud.

Jung believed that the unconscious was not only shaped by childhood
events but also by the history of the species.

He saw a connection between each person's personality and the past, and he
believed that some dreams may deal with an individual's relationship to a
larger whole such as the family, universal humanity, or generations over time.

Jung's theory is based on the assumption that humans tend to move toward
the fulfillment or realization of all of their capabilities.

Achieving individuation, the harmonious integration of the conscious and

unconscious aspects of personality, is an innate and primary goal.

Unlike Freudian theory, Jungian theory is not reductionist. Jung viewed

humans positively and focused on individuation, the capacity of humans to
move toward wholeness and self-realization.

Key Concepts:

1. Collective Unconscious: Jung proposed the existence of a collective

unconscious, a reservoir of universal symbols and archetypes shared by all
humanity. These archetypes shape individual experiences and behaviors.

2. Persona and Shadow: Jung described the persona as the social mask
individuals present to the world and the shadow as the unconscious aspects
of the personality that one does not acknowledge.

3. Individuation: Jung emphasized the process of individuation, whereby

individuals strive to integrate unconscious elements of the psyche to achieve
wholeness and self-realization.

4. Introversion and Extroversion: Jung introduced the concepts of introversion

and extroversion to describe individuals' orientations toward the external
world and inner subjective experiences.

Archetypes
Carl Jung proposed several archetypes, which are universal symbols or themes
that appear in myths, stories, and dreams across different cultures and time
periods. These archetypes represent fundamental aspects of the human psyche

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 and collective unconscious. Some of the key archetypes identified by Jung
include:

1. The Self: The Self represents the totality of the psyche, encompassing both
conscious and unconscious aspects. It is the archetype of wholeness and
integration, symbolizing the striving for individuation and self-realization.

2. The Shadow: The Shadow represents the unconscious aspects of the

personality that are repressed or denied by the ego. It embodies aspects of
the self that are considered negative or undesirable, such as instincts,
impulses, and unresolved conflicts.

3. The Persona: The Persona is the social mask or role that individuals present to
the outside world. It represents the public image and identity that individuals
adopt to conform to societal expectations and norms.

4. The Anima/Animus: The Anima represents the feminine aspect of the male
psyche, while the Animus represents the masculine aspect of the female
psyche. These archetypes symbolize the unconscious feminine and masculine
qualities within each individual and play a significant role in relationships and
personal development.

5. The Hero: The Hero archetype represents the journey of self-discovery,

growth, and transformation. It symbolizes the individual's quest to overcome
challenges, confront their fears, and achieve greatness.

6. The Wise Old Man/Woman: The Wise Old Man/Woman archetype represents
wisdom, knowledge, and guidance. It symbolizes the inner teacher or mentor
who offers insight and perspective to the individual on their journey of self-
discovery.

7. The Trickster: The Trickster archetype embodies mischief, playfulness, and

unpredictability. It represents the disruptive force that challenges conventions
and disrupts the status quo, often leading to growth and transformation.

8. The Mother: The Mother archetype represents nurturing, caregiving, and

unconditional love. It symbolizes the nurturing and protective aspects of the
psyche, as well as the connection to the natural world and the collective
unconscious.

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 These are just a few examples of the archetypes proposed by Jung. Each
archetype carries symbolic meaning and serves as a blueprint for understanding
human behavior, dreams, and mythology across cultures.
Client-Therapist Relationship

In Jungian therapy, the client-therapist relationship is characterized by a

collaborative partnership rooted in trust, empathy, and mutual exploration.

Unlike traditional psychoanalytic approaches, Jungian therapy emphasizes a

non-directive stance, where the therapist serves as a supportive guide rather
than an authoritative figure.

The therapist creates a safe and nonjudgmental space for the client to explore
their inner world, dreams, and symbols, encouraging them to engage in self-
reflection and introspection.

Through active listening and empathic attunement, the therapist helps the
client uncover unconscious material, facilitating the process of individuation
and self-realization.

The therapeutic relationship in Jungian therapy is built on a foundation of

respect for the client's autonomy and intrinsic capacity for growth, fostering a
collaborative journey towards wholeness and integration of the psyche.

Criticisms

Aspect Strengths Limitations

Jung's approach delves into the Jungian concepts such as

depths of the unconscious mind, archetypes and the collective
Depth exploring archetypes, symbols, and unconscious are difficult to
Psychology the collective unconscious. This empirically validate, leading
provides a comprehensive some to question the scientific
understanding of human behavior. validity of his approach.

Jungian therapy focuses on the The concept of individuation may

process of individuation, where be perceived as vague and
Individuation individuals strive for self-realization subjective, making it challenging
and integration of the conscious and to measure progress or
unconscious aspects of the psyche. outcomes objectively.

Symbolism Jungian therapy utilizes symbolism Interpreting symbols and dreams

and dream analysis to uncover is highly subjective and can vary

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 unconscious material and gain depending on the therapist's
insight into the client's psyche. This interpretation, leading to
can lead to profound insights and potential misinterpretations or
personal growth. misunderstandings.

Jung's approach considers the

The holistic approach may
whole person, including
overlook the role of social and
psychological, spiritual, and cultural
Holistic environmental factors in shaping
dimensions. This holistic perspective
Approach behavior, potentially neglecting
acknowledges the
important contextual influences
interconnectedness of mind, body,
on psychological well-being.
and spirit.

Jungian therapy emphasizes the

therapeutic relationship as a The emphasis on the therapeutic
partnership between therapist and relationship may overshadow
Therapeutic
client, fostering trust, empathy, and other therapeutic techniques or
Relationship
mutual respect. This can create a interventions, potentially limiting
supportive environment for personal the effectiveness of the therapy.
exploration and growth.

Key concepts of Jung

Assumptions of Jung

Criticisms of Jung

Criticisms of Freud

current trends in counselling

Definition of Counselling

Diff between guidance, psychotherapy and counselling

ego defense mechanisms

The history of counseling is a process that has evolved over time. Counseling as a
profession began in the late 1890s and early 1900s, and was interdisciplinary from
its inception. The development of professional counseling can be traced through
important events and personal influences throughout the 20th century.

Theories of Counselling 12
 During the early 1900s, three individuals emerged as leaders in counseling's
development: Frank Parsons, Jesse B. Davis, and Clifford Beers. Frank Parsons,
often called the founder of guidance, focused his work on growth and guidance
by helping people make wise choices. Jesse B. Davis focused on character
development of schoolchildren, while Clifford Beers worked to reform and improve
services in mental health treatment.
Important events in the development of counseling include the involvement of the
government in counseling during and after World War I, the Great Depression,
World War II, and the launching of Sputnik. The emergence and growth of the
American Counseling Association (rooted in the establishment of the National
Vocational Guidance Association in 1913) has been a major factor in the growth of
the counseling profession.
Innovators such as E. G. Williamson, Carl Rogers, Gilbert Wrenn, Donald Super,
Leona Tyler, and Thomas J. Sweeney have also shaped the development of the
profession and broadened its horizon.
Counseling has become more diversified over time, with large numbers of
counselors employed in primary and secondary schools, higher education, mental
health settings, and community/agency counseling. The profession has also
become more focused on wellness, prevention, development, and situational
difficulties as well as helping persons with particular psychological disorders.

An examination of the history of counseling shows that the profession has an

interdisciplinary base. It began with the almost simultaneous concerns and
activities of Frank Parsons, Jesse B. Davis, and Clifford Beers to provide, reform,
and improve services in vocational guidance, character development of
schoolchildren, and mental health treatment.

By understanding counseling's past, one may better appreciate present and future
trends of the profession. The history of counseling is important because a
counselor who is informed about the development and transformation of the
profession is likely to have a strong professional identity and subsequently make
significant contributions to the field.

Theories of Counselling 13
 This table highlights the key differences between counseling, guidance, and
psychotherapy in terms of their definition, focus, target issues, duration,
techniques, and setting. While they share common goals of promoting well-being
and personal growth, each approach offers distinct benefits and may be suitable
for addressing different client needs and goals.

Aspect Counseling Guidance Psychotherapy

Collaborative process Therapeutic

addressing personal, Assisting individuals in intervention
social, or making informed addressing
Definition psychological decisions about psychological issues,
challenges, promoting education, career, and mental health
growth and personal development disorders, and
adjustment emotional difficulties

Understanding
Exploration of
Self-awareness, goal underlying causes of
thoughts, feelings,
Focus setting, decision- distress, resolving
behaviors, and coping
making conflicts, promoting
strategies
well-being

Specific concerns like Psychological issues,

Educational, career,
stress, relationships, mental health
Target Issues personal development
career, grief, life disorders, emotional
challenges
transitions difficulties

Varied, ongoing support Longer-term, deep

Shorter-term, focused
throughout exploration of past
Duration on present concerns,
educational/career experiences,
practical skills
journey emotions

Insight development, Career assessments, CBT, psychodynamic

Techniques coping strategies, academic planning, goal therapy, humanistic
problem-solving setting therapy, mindfulness

Various settings Mainly educational

Therapy offices,
Setting including clinics, settings like schools,
clinics, hospitals
schools, workplaces universities

Areas of Counselling

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 1. Mental Health Counseling: This area focuses on working with individuals,
groups, and families to address mental health issues. Mental health
counselors can work in various settings such as community organizations,
hospitals, and private practices.

2. Marriage and Family Counseling: This area involves working with couples and
families to address relationship issues, conflicts, and other challenges that
may arise within the family unit.

3. Guidance and Career Counseling: This area focuses on helping individuals

make informed decisions about their education, career choices, and personal
development. Guidance and career counselors often work in educational
institutions and career centers.

4. Rehabilitation Counseling: This area involves assisting individuals with

disabilities or impairments to overcome barriers and achieve independence
and integration into society. Rehabilitation counselors work in settings such as
hospitals, clinics, and vocational rehabilitation centers.

5. Substance Abuse Counseling: This area involves diagnosing, assessing, and

treating individuals struggling with addiction issues. Substance abuse
counselors customize treatment plans based on the individual's needs and
circumstances.

6. Educational Counseling: This area focuses on providing support and guidance

to students in educational settings. Educational counselors help students with
academic, personal, and career-related challenges.

Recent Approaches and Types of Therapy:

Integrative and Eclectic Approaches: There is a growing trend towards

integrating multiple theoretical approaches and techniques to tailor counseling
interventions to the individual needs of clients. Eclectic approaches draw from
various theoretical orientations, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT),
psychodynamic therapy, humanistic-existential therapy, and mindfulness-
based approaches.

Mindfulness-Based Therapy: Mindfulness-based approaches, such as

mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and mindfulness-based cognitive

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 therapy (MBCT), are gaining popularity in counseling practice. These
approaches focus on cultivating present-moment awareness, acceptance, and
non-judgmental observation of thoughts and emotions to promote
psychological well-being.

Positive Psychology Interventions: Positive psychology interventions, which

emphasize strengths, resilience, and well-being, are being integrated into
counseling practice. Techniques such as gratitude exercises, strengths-based
assessments, and positive reframing are used to enhance clients' positive
emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment.

Online Counseling and Teletherapy: With advancements in technology, online

counseling platforms and teletherapy services are becoming more prevalent,
especially in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. These modalities offer
increased accessibility, convenience, and flexibility for clients, allowing them
to receive counseling services remotely via videoconferencing, chat, or
phone.

EXISTENTIAL THERAPY
Introduction
Existential therapy can best be described as a philosophical approach that
influences a counselor’s therapeutic practice.

Existential therapy focuses on exploring themes such as mortality, meaning,

freedom, responsibility, anxiety, and aloneness as these relate to a person’s
current struggle
Existential therapy is grounded on the assumption that we are free and therefore
responsible for our choices and actions
Key Concepts

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 View of human nature: The existential tradition seeks a balance between
recognizing the limits
and tragic dimensions of human existence on one hand and the possibilities and
opportunities of human life on the other hand. The current focus of the existential
approach is on the individual’s experience of being in the world alone and facing
the anxiety of this isolation.
The basic dimensions of the human condition, according to the existential
approach, include (1) the capacity for self-awareness; (2) freedom and
responsibility; (3) creating one’s identity and establishing meaningful relationships
with others; (4) the search for meaning, purpose, values, and goals; (5) anxiety as
a condition of living; and (6) awareness of death and nonbeing.
Therapeutic Goals
An aim of therapy is to assist clients in moving toward authenticity and learning to
recognize when they are deceiving themselves (Deurzen, 2012). The existential
orientation holds that there is no escape from freedom as we will always be held
responsible. We can relinquish our freedom, however, which is the ultimate
inauthenticity
Existential therapy aims at helping clients face anxiety and engage in action that is
based on the authentic purpose of creating a worthy existence.
Schneider and Krug (2010) identify four essential aims of existential- humanistic
therapy: (1) to help clients become more present to both themselves and others;
(2) to assist clients in identifying ways they block themselves from fuller pres-
ence; (3) to challenge clients to assume responsibility for designing their present
lives; and (4) to encourage clients to choose more expanded ways of being in
their daily lives.
Increased awareness is the central goal of existential therapy, which allows clients
to discover that alternative possibilities exist where none were recognized before.
Clients come to realize that they are able to make changes in their way of being in
the world.

Function and Role

Therapists with an existential orientation usually deal with people who have
what could be called a
restricted existence. These clients have a limited awareness

Theories of Counselling 17
 of themselves and are often vague about the nature of their problems. They may
see
few, if any, options for dealing with life situations, and they tend to feel trapped,
helpless, and stuck. One of the therapist’s functions is to assist clients in seeing
the ways in which they constrict their awareness and the cost of such
constrictions
(Bugental, 1997).
Existential therapists encourage experimentation not only within the therapy office
but also outside of the therapy setting, based on the belief that life outside therapy
is what counts. Practitioners often ask clients to reflect on or write about
problematic events they encounter in daily life
Client’s experience in therapy
Clients in existential therapy are clearly encouraged to assume responsibility for
how they are currently choosing to be in their world.
clients must be active in the therapeutic process, for during the sessions they
must decide what fears, guilt feelings, and anxieties they will explore.
The experience of opening the doors to oneself can be frightening, excit- ing,
joyful, depressing, or a combination of all of these. As clients wedge open the
closed doors, they also begin to loosen the deterministic shackles that have kept
them psychologically bound. Gradually, they become aware of what they have
been and who they are now, and they are better able to decide what kind of future
they want.

Another aspect of the experience of being a client in existential therapy is con-

fronting ultimate concerns rather than coping with immediate problems. Rather
than being solution-oriented, existential therapy is aimed toward removing road-
blocks to meaningful living and helping clients assume responsibility for their
actions (Yalom & Josselson, 2014).
Relationship between therapist and client

The relationship is important in itself because the quality of this person-to- person
encounter in the therapeutic situation is the stimulus for positive change.
Therapy is viewed as a social microcosm in the sense that the interpersonal and
existential problems of the client will become apparent in the here and now of the
therapy relationship

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 The core of the therapeutic relationship is respect, which implies faith in clients’
potential to cope authentically with their troubles and in their ability to discover
alternative ways of being.
Therapists invite clients to grow by modeling authentic behavior. If therapists keep
themselves hidden during the therapeutic session or if they engage in inauthentic
behavior, clients will also remain guarded and persist in their inauthentic ways.
Schneider (2011) believes that the therapist’s presence is both a condition and a
goal of therapeutic change. Presence serves the dual functions of reconnecting
people to their pain and to attuning them to the opportunities to transform their
pain.
Strengths

The existential foundation of cross-cultural counseling is that it focuses on the

sober issues each of us must inevitably face. For this reason it is very
effective.

Vontress (2013) believes existential therapy is especially useful in working with

culturally diverse populations because of its focus on universality, or the
similarities we all shar

The existential approach to therapy has been found to be effective for a

diverse population of people in many parts of the world such as in
scandanavian, european, american societies.

Limitations

The existentialists can be criticized on the grounds that they are excessively
individualistic and ignore the social factors that cause human problems.

A potential problem within existential theory is that it is highly focused on the

philosophical assumption of self determination, which may not take into
account the complex factors that many people who have been oppressed
must deal with.

Many clients expect a structured and problem-oriented approach to

counseling that is not found in the conventional existential approach. Although
clients may feel better if they have an opportunity to talk and to be
understood, they are likely to expect the counselor to do something to bring
about a change in their life situation

Theories of Counselling 19
 IMPORTANT THEORETICAL CONCEPTS
The theory underlying existential therapy focuses not on the treatment process
but on exploring the universal issues that people face and ways for people to
address them that are life enhancing and actualising.
Ultimate Concerns of the Human Condition
For the existentialists. life has no inherent meaning and is replete with challenges.
Unless people meet these challenges with awareness, openness, and courage,
their emotional development can become blocked or delayed. Existentialist theory
suggests that the following four ultimate concerns of the human condition are
typically at the root of emotional difficulties:

Inevitability of death. From childhood, we realize that our death is inevitable,

as are the deaths of our loved ones. No matter how gifted we are, no matter
how special our lives are, death is the outcome for everyone. The fear of our
ultimate nonbeing can cast a pall over people's lives and make them seem
pointless.

Isolation. Although we may surround ourselves with colleagues, friends, and

family, we are ultimately alone. No one can truly understand us or sense our
thoughts and feelings as we do. No one can rescue us from the inevitability of
death and other losses we will experience in our lives. Some people seek to
fuse with and become dependent on others in an effort to counteract their
sense of alienation and loneliness, but those efforts inevitably fail because
they detract even further from people's sense of themselves and the purpose
of their lives. In fact, loneliness can be most acute when we are with others
and are aware of our lack of a true connection with them.

Meaninglessness. Life seems inherently meaningless. The only certainties in

our lives are birth and death. Beyond that, life seems to be a random process.
The lack of meaning in life can lead to hopelessness, discouragement, and a
sense of emptiness. All human beings at one point or another ask themselves,
"What is the meaning of life?" Viktor Frankl (2000) believed *it is not we who
should ask for the meaning of life, since it is we who are being asked. It is we
ourselves who must answer the questions that life asks of us, and to these

Theories of Counselling 20
 questions we can respond only by being responsible for our existence" (p.
56). Early on, Frank determined there were:
.. three groups of values, or possible ways to find meaning in life even up to
the last moment, the last breath. These three possibilities are: (1) a deed we
do, a work we create; (2) an experi-ence, a human encounter, a love; and (3)
when confronted with an unchangeable fate (such as an incurable disease), a
change of attitude toward that fate. In such cases we still can wrest meaning
from life by giving testimony to the most human of all human capacities: the
ability to turn suffering into a human triumph. (Frankl, 2000, p. 64)
Just as Viktor Frankl found meaning in his efforts to survive the concentration
camp so that he could share his ideas with the world, each person is unique
and must discover his or her own meaning.

Freedom and responsibility. Modern society presents people with an

overwhelming and constantly increasing array of choices: choices of
lifestyles, choices of experiences, choices of acquisitions, and others. We
have both the freedom and the responsibility to make choices that create a
worthwhile existence for ourselves in the limited time we have on earth.

Existential and Neurotic Anxietv

Everyone experiences the four ultimate concerns of the human condition and,
according to existen-falist theory, that creates feelings of anxiety in evervone.
However, the theory distinguishes between existential (normal) anxiety and
neurotic anxiety. Existential anxiety is viewed as an inevitable part of the human
condition. It is deeper than anxiety about one's career or health. Rather, it is
"a deep feeling of unease that arises from our awareness of the givens: our
existence is finite, we are mortal, and there is no purpose but the ones we create
for ourselves" (Bauman & Waldo, 1998, p. 19).
Existential anxiety is a
positive sign rather than a pathological state: it indicates that people recognize
the need to accept responsibility for their lives and are engaged in efforts to
create a worthwhile and meaningful existence. Such people are living authentic
lives in which they are aware of their self-in-world construct, strive to make wise
choices. and take responsibility for their decisions.
Existential guilt and neurotic anxiety result when we lack awareness of our
relationships, and our psychological world; fail to take responsibility for making

Theories of Counselling 21
 our lives meaningful and worthwhile. and realize that we have not become what
we might have
that we have not fully realized ourselves as human beings and have allowed our
lives to be controlled by chance and circumstance. We may not understand or be
able to articulate the reasons for our feelings of guilt but, for many, an underlying
sense of deep guilt and regret pervades our lives.
Depression oiten is the result of efforts to defend against existential guilt and
anxiety and avoid the task of making our lives meaningful. Yalom (1980) found, for
example, that among people nearing death, depression was greatest in those who
had not created meaningful lives, whereas those who felt satished with the lives
they had created for themselves were more able to accept death
Human Development and the Development of Emotional Difficulties
Existential therapists do not dispute the importance of early development and the
child-parent relationship. However, they link those to existential concerns. Frankl,
for example, believed that so-called neurotic difficulties often stem from an
upbringing in which parents were punitive and deprived children of freedom
(Barton, 1992).
Similarly. existential therapists think of the unconscious in ways that reflect the
tenets of existentialism. They concentrate on the unconscious conflict between
people's wish to escape the givens of the human condition and lose themselves in
lethargy and denial and their wish to achieve fulfillment despite the challenges and
responsibilities that achievement entails. For the existential-ists, emotional
difficulties stem from failure to deal successfully with the inevitabilities of the
human condition and to transcend them by creating a meaningful and authentic
life for oneself.
Existential therapists pay attention to development throughout the life span and do
not limit their focus to early childhood. They view life as a process of creating our
own histories, with each choice and phase shaping and contributing to the next.
Existence is never static; people are always becoming something new, striving to
move toward their possibilities, and making their lives worthwhile.
Dasein
Existentialists speak of dasein-translated from the German as being present,
being-in-the-world According to Bauman and Waldo (1998), "The term dasein
acknowledges that human beings exist, have consciousness, and are responsible
for their own existence" (p. 16).

Theories of Counselling 22
 Six propositions of existentialist approach

1. The capacity for self-awareness

Freedom, choice and responsibility is the foundation of self-awareness

The greater self awareness , the greater possibility of freedom

One of the aims of counselling is to increase self-awareness

Important to help the client realise that greater possibilities of freedom

and can also create more anxiety

exploring true self and making choices which align with their values

2. Freedom and Responsibility

freedom to choose actions and bearing the responsibility of the

consequences that follow

According to frankl, freedom is bound by certain limitations. we are not

free from conditions but we are free to take a stand against these
restrictions.

Therapist task is also to challenge clients to help them recognise how

they have failed to choose for themselves.

3. Striving for identity and relationship to others (need for centre and need
for others)

We have a strong need to discover ourselves as well as to discover our

relationships with others

The courage to be: clients are encouraged to live from the inside and
reflect on their core. One of the greatest fears clients is have is that
their core will be empty or there will be no core, and that they are
merely a reflection of other’s expectations.

clients are encouraged to verbalise these fears.

Experience of aloneness:

we are ultimately alone, no one can rescue us from inevitability of

death

Theories of Counselling 23
 The human condition includes the experience of aloneness, which
can be empowering when we learn to derive strength from within
ourselves.

Experience of relatedness:

Therapy helps clients distinguish between neurotically dependent

attachments and healthy, mature relationships.

Clients are challenged to examine their behavior patterns and

reclaim their identity, which may involve confronting fears and
assuming personal freedom.

4. Search for meaning

Existential therapy addresses clients' fundamental questions about the

meaning and purpose of their lives.

Clients may struggle with discarding old values without replacing them,
leading to feelings of emptiness and a lack of direction.

Viktor Frankl emphasizes the importance of discovering meaning as a

response to existential stress and anxiety.

Meaninglessness can lead to an existential vacuum, where individuals

feel empty and disconnected from life.

Logotherapy helps clients find meaning in suffering and adversity,

acknowledging that meaning is created through engagement with what
is valued.

The search for meaning is an ongoing process that evolves throughout

life, and what is meaningful can change over time.

5. Anxiety as a condition of living

four concerns of human condition creates anxiety in everyone.

existentialist approach differentiates between existentialist and
neurotic anxiety.

Existentialist anxiety comes from the realisation that our existence is

finite, we are mortal, and there is no purpose in life except the ones
that we create for ourselves.

Theories of Counselling 24
 existentialist guilt and neurotic anxiety arises when we lack awareness
of our physical world, psychological world and relationships, when we
fail to take responsibility of our actions and make meaningful lives for
ourselves.

6. Awareness of death and non-being

Existentialists view death as a fundamental aspect of human existence

that gives significance to life.

Awareness of death motivates us to live fully and appreciate the

present moment.

Therapists address the fear of death directly, recognizing its pervasive

influence on individuals.

Confronting the fear of death can lead to a more authentic way of

living and a greater acceptance of personal mortality.

Exploring one's values and actions in the context of mortality helps

individuals evaluate their lives and make meaningful changes.

Accepting the reality of death can lead to a deeper appreciation of life

and a sense of personal responsibility for one's actions and choices.

Key Figures
Victor Frankl: 1905-1997

difficult years in nazi concentration camp

he concluded that will to create meaning and purpose is primary human

motivator

Important work: Man’s search for meaning

treatment: logo therapy (therapy through meaning)

Belief: even in extreme circumstances, people have choices and can give
meaning to life

Rollo May

Brought existentialism to united states

Theories of Counselling 25
 Important work: Existence: A new dimension in psychiatry and psychology

Focused on anxiety, aloneness in the world and apprehension about death

people who avoid conflict with culture and destiny- neglect the potentional
meaning in life

Irvin Yalom

writer on existentialism and group psychotherapy

Work: Existential Psychotherapy (1980) and the gift of therapy (2009)

confronting fear of death will allow us to live a richer and meaningful life

talked about inevitability of death, aloneness, absence of meaning in life,

freedom of choice

Propositions
Capacity for Self-awareness:

Self awareness- greater possibilities of freedom - but can also create more
anxiety because of freedom.

Self-awareness, crucial in existential therapy, allows clients to explore their

true selves, understand existential concerns, and make choices aligned with
their values.

Freedom and Responsibility:

Freedom to choose actions and responsibility of consequences

Existentialists stress individual freedom and responsibility. Therapy helps

clients realize their choice in responding to life's challenges and the
significance of owning their decisions and their effects.

Therapist task: challenging clients to recognise how they have failed to

choose for themselves.

Creating One's Identity and Establishing Meaningful Relationships:

Strong need to discover self and our relationships with others

Theories of Counselling 26
 experience of aloneness- realisation our ultimate loneliness and experience of
relatedness- a need for fulfillment or from a place of deprivation

creation of a self that matches one's desires, and stresses the importance of
genuine, respectful connections with others.

Search for Meaning, Purpose, Values, and Goals:

existential concerns like finding life's meaning, purpose, values, and goals.

Therapists help clients examine their existential issues, identifying what's

meaningful and significant to them, and encourage the pursuit of goals aligned
with their true selves.

Anxiety as a Condition of Living:

Existentialists see anxiety as inherent to human life, arising from our

knowledge of freedom, responsibility, and death.

anxiety’s potential lies in how we choose to respond to it.

In therapy, clients are helped to face these anxieties, understand their roots,
and build strategies to bravely manage life's uncertainties.

neurotic anxiety and existential anxiety

Awareness of Death and Nonbeing:

realisation of inevitability of death- existential angst because of finite nature of

existence

death provides us with a sense of urgency

Existential therapy helps clients confront mortality, appreciate the present, and
find meaning despite life's impermanence, enhancing a deeper appreciation
for life's richness.

Techniques
Symbolic growth experience

based on frankls and maslows ideas

exploring importance, symbolism and meaning of an experience

Theories of Counselling 27
 leads to heightened awareness, discovery of meaning and personal worth

Logotherapy and paradoxical intention

helping people recognise depth of their meaning in life

paradoxial intention: encouraging clients to do or wish for the very thing they
fear the most - changing the meaning of fear

Dereflection

reducing compulsive self observation and redirecting attention

helping clients to discover meaning in situations in the present moment

Application

diagnostic groups: suited for people with depression and anxiety disorders,
therapist can help them find meaning in their fears and can help them develop
acceptance of their situations.

helpful for people coping with loss, grief and people transitioning between
phases of life

multicultural groups:

Paper Discussion
Common tips

make long answers into parts , provide headings and sub headings

Define counselling, guidance. Trends. History

definitions , key figures, examples

History: key starting point

Current trends: different forms of therapy (constructivist approach, family

systems, anti caste, narrative, feminist, online counselling, robots doing
therapy) implication of each, critical view

Neo-freudian.

Theories of Counselling 28
 Freud: View of human nature

Specific theories and conceptual understanding

Therapist and client roles and their relationship

Jung: collective unconscious, anima animus, persona and shadow

Adler: phenomenological approach, subjective experience, birth order,

inferiority complex, life tasks, social relatedness, family constellation

Humanistic

Behaviour Therapy
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-behavioral-therapy-2795998
https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/23944/1/Unit-4.pdf

Title: Exploring Current Trends in Counseling: Diverse Approaches and

Implications
Introduction:
Counseling is a dynamic field that continuously evolves to meet the changing
needs of individuals and society. In recent years, several trends have emerged,
reflecting a growing recognition of the diverse factors influencing mental health
and well-being. This essay will explore various forms of therapy, including the
constructivist approach, family systems therapy, anti-caste counseling, narrative
therapy, feminist therapy, online counseling, and the integration of technology
such as robots in therapy. Each approach will be examined for its implications and
critically reviewed in terms of its effectiveness and ethical considerations.

1. Anti-Caste Counseling:

Theories of Counselling 29
 Anti-caste counseling is a specialized form of therapy that addresses the
psychological effects of caste-based discrimination and oppression.
Therapists employing this approach acknowledge the pervasive influence of
casteism on individuals' identity, self-esteem, and mental health. Implications
include validating clients' experiences of caste-based trauma, challenging
caste-based stereotypes and biases, and advocating for social justice and
equality. However, there is limited research on the effectiveness of anti-caste
counseling, and concerns have been raised about the potential for
retraumatization if not conducted sensitively.

2. Narrative Therapy:

Narrative therapy focuses on helping individuals reframe their personal

narratives and stories to promote healing and resilience. Therapists
collaborate with clients to externalize problems, identify alternative narratives,
and explore preferred outcomes. Implications include empowering clients to
reclaim agency over their lives, deconstructing dominant discourses, and
promoting cultural humility and inclusivity. Critics caution against
oversimplifying complex issues and urge therapists to remain vigilant against
imposing their interpretations on clients' narratives.

3. Feminist Therapy:

Feminist therapy centers on addressing power dynamics, gender inequalities,

and social injustices that impact mental health. Therapists using this approach
aim to validate clients' experiences within sociopolitical contexts, challenge
traditional gender roles, and promote self-empowerment and social change.
Implications include fostering a collaborative therapeutic relationship,
advocating for gender-sensitive practices, and integrating intersectionality
into counseling approaches. However, critics argue that feminist therapy may
neglect men's issues and could inadvertently pathologize traditional
femininity.

4. Online Counseling:

Online counseling, also known as e-therapy or teletherapy, involves providing

counseling services through digital platforms such as video conferencing,

Theories of Counselling 30
 messaging, or mobile apps. Implications include increased accessibility to
mental health services, convenience for clients with mobility or transportation
barriers, and greater flexibility in scheduling appointments. However, concerns
exist regarding data security and privacy, potential limitations in therapeutic
rapport and non-verbal communication, and the need for ethical guidelines
specific to online counseling.

5. Robots Doing Therapy:

The integration of artificial intelligence and robotics in therapy represents a
novel approach to delivering mental health interventions. Robots equipped
with natural language processing capabilities and machine learning algorithms
can provide automated counseling and support. Implications include
expanding access to mental health care, reducing stigma associated with
seeking help, and providing consistent and non-judgmental support. However,
ethical concerns arise regarding the potential for dehumanization, loss of
human connection, and the need for human oversight and accountability.

Conclusion:
Current trends in counseling reflect a diverse array of approaches aimed at
addressing the complex and multifaceted nature of mental health and well-being.
While each approach offers unique implications and benefits, critical evaluation is
essential to ensure ethical practice and effectiveness. By embracing innovation
while remaining mindful of ethical considerations, counselors can continue to
adapt and evolve to meet the evolving needs of individuals and communities.

Introduction:
Counseling is a dynamic field that constantly adapts to the changing needs and
challenges of individuals seeking support for their mental health and well-being. In
recent years, several trends have emerged within the counseling profession,
reflecting advancements in research, technology, and societal shifts. This essay
aims to explore some of the current trends in counseling, including the integration
of technology, emphasis on diversity and inclusivity, focus on preventive
approaches, and the expansion of online counseling services.

Theories of Counselling 31
 1. Integration of Technology:
One of the most significant trends in counseling is the integration of
technology into therapeutic practice. Technological advancements have
transformed the way counseling services are delivered, with therapists
incorporating various digital tools and platforms to enhance accessibility and
effectiveness. This includes the use of teletherapy, video conferencing, mobile
apps, and virtual reality simulations. The integration of technology allows for
greater flexibility in scheduling sessions, increases access to counseling for
individuals in remote areas, and reduces barriers such as transportation and
stigma associated with seeking help.

a. The integration of artificial intelligence and robotics in therapy represents

a novel approach to delivering mental health interventions. Robots
equipped with natural language processing capabilities and machine
learning algorithms can provide automated counseling and support.
Implications include expanding access to mental health care, reducing
stigma associated with seeking help, and providing consistent and non-
judgmental support. However, ethical concerns arise regarding the
potential for dehumanization, loss of human connection, and the need for
human oversight and accountability.

2. Emphasis on Diversity and Inclusivity:

Another important trend in counseling is the increasing emphasis on diversity,
equity, and inclusivity within therapeutic practice. Counselors are recognizing
the importance of understanding and addressing the unique cultural, social,
and identity-related factors that influence individuals' mental health. This
includes incorporating culturally sensitive approaches, recognizing and
validating diverse experiences, and advocating for social justice and equality.
By embracing diversity and inclusivity, counselors can create a safe and
supportive environment where clients feel understood, respected, and
empowered to explore their identities and experiences.

a. Anti-caste counseling is a specialized form of therapy that addresses the

psychological effects of caste-based discrimination and oppression.
Therapists employing this approach acknowledge the pervasive influence
of casteism on individuals' identity, self-esteem, and mental health.
Implications include validating clients' experiences of caste-based trauma,

Theories of Counselling 32
 challenging caste-based stereotypes and biases, and advocating for social
justice and equality. However, there is limited research on the
effectiveness of anti-caste counseling, and concerns have been raised
about the potential for retraumatization if not conducted sensitively.

3. Focus on Preventive Approaches:

In response to the growing recognition of the importance of mental health
prevention, counselors are increasingly adopting preventive approaches in
their practice. Rather than solely focusing on addressing existing mental
health issues, counselors are working proactively to promote mental wellness
and resilience. This includes providing psychoeducation, teaching coping
skills, fostering emotional intelligence, and promoting self-care strategies. By
emphasizing preventive approaches, counselors can empower individuals to
build and maintain their mental health, leading to improved overall well-being
and resilience.

4. Expansion of Online Counseling Services:

The expansion of online counseling services has emerged as a significant
trend in response to the increasing demand for accessible and convenient
mental health care. Online counseling, also known as teletherapy or e-
counseling, allows individuals to receive counseling services remotely through
digital platforms such as video conferencing, messaging, or mobile apps. This
trend has been accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, which highlighted the
need for alternative methods of delivering counseling services. Online
counseling offers benefits such as increased accessibility, flexibility in
scheduling, and the ability to reach individuals who may face barriers to
traditional in-person therapy.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, counseling is evolving in response to the changing needs and
preferences of individuals seeking support for their mental health and well-being.
Current trends in counseling reflect a commitment to embracing technology,
promoting diversity and inclusivity, adopting preventive approaches, and
expanding access to online counseling services. By staying informed and
adaptable, counselors can continue to effectively meet the diverse needs of their
clients and contribute to positive mental health outcomes in their communities.

Theories of Counselling 33
 1. Positive Psychology: Positive psychology focuses on the study of human
strengths, well-being, and flourishing. There is a growing interest in promoting
resilience, happiness, and optimal functioning, rather than just treating
psychopathology. Positive psychology interventions, such as gratitude
exercises, mindfulness practices, and strengths-based approaches, are
gaining popularity in therapeutic settings and are being applied in various
domains, including education, workplace psychology, and community
interventions.

2. Biopsychosocial Approach: The biopsychosocial model recognizes that

biological, psychological, and social factors interact to influence health and
well-being. There is increasing interdisciplinary collaboration between
psychologists, neuroscientists, geneticists, and other health professionals to
understand the complex interplay between biological, psychological, and
social determinants of mental health and illness. This holistic approach is
shaping research, assessment, and treatment practices in psychology.

3. Evidence-Based Practice: There is a growing emphasis on using evidence-

based approaches in psychology to ensure that interventions are grounded in
scientific research and have been demonstrated to be effective. Evidence-
based practice involves integrating the best available research evidence with
clinical expertise and client preferences and values. There is a push for
greater transparency and accountability in psychological research and
practice, with an emphasis on replicability, rigor, and transparency in research
methods and reporting.

4.

Guidance, Counselling, Psychotherapy

Definitions

Definition of Guidance
Guidance involves personal help given by someone; it is designed to help
individuals to decide where he wants to go, what he wants to do and how best

Theories of Counselling 34
 he can accomplish his purpose.- Jones
Definition of Counselling
Counselling is a series of direct contact with individuals which aim to offer him
assistance in attitude and behaviour- Rogers
Definition of Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy is the treatment of psychological disorders and mental distress
through verbal and psychological techniques. It involves helping individuals
change behaviours, thoughts, and emotions that cause distress.

Purpose and Nature

Guidance

Guidance and Societal Adjustment: Guidance aims to assist individuals in

aligning their abilities, interests, and needs with those of society, and helps
them adapt to changing societal demands.

Elementary School Focus: In elementary school, guidance helps students

blend societal influences like family, school, religion, and friendships,
laying the groundwork for their teenage years.

Secondary School Focus: In secondary school, guidance assists students

in distinguishing between these societal influences, guiding them in
educational planning, career choices, and social relationships.

Enhancing Individual Capability: Overall, guidance aims to boost

individuals' ability to handle personal relationships effectively, leading to
increased satisfaction and societal contribution, benefiting students,
teachers, parents, and others.

Counselling

1. Positive Mental Health: Counseling aims to help individuals develop

meaningful relationships and lead fulfilling lives, ultimately achieving
positive mental health characterized by the ability to love and be loved.

2. Problem Resolution: Counseling assists individuals in finding their own

solutions to difficult situations or problems they may be facing.

Theories of Counselling 35
 3. Decision-Making Support: One of the goals of counseling is to empower
individuals to make independent and timely decisions by providing
necessary information and clarifying their goals.

4. Personal Effectiveness Enhancement: Counseling aims to improve

personal effectiveness by helping individuals control impulses, think
creatively, and solve problems effectively.

5. Facilitating Change: Counseling supports individuals in making changes

to their attitudes, perceptions, or personality to facilitate personal
development.

6. Behavior Modification: Counseling also focuses on modifying behavior,

helping individuals to eliminate undesirable or self-defeating behaviors
and learn more effective behaviors for better adjustment and
effectiveness.’

Psychotherapy

1. Addressing Mental Health Concerns: Psychotherapy aims to alleviate

symptoms of mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, trauma,
and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).

2. Promoting Emotional Well-being: It helps individuals understand and

manage their emotions more effectively, leading to improved emotional
regulation and resilience.

3. Enhancing Self-awareness: Psychotherapy fosters self-awareness by

exploring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, helping individuals
gain insight into their inner experiences and motivations.

4. Improving Coping Skills: It teaches coping strategies and problem-solving

techniques to deal with stress, adversity, and life challenges more
adaptively

5. Strengthening Relationships: It improves interpersonal skills and

communication patterns, leading to healthier and more satisfying
relationships with others.

6. Fostering Behavior Change: Psychotherapy helps individuals modify

maladaptive behaviors and develop healthier habits and lifestyle choices.

Theories of Counselling 36
 7. Preventing Relapse: It equips individuals with the skills and strategies
necessary to prevent relapse and maintain long-term mental health and
well-being.

Areas
Guidance
1. Education Guidance:
◦ Pre-admission guidance assists individuals in making informed decisions
before entering colleges or universities.
◦ Post-admission guidance aids students in navigating the educational
syllabus and requirements during their academic journey.
2.
Vocational Guidance:
◦ Helps individuals identify suitable career paths based on their academic
background and skills.
◦ Ensures individuals make informed decisions about their job choices.
3.
Avocational Guidance:
◦ Encourages students to engage in extracurricular activities and pursuits
beyond the classroom.
◦ Emphasizes the importance of intellectual growth outside formal
education settings.
4.
Social Relationship Guidance:
◦ Assists individuals in improving their social interactions and relationships.
◦ Helps individuals develop friendships and navigate social situations more
effectively.
6.
Moral Needs Guidance:
◦ Supports individuals in understanding and adhering to moral principles
and values.
◦ Helps individuals navigate moral dilemmas and make ethical decisions in
their lives.
7.
Personal Problem Guidance:

Theories of Counselling 37
 ◦ Addresses various personal issues individuals may face, including those
related to family, friends, education, and social adaptation.
◦ Provides support and assistance in resolving personal challenges and
conflicts.

Counselling

1. Addictions:

People often develop addictions as a way to exert control in their lives.

Anger management counseling teaches constructive expression of

anger to prevent destructive outcomes.

2. Bereavement and Loss:

Bereavement and loss cause intense pain and can lead to various
mental states from depression to aggression.

Counseling supports individuals through the grieving process and

helps them find emotional stability.

3. Depression:

Living with depression is emotionally and physically exhausting.

Counseling provides a supportive environment for individuals to cope

with depression and rebuild their lives.

4. Eating Disorders:

Eating disorders revolve around food, body image, and self-esteem

issues.

Counseling helps individuals address unhealthy eating habits and

develop a healthier relationship with food and their bodies.

5. Low Self-Esteem and Confidence:

Low self-esteem often stems from past experiences of abuse or

intimidation.

Counseling guides individuals to rebuild self-confidence and recognize

their worth.

Theories of Counselling 38
 6. Relationships:

Counseling assists couples in improving communication and intimacy.

It also helps individuals navigate divorce or issues related to infidelity.

7. Stress:

Stress from various sources can lead to feelings of overwhelm and

anxiety.

Counseling provides strategies to manage stress and its effects on

mental health.

8. Trauma:

Traumatic experiences can result in a range of emotional and

psychological symptoms.

Counseling helps individuals process and cope with trauma, reducing

its long-term impact.

Psychotherapy

1. Mood Disorders and Anxiety:

Therapy helps manage symptoms of depression, anxiety disorders,

panic attacks, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).

2. Trauma and Stress:

Therapy assists in processing traumatic experiences, managing

symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and coping with
stress related to work, relationships, and life transitions.

3. Relationships and Interpersonal Issues:

Counseling addresses communication problems, conflicts, intimacy

issues, and other challenges within relationships, including couples
therapy and family therapy.

4. Grief, Loss, and Identity:

Theories of Counselling 39
 Counseling supports individuals through the grieving process, helps
develop a positive self-image, and explores personal values, beliefs,
and cultural identity.

5. Substance Use and Eating Disorders:

Therapy assists in overcoming substance abuse, addiction, and

unhealthy eating behaviors by addressing underlying issues and
developing coping skills.

6. Anger Management and Sleep Disorders:

Therapy helps manage and express anger in healthy ways, addresses

sleep disturbances, and improves sleep hygiene.

7. Existential Concerns and Workplace Issues:

Therapy explores existential themes such as meaning, purpose,

freedom, and mortality, and supports individuals in coping with work-
related stress, career transitions, and interpersonal conflicts.

Types
Guidance:

1. Educational Guidance: Helps individuals navigate educational pathways,

make informed decisions about courses and programs, and develop study
skills.

2. Career Guidance: Assists individuals in exploring career options,

identifying strengths and interests, and planning for future career paths.

3. Personal and Social Guidance: Supports individuals in developing

personal and social skills, managing relationships, and coping with life
transitions and challenges.

4. Health and Wellness Guidance: Provides information and resources to

promote physical and mental well-being, including stress management,
healthy lifestyle choices, and preventive health measures.

Counseling:

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 1. Career Counseling: Helps individuals explore career options, set career
goals, and make informed decisions about their professional path.

2. Educational Counseling: Assists students in academic planning, course

selection, study skills development, and educational goal-setting.

3. Marriage and Family Counseling: Focuses on improving communication,

resolving conflicts, and strengthening relationships within couples and
families.

4. Addiction Counseling: Helps individuals overcome substance abuse and

addiction by addressing underlying issues and developing coping
strategies.

5. Grief Counseling: Supports individuals coping with loss and bereavement,

providing space for emotional expression and healing.

6. Trauma Counseling: Assists individuals in processing and healing from

traumatic experiences, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
and other trauma-related symptoms.

7. Anger Management Counseling: Teaches individuals healthy ways to

manage and express anger, addressing underlying triggers and patterns of
behavior.

8. Child and Adolescent Counseling: Provides support and guidance to

children and adolescents facing various challenges, including academic
difficulties, behavioral issues, and emotional concerns.

Psychotherapy:

1. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Focuses on identifying and

changing negative thought patterns and behaviors to alleviate symptoms
of mental health disorders.

2. Psychodynamic Therapy: Explores unconscious thoughts and past

experiences to gain insight into current emotions and behaviors, with the
goal of resolving underlying conflicts.

3. Humanistic Therapy: Emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and

the importance of the present moment in fostering psychological well-
being.

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 4. Existential Therapy: Addresses existential concerns such as finding
meaning and purpose in life, freedom, responsibility, and mortality.

5. Family Therapy: Involves working with families to address relational

dynamics, communication patterns, and conflicts to promote healthier
functioning and relationships.

6. Group Therapy: Conducts therapy sessions with a small group of

individuals facing similar concerns, providing support, validation, and
opportunities for interpersonal learning and growth.

Psychodynamic Approach:
The psychodynamic approach to counseling is rooted in the theories of Sigmund
Freud and emphasizes the role of unconscious processes and early childhood
experiences in shaping behavior and personality. In counseling, psychodynamic
therapists explore clients' unconscious conflicts, defense mechanisms, and past
experiences to gain insight into present-day thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
The goal is to help clients achieve self-awareness, resolve inner conflicts, and
develop healthier ways of coping with life's challenges.
Behavioral Approach:
The behavioral approach to counseling focuses on observable behaviors and the
environmental factors that influence them. Drawing from principles of learning
theory, behavioral therapists use techniques such as operant conditioning,
classical conditioning, and behavior modification to address maladaptive
behaviors and promote positive change. Counseling sessions often involve setting
specific goals, identifying triggers for problematic behaviors, and implementing
strategies to reinforce desired behaviors.
Existential Approach:
The existential approach to counseling explores the fundamental questions of
human existence, such as the search for meaning, freedom, and responsibility.
Rooted in existential philosophy, counseling from this perspective emphasizes the
importance of authenticity, self-awareness, and personal choice. Existential
therapists help clients confront existential concerns and embrace the inherent
uncertainties of life, fostering a deeper sense of purpose and connection to
oneself and others.

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 Humanistic Approach:
The humanistic approach to counseling emphasizes the inherent worth and
potential of each individual and focuses on facilitating personal growth, self-
actualization, and fulfillment. Humanistic therapists, such as those influenced by
Carl Rogers' person-centered therapy, provide a supportive and nonjudgmental
environment where clients can explore their feelings, values, and goals.
Counseling from a humanistic perspective emphasizes empathy, genuineness,
and unconditional positive regard, empowering clients to tap into their inner
resources and pursue a more authentic and fulfilling life.

Theories of Counselling 43