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BEOWULF

1 Overview Tone The poet is generally enthusiastic

about Beowulf’s feats, but he often
Full Title Beowulf surrounds the events he narrates with

Author Unknown a sense of doom.

Type of Work Poem Tense Past, but with digressions into the
distant past and predictions of the
Genre Alliterative verse; elegy; resembles
future
heroic epic, though smaller in scope
than most classical epics Setting (time) The main action of the story is set
around 500 CE; the narrative also
Language Anglo-Saxon (also called Old English)
recounts historical events that
Time and Place Estimates of the date of composition happened much earlier.
Written range between 700 and 1000 CE;
Setting (place) Denmark and Geatland (a region in
written in England
what is now southern Sweden)
Date of First The only manuscript in which Beowulf
Protagonist Beowulf
Publication is preserved is thought to have been
written around 1000 a.d. Major conflict The poem essentially consists of three
parts. There are three central conflicts:
Publisher The original poem exists only in
Grendel’s domination of Heorot Hall;
manuscript form.
the vengeance of Grendel’s mother
Narrator A Christian narrator telling a story of after Grendel is slain; and the rage of
pagan times. Beowulf is told from a the dragon after a thief steals a
third-person omniscient perspective treasure that it has been guarding. The
as the narrator shows glimpses of poem’s overarching conflict is
many characters' feelings and between close-knit warrior societies
viewpoints. and the various menaces that threaten
Point of view The narrator recounts the story in the their boundaries.
third person, from a generally objective Rising action Grendel’s attack on Heorot, Beowulf’s
standpoint—detailing the action that defeat of Grendel, and Grendel’s
occurs. The narrator does, however, mother’s vengeful killing of Aeschere
have access to every character’s lead to the climactic encounter
depths. We see into the minds of most between Beowulf and Grendel’s
of the characters (even Grendel) at one mother.
point or another, and the narrative also
Climax Beowulf’s encounter with Grendel’s
moves forward and backward in time
mother constitutes the moment at
with considerable freedom.
which good and evil are in greatest
tension.

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Falling action Beowulf’s glorious victory over

Grendel’s mother leads King Hrothgar
to praise him as a worthy hero and to
advise him about becoming king. It
also helps Beowulf to transform from a
brazen warrior into a reliable king.

Themes The importance of establishing

identity; tensions between the heroic
code and other value systems; the
difference between a good warrior and
a good king

Motifs Monsters; the oral tradition; the mead-

hall

Symbols The golden torque; the banquet

Foreshadowing The funeral of Shield Sheafson, with

which the poem opens, foreshadows
Beowulf’s funeral at the poem’s end;
the story of Sigemund told by the scop,
or bard, foreshadows Beowulf’s fight
with the dragon; the story of King
Heremod foreshadows Beowulf’s
eventual ascendancy to kingship.

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2 Author Biography

What is known about the author of Beowulf has been derived

from studying the time period in which it was written and the
storytelling methods and poetic form of the piece. It is
believed to have been composed between 700–750 CE as a
story to be told orally and was written down centuries later.
The poet was gifted in the art of storytelling and alliteration.
Alliteration is the repetition of sounds within a text that
creates a rhythmic quality to the work. In Beowulf, the poet
repeats the beginning sound of words throughout the text,
setting up a rhythm that begs for the poem to be performed
and chanted and suggests that it stemmed from the tradition
of oral storytelling.

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3 10 Things You Didn't Know J.R.R. Tolkien, author of The Hobbit and The Lord of the
Rings trilogy, fell in love with Beowulf during his school years.
Thought to have been composed between 700 and 750 CE, During meetings of the literary club he and his classmates
Beowulf is a classic text of early medieval Old English formed, Tolkien would quote lines of the epic poem in its
literature. A tale of the virtues of bravery and strength, original Old English.
Beowulf tells the story of the titular character's battles
against three fearsome creatures: the monster Grendel, 3.4 Beowulf includes some 36 different words for
Grendel's mother, and a ferocious dragon. "hero."

The epic poem—taken from a single manuscript produced in The language used in Beowulf is a mash-up of dialects from
the early 11th century—is regarded by scholars as important four different areas of medieval Britain: Kent, Mercia,
both for its literary content and its historical value in Northumbria, and Wessex. The result shows just how
chronicling Scandinavian mythology traditionally passed developed and complex a language Old English was at the
down orally. Though the author and original title of the work time the poem was written. For example, the poem uses a
remain unknown, the story has been memorialized in total of 36 different words for "hero." "Hæle" and "eorl" are
countless retellings and adaptations and has had an impact just two of the Old English words that can be translated to
on stories of heroes through the ages. "hero"in Modern English.

3.1 Beowulf is the longest epic poem in Old English. 3.5 There is only one surviving Beowulf manuscript.

Despite being the longest poem in Old English, the action is Beowulf was an oral tale passed down for years before being
all set in Scandinavia. In fact archaeologists believe they written down sometime in the 10th or 11th century. Today,

have found the remains of Heorot Hall in eastern Denmark, there is only one remaining manuscript. This manuscript has

which is terrorized by the monster Grendel in the epic. survived both age and a 1731 fire. Today, the manuscript is

Ironically, the British Isles, where Old English was spoken, kept safe at the British Library in London.
aren't mentioned anywhere in the story.
3.6 Beowulf may have been influenced by Virgil or
3.2 The original manuscript of Beowulf was Homer.

damaged in a fire.
Some scholars believe Homer's The Iliad and The Odyssey
The original copy of the Beowulf manuscript was badly or Virgil's The Aeneid may have inspired the North European
damaged in a fire on October 23, 1731, at Ashburnham epic, as all are epic poems that follow a hero's grand voyage.
House in Westminster, England. Now housed at the British These works also share similarities in structure and texture.
Library in London, the remains of the poem are incredibly The epic poem form may have been brought to England by a

fragile. Greek named Theodore who became Archbishop of

Canterbury in 638 and taught Greek language and literature

3.3 J.R.R. Tolkien quoted Beowulf with his classmates. to English clergy.

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3.7 Irish poet Seamus Heaney's translation of

Beowulf became a surprise best seller.

Beowulf might seem like a dense text with little appeal for a
broad, modern audience, but the translation by the Irish poet
Seamus Heaney released in 1999 proved otherwise.
Heaney's translation made the New York Times and Wall
Street Journal bestseller lists.

3.8 One film adaptation deviates heavily from the

plot by introducing an affair between Beowulf
and Grendel's mother.

The 2007 film Beowulf featured motion capture, creating a

digitized effect by using computer animation to overlay a
live-action performance. The film makes many changes to
the poem, such as featuring an affair between Beowulf and
Grendel's mother (played by Angelina Jolie).

3.9 The author Michael Crichton wrote a novel

inspired by Beowulf.

Michael Crichton, the American author of Jurassic Park,

made a bet that he could spin an entertaining tale out of
Beowulf. The result was his 1976 novel Eaters of the Dead.
The book was eventually adapted into a movie, The 13th
Warrior (1999).

3.10 A 1971 novel tells the story of Beowulf from

Grendel's perspective.

Grendel is unquestionably the villain of Beowulf, but

American novelist John Gardner saw more to the character
than pure evil. Gardner's 1971 novel Grendel tells the epic
story from the monster's perspective. Through Gardner's
eyes, Grendel becomes a fascinating protagonist.

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4 Context a personal and international level, as reported in the various

news media, and loyalty can be seen in the relationships
Beowulf is the oldest existing Old English poem. While the among friends and family, as well as students' feelings about
story and its historical elements arguably take place their school, fans' devotion to an athletic team, and citizens'
between the end of the 5th and the beginning of the 8th love of their country.
century, it was most likely put into its current written form
centuries later. The historical and cultural elements within
the poem—such as the description of the king's burial
ceremony and the construction of the majestic hall, Heorot,
by King Hrothgar—have helped scholars narrow the time
frame and the location for the setting. The mix of pagan
traditions interspersed with Christian values contributes to
the poem's mystique but is often up for debate among
scholars as to its exact time and date. In 2013, however,
archaeologists claimed to have found the ruins of Heorot,
located in Lejre, Denmark, about 20 miles west of
Copenhagen, and dating to the 6th century.

The poem was most likely written down by two monks in

England; handwriting analysis of the single medieval
manuscript dated it to the early 11th century. The
manuscript now resides in the British Museum and is one of
the most—if not the most—translated texts in history,
translated hundreds of times in both narrative and poetic
form. The story transcends time and place and is as relevant
today as it was in the Middle Ages. Its original audiences
most likely heard of Beowulf's heroism, loyalty, and honour in
a fire-lit room as the poet chanted to the accompaniment of
a harp and drums. Today theatres are filled with larger-than-
life characters much like Beowulf, whose heroic acts and
noble deeds are projected onto a huge screen for all to see.
Many of these characters and themes could easily be traced
to the original Scandinavian tales presented in Beowulf.
Outside the worlds of entertainment and academic study,
the themes of Beowulf still apply in everyday life. People
apply the heroic code in their lives when they seek to gain the
respect and trust of others and to honour those whom they
respect. The theme of good versus evil still plays out daily on

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5 About Beowulf elevated style, dealing with the trials and achievements of a
great hero or heroes. The epic celebrates virtues of national,
5.1 Introduction military, religious, cultural, political, or historical
significance. The word "epic" itself comes from the Greek
Beowulf probably was composed in England sometime in the epos, originally meaning "word" but later "oration" or "song."
eighth century ad and written down circa 1000 ad by a Like all art, an epic may grow out of a limited context but
literate scop (bard) or perhaps a Christian scribe who was achieves greatness in relation to its universality. Epics
possibly educated in a monastery. The poem was created in typically emphasize heroic action as well as the struggle
the oral-formulaic tradition (or oral poetic method), probably between the hero's own ethos and his human failings or
developing over a period of time with roots in folk tales and mortality.
traditional stories until a single, very talented poet put it in
something very near its current form. All of these characteristics apply to Beowulf. The hero,
Beowulf, is the title character. He represents the values of
The poem would have been performed for audiences at the heroic age, specifically the Germanic code of comitatus
court or on the road as the scop (preferred pronunciation, — the honour system that existed in Scandinavian countries
"shop") found audiences to support him. The scop would sing in the fifth and sixth centuries between a king, or feudal lord,
or chant the poem, rather than recite it, usually to the and his warriors (thanes). Thanes swore devotion to their
accompaniment of a harp. The scop's audience was probably leader and vowed to fight boldly, to the death, if necessary,
familiar with the story and the various allusions in the poem. for him. If the leader should fall, his thanes must avenge his
The poet's skill was judged by how well he could weave the life. For his part, the leader rewarded his thanes with
stories into an effective, entertaining presentation. treasure, protection, and land. His generosity often was
Performances like this are presented in Beowulf by considered a virtue and a mark of character. Courage,
Hrothgar's court scop, honouring Beowulf. loyalty, and reputation were other virtues for these warriors,
and we can look for them as themes in the poem. The code
Note: Quotations are from Howell D. Chickering, Jr.'s dual- of the comitatus is at the heart of the Beowulf epic.
language (facing-page) translation, Beowulf (New York:
Anchor Books, Doubleday, 1977), introduction and Increasingly, scholars distinguish between two types of epic.
commentary by the translator. Lines quoted are simply The first, the primary epic, evolves from the mores, legends,
indicated in parentheses. In the Anglo-Saxon, each line is or folk tales of a people and is initially developed in an oral
separated into two parts by a caesura (indicated by spacing). tradition of storytelling. Secondary epics are literary. They are
Here, the extra spacing has been eliminated from brief written from their inception and designed to appear as whole
quotes for the sake of simplicity. stories. Under this definition, Beowulf is a primary epic, the
best evidence being that it first existed in the oral tradition.
5.2 Beowulf as Epic Furthermore, Beowulf does employ digressions, long
speeches, journeys and quests, various trials or tests of the
Scholars debate almost everything about Beowulf, including hero, and even divine intervention, as do classic epics. We
the question of whether it should be considered an epic at might call Beowulf a folk epic, although some scholars prefer
all. An epic is a long narrative poem, composed in an an emphasis on its mythological background.

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an impressive helmet, a representation of which is used for

Beowulf, however, differs from the classic epics of ancient the cover of Howell D. Chickering, Jr.'s paperback
Greece, the Iliad and the Odyssey, which were composed translation. Other artifacts include both pagan and Christian
some 1,500 years before and set the standard for the epic symbols, indicating the fusion of cultures in England
tradition. It does not open with an invocation to a Muse, and approaching the time of the composition of the poem. We
it does not start in medias res ("in the middle of things"), might remember that Pope Gregory, who served from 590 to
although time is out of joint in the poem, especially in its last 604, encouraged Christian missionaries to absorb pagan
third. tradition into Christian ritual in order to promote a smooth
transition for the pagans.
Some of the devices employed by the Beowulf poet, such as
frequent digressions, may seem tedious to the modern Royal ship burials, at sea or on land, were also part of the
reader. To his audience, however, the list of heroes, villains, Scandinavian culture from at least the fifth century through
and battles were familiar. The stories of great achievements the ninth. Another significant archaeological discovery was
were cherished and intended to honour Beowulf's own at Oseburg in southern Norway, just one of several in
accomplishments. Poems like this appealed to a wide Scandinavia. The tribal feuds of the fifth and sixth centuries
audience and constituted a form of public entertainment. In are well documented historically, and the death of King
Beowulf itself, we witness the captivating talents of Hygelac in battle (circa 520) is a recorded fact.
performing storytellers; an example is the scop who sings of
The Finnsburh Episode (1063-1159). Another custom was the concept of wergild, literally, "man-
payment," the price set on a person's life according to his
5.3 Beowulf as History social or political station. If a lord or one of his top thanes
(sometimes called a retainer) were killed in a feud, the
One point to remember is that the poem is not history. In a fighting might go on indefinitely, one side killing for
way, Beowulf's world runs parallel to history. Although it vengeance and then the other. However, the fighting could
rarely refers to historical facts, the setting is similar to reality be stopped by a payment of wergild. If a leader were killed,
in Denmark and Sweden in the fifth and sixth centuries, the the offending party could pay a certain amount to have the
time of the action in the poem. The social structure of the matter settled. Long before the opening of the poem,
comitatus did exist; and the most dominating rituals in the Hrothgar apparently made such a payment to buy Beowulf's
poem, the funerals near the beginning and at the end of the father out of a feud, and part of Beowulf's motivation in
epic, have been confirmed by archaeological discovery. coming to fight Grendel is to pay off this family obligation.

The most famous of these was the Sutton Hoo dig in East Still, getting too wrapped up in historical parallels is
Anglia in 1939. Sutton Hoo was a burial ground for one or dangerous. While some things are realistic, others are not.
more East Anglian kings in the early seventh century. Its The world in Beowulf is one of the imagination. We should
contents include a ship burial reminiscent of the funeral for not be too concerned about whether Beowulf can hold his
Scyld Scefing near the beginning of Beowulf and somewhat breath all day or swim five nights without rest, or, for that
like the final resting place of Beowulf himself. Buried with the matter, whether dragons keep treasure-troves. In Beowulf's
ship were various gold coins and pieces of armour, including world, they do.

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5.4 Poetic Devices in Beowulf • hand-sporu which literally translates to "hand

spike" and refers to Grendel's talon
Beowulf is an example of Anglo-Saxon poetry that is • word-hord which literally translates to "word
distinguished by its heavy use of alliteration. Simply put, hoard" and means "vocabulary"
alliteration is the repetition of initial sounds of words. For • ban-cofan which literally translates to "bone box"
example, notice the initial h sounds in the following line: and refers to a person's body
"The harrowing history haunted the heroes." In the original
Beowulf, alliteration is used in almost every line. A line of the Another device that modern readers might notice is the use
poem actually consists of two half-lines with a caesura of litotes, which are figures of speech in which a positive
(pause) between them. Usually, spacing indicates that statement is made by the negative of its opposite. It is a form
pause. In the following example, notice how the words of the of understatement that is none too subtle. We might say, for
first half-line alliterate with each other and the first word of example, "Abraham Lincoln was not too bad a President"
the second half-line: when we mean to convey that he was a great President.
When describing Grendel's mere (or pool), King Hrothgar
ferdon folc-togan feorran ond nean says (1372) it is "Not a pleasant place!" It is, in fact, filled

chieftains came from far and near with horror.

Sometimes the alliteration is more complicated and has Although modern works often contain poetic devices such

been the subject of many advanced studies. The point for as the simile, there are only a few similes in Beowulf. Simile

beginning students is that alliteration is as important in often is described as a comparison between two objects,

Beowulf as rhyme is for some later poets. Beowulf has no people, or ideas through the use of a comparative such as

consistent pattern of rhyme, although occasional internal "like" or "as." One simile occurs in line 218 when the poet

rhyme sometimes is effective and seems more than tells us that the ship went over the sea "like a bird." A more

accidental. original, complex, extended simile (2444 ff.) compares the

feelings of King Hrethel with those of a father whose son is

Imagery in the poem is vivid and often fun, and frequently on the gallows, the "likeness," or similarity, implied by the

related through the use of kennings. Put simply, kennings are first line.

compound expressions that use characteristics to name a

person or thing. One of the most popular examples is As poetry, Beowulf is rich in meaning. Some see it as an early

hronrade. Literally, the word means "whale-road"; the celebration of Christianity. Others think it extols or

kenning, then, is for the sea or ocean, a thoroughfare for the condemns heroic values. English novelist and scholar J. R. R.

whale. One of the strengths of the Chickering facing-page Tolkien ("Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics," Proceedings

translation is that it often repeats the kennings literally. of the British Academy, XXII [1936], 245–95) argued that

Sometimes even a beginning student can find the word in Beowulf is a balance between beginnings and endings, of

Anglo-Saxon, on the opposing page, for comparison. youth and age, the most dominating being Beowulf's. While

Following are some other examples of kennings: the poem is of value historically, it is more interesting as a
powerful work of art.

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6 The Beowulf Manuscript demands of a given line while expressing whatever ideas the
poet wished to communicate.
We cannot be certain when the Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf
was composed, how it was created, or exactly when it was Although primarily a pagan poem, Beowulf contains Christian
written down. What we can do is pay attention to top allusions that cannot be ignored. There is no mention of
scholars in the field and make some pretty good guesses. Jesus in Beowulf, and references to God seem based on the
Old Testament rather than the New. But King Hrothgar and
The only surviving manuscript of Beowulf is written in Old Beowulf sometimes refer to a single, all-powerful God, and
English (Anglo-Saxon). Rather than being composed at a there are instances of symbolic rebirth in the poem, such as
specific time, the poem probably developed out of various Beowulf's emergence from the mere after his defeat of
influences, especially folk tales and traditions. Parts of it Grendel's mother. The fight with the dragon, late in the poem,
may have originally been performed by court poets or especially seems to have Christian overtones. Counting the
traveling bards (scops, pronounced "shops," in the Anglo- thief, Beowulf is accompanied by 12 associates, most of
Saxon) who would have sung or chanted their poems to the whom desert him (reminding us of Christ's apostles). We are
accompaniment of a musical instrument such as a harp. We told that God's will is done throughout the poem.
can conclude, then, that the work grew out of popular art
forms, that various influences worked together, and that the Still, many of the Christian references have the feel of
story may have changed as it developed. afterthoughts. It seems more likely that they were added to
the work as it developed — not necessarily by one scop or
During the late 1920s and early 1930s, an American scholar scribe but by several, all trying to make the poem more
named Milman Parry revolutionized the study of live palatable to an increasingly Christian audience. The
performances of epics. He demonstrated convincingly that manuscript that we end up with is clearly influenced by
ancient Greek poems (the Iliad and the Odyssey) were Christian philosophy but remains heavily heroic.
composed in an oral-formulaic style based on tradition and What, then, can we conclude about the making of Beowulf?
designed to help the performer produce a long piece from The poem was created in the oral-formulaic mode, based on
memory or improvise material as he went along. folk tales and tradition, and probably composed as a whole
sometime in the eighth century (700-800 ad) in England. The
Francis P. Magoun, Jr., in his essay, "The Oral-Formulaic setting of the action in the epic is Denmark and Sweden in
Character of Anglo-Saxon Narrative Poetry," published in the the fifth or sixth centuries, but the tone probably was altered
literary journal Speculum in 1953 (Vol. XXVIII, 446-467), to appeal to later audiences. Although a number of scops
demonstrates that the poems were recited or, more likely, may have contributed to the poem's development, our
sung or chanted, to audiences in the way that similar works version most likely was the creation of one poet. While the
are presented in Beowulf. An example in the epic itself is the poem may have been altered over the 200 or more years
performance of The Finnsburh Episode (lines 1063 ff.) when before it was set down in writing, the oral-formulaic tradition
Hrothgar's scop honours Beowulf for his victory over Grendel. would have limited the changes. It was written late in the
Magoun points out that the bards relied on language tenth century (circa 1000 ad) by a scribe who probably was
specifically developed for the poetry, formulas worked out educated in a Christian monastery. He may have been a scop
over a long period of time and designed to fit the metrical himself, or the work could have been dictated to him.

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Beowulf may or may not be the first great heroic poem in

English literature, as some scholars claim. It is, however, the
one that survived.

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7 Poem Summary does not let go. The ensuing battle nearly destroys the great
hall, but Beowulf emerges victorious as he rips Grendel's
Beowulf is the longest and greatest surviving Anglo-Saxon claw from its shoulder socket, sending the mortally
poem. The setting of the epic is the sixth century in what is wounded beast fleeing to his mere (pool). The claw trophy
now known as Denmark and southwestern Sweden. The hangs high under the roof of Heorot.
poem opens with a brief genealogy of the Scylding (Dane)
royal dynasty, named after a mythic hero, Scyld Scefing, who The Danes celebrate the next day with a huge feast featuring
reached the tribe's shores as a castaway babe on a ship entertainment by Hrothgar's scop (pronounced "shop"), a
loaded with treasure. Scyld's funeral is a memorable early professional bard who accompanies himself on a harp and
ritual in the work, but focus soon shifts to the reign of his sings or chants traditional lays such as an account of the
great-grandson, Hrothgar, whose successful rule is Danes' victory at Finnsburh. This bard also improvises a song
symbolized by a magnificent central mead-hall called about Beowulf's victory. Hrothgar's wife, Queen
Heorot. For 12 years, a huge man-like ogre named Grendel, a Wealhtheow, proves to be a perfect hostess, offering
descendant of the biblical murderer Cain, has menaced the Beowulf a gold collar and her gratitude. Filled with mead,
aging Hrothgar, raiding Heorot and killing the king's thanes wine, and great food, the entire party retires for what they
(warriors). Grendel rules the mead-hall nightly. expect to be the first peaceful night in years.

Beowulf, a young warrior in Geatland (southwestern Sweden), But Grendel's mother — not quite as powerful as her son but
comes to the Scyldings' aid, bringing with him 14 of his finest highly motivated — climbs to Heorot that night, retrieves her
men. Hrothgar once sheltered Beowulf's father during a son's claw, and murderously abducts one of the Scyldings
deadly feud, and the mighty Geat hopes to return the favour (Aeschere) while Beowulf sleeps elsewhere. The next
while enhancing his own reputation and gaining treasure for morning, Hrothgar, Beowulf, and a retinue of Scyldings and
his king, Hygelac. At a feast before nightfall of the first day of Geats follow the mother's tracks into a dark, forbidding
the visit, an obnoxious, drunken Scylding named Unferth swamp and to the edge of her mere. The slaughtered
insults Beowulf and claims that the Geat visitor once Aeschere's head sits on a cliff by the lake, which hides the
embarrassingly lost a swimming contest to a boyhood ogres' underground cave. Carrying a sword called Hrunting, a
acquaintance named Breca and is no match for Grendel. gift from the chastised Unferth, Beowulf dives into the mere
Beowulf responds with dignity while putting Unferth in his to seek the mother.
place. In fact, the two swimmers were separated by a storm
on the fifth night of the contest, and Beowulf had slain nine Near the bottom of the lake, Grendel's mother attacks and
sea monsters before finally returning to shore. hauls the Geat warrior to her dimly lit cave. Beowulf fights
back once inside the dry cavern, but the gift sword, Hrunting,
While the Danes retire to safer sleeping quarters, Beowulf strong as it is, fails to penetrate the ogre's hide. The mother
and the Geats bed down in Heorot, fully aware that Grendel moves to kill Beowulf with her knife, but his armour, made by
will visit them. He does. Angered by the joy of the men in the the legendary blacksmith Weland, protects him. Suddenly
mead-hall, the ogre furiously bursts in on the Geats, killing Beowulf spots a magical, giant sword and uses it to cut
one and then reaching for Beowulf. With the strength of 30 through the mother's spine at the neck, killing her. A blessed
men in his hand-grip, Beowulf seizes the ogre's claw and light unexplainably illuminates the cavern, disclosing

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Grendel's corpse and a great deal of treasure. Beowulf

decapitates the corpse. The magic sword melts to its hilt.
Beowulf returns to the lake's surface carrying the head and
hilt but leaving the treasure.

After more celebration and gifts and a sermon by Hrothgar

warning of the dangers of pride and the mutability of time,
Beowulf and his men return to Geatland. There he serves his
king well until Hygelac is killed in battle and his son dies in a
feud. Beowulf is then named king and rules successfully for
50 years. Like Hrothgar, however, his peace is shattered in
his declining years. Beowulf must battle one more demon.

A fiery dragon has become enraged because a lone fugitive

has inadvertently discovered the dragon's treasure-trove
and stolen a valuable cup. The dragon terrorizes the
countryside at night, burning several homes, including
Beowulf's. Led by the fugitive, Beowulf and eleven of his men
seek out the dragon's barrow. Beowulf insists on taking on
the dragon alone, but his own sword, Naegling, is no match
for the monster. Seeing his king in trouble, one thane, Wiglaf,
goes to his assistance. The others flee to the woods.
Together, Wiglaf and Beowulf kill the dragon, but the mighty
king is mortally wounded. Dying, Beowulf leaves his kingdom
to Wiglaf and requests that his body be cremated in a funeral
pyre and buried high on a seaside cliff where passing sailors
might see the barrow. The dragon's treasure-hoard is buried
with him. It is said that they lie there still.

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8 Plot Summary he has the best armour and swords. With his loyal warriors,
he sets out to defeat the dragon. Beowulf orders his men to
With loyalty and heroism in mind, Beowulf comes to the stay back while he battles the dragon alone. The warriors
rescue of the Danes and King Hrothgar. They have suffered agree and, upon seeing the dragon, all of his warriors run
at the hands of an evil monster, Grendel, who has pillaged from his side—except a young thane called Wiglaf. Although
their kingdom for more than 12 years and killed many men. Beowulf fights heroically, he is fatally wounded. Before
Beowulf dies, Wiglaf presents him with some of the riches
Beowulf, nephew to the king of the Geats, sails across the from the dragon's hoard.
seas to try to defeat the beast. Once he has convinced
Hrothgar and Unferth of his many feats, they allow Beowulf The story ends much like it starts: with a death and an
to defend the hall from the monster. Because of his code of elaborate burial. Beowulf is laid to rest with a mountain of
honour, Beowulf lays down his armour and sword so that he treasure to mark his heroic life. Sadly, at his death Beowulf
is Grendel's equal and has no unfair advantage. Upon finally shows some fallibility and dies without naming an
Grendel's arrival a great battle ensues, and Beowulf—with his heir—a kingdom without an heir is at great risk of pillaging,
mighty strength—tears Grendel's arm from his body. death, and enslavement.

Mortally injured, Grendel retreats home to die. Prepared to

avenge her son's death, Grendel's mother arrives the next
day and kills one of Hrothgar's elders. Beowulf follows her
down into her swampy home and attempts to fight her, but
his sword doesn't make a scratch on the horrible beast. He
grabs a magical sword hanging on her wall and wields a
deadly blow.

Then, he spots Grendel's corpse and severs his head.

Grendel's poisonous blood melts and destroys the sword
down to its hilt. Beowulf comes to the surface and presents
Grendel's head and the hilt to Hrothgar. A grand celebration
in Beowulf's honour ensues.

Beowulf then returns to the Geats, where he is proclaimed a

hero. Eventually, Beowulf becomes a great king of the Geats.
But, as with Hrothgar, all good things must come to an end.
Fifty years into his reign, a great dragon is disturbed. A man
happens upon the beast's lair and steals some of the
treasure the dragon has been hoarding for years. The dragon
seeks his revenge and wreaks havoc in Beowulf's kingdom.
Beowulf knows that it will be difficult to defeat the beast, but

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9 Full Poem Summary most trusted advisers, before slinking away. To avenge
Aeschere’s death, the company travels to the murky swamp,
King Hrothgar of Denmark, a descendant of the great king where Beowulf dives into the water and fights Grendel’s
Shield Sheafson, enjoys a prosperous and successful reign. mother in her underwater lair. He kills her with a sword
He builds a great mead-hall, called Heorot, where his forged for a giant, then, finding Grendel’s corpse, decapitates
warriors can gather to drink, receive gifts from their lord, and it and brings the head as a prize to Hrothgar. The Danish
listen to stories sung by the scops, or bards. But the jubilant countryside is now purged of its treacherous monsters.
noise from Heorot angers Grendel, a horrible demon who The Danes are again overjoyed, and Beowulf’s fame spreads
lives in the swamplands of Hrothgar’s kingdom. Grendel across the kingdom. Beowulf departs after a sorrowful
terrorizes the Danes every night, killing them and defeating goodbye to Hrothgar, who has treated him like a son. He
their efforts to fight back. The Danes suffer many years of returns to Geatland, where he and his men are reunited with
fear, danger, and death at the hands of Grendel. Eventually, their king and queen, Hygelac and Hygd, to whom Beowulf
however, a young Geatish warrior named Beowulf hears of recounts his adventures in Denmark. Beowulf then hands
Hrothgar’s plight. Inspired by the challenge, Beowulf sails to over most of his treasure to Hygelac, who, in turn, rewards
Denmark with a small company of men, determined to him.
defeat Grendel.
In time, Hygelac is killed in a war against the Shyflings, and,
Hrothgar, who had once done a great favour for Beowulf’s after Hygelac’s son dies, Beowulf ascends to the throne of
father Ecgtheow, accepts Beowulf’s offer to fight Grendel and the Geats. He rules wisely for fifty years, bringing prosperity
holds a feast in the hero’s honour. During the feast, an to Geatland. When Beowulf is an old man, however, a thief
envious Dane named Unferth taunts Beowulf and accuses disturbs a barrow, or mound, where a great dragon lies
him of being unworthy of his reputation. Beowulf responds guarding a horde of treasure. Enraged, the dragon emerges
with a boastful description of some of his past from the barrow and begins unleashing fiery destruction
accomplishments. His confidence cheers the Danish upon the Geats. Sensing his own death approaching, Beowulf
warriors, and the feast lasts merrily into the night. At last, goes to fight the dragon. With the aid of Wiglaf, he succeeds
however, Grendel arrives. Beowulf fights him unarmed, in killing the beast, but at a heavy cost. The dragon bites
proving himself stronger than the demon, who is terrified. As Beowulf in the neck, and its fiery venom kills him moments
Grendel struggles to escape, Beowulf tears the monster’s after their encounter. The Geats fear that their enemies will
arm off. Mortally wounded, Grendel slinks back into the attack them now that Beowulf is dead. According to
swamp to die. The severed arm is hung high in the mead-hall Beowulf’s wishes, they burn their departed king’s body on a
as a trophy of victory. huge funeral pyre and then bury him with a massive treasure
in a barrow overlooking the sea.
Overjoyed, Hrothgar showers Beowulf with gifts and treasure
at a feast in his honour. Songs are sung in praise of Beowulf,
and the celebration lasts late into the night. But another
threat is approaching. Grendel’s mother, a swamp-hag who
lives in a desolate lake, comes to Heorot seeking revenge for
her son’s death. She murders Aeschere, one of Hrothgar’s

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10 Full Poem Analysis code. First, the question of whether Beowulf should fight the
dragon catches him between two conflicting rules: the rule
The central conflict of Beowulf arises as Beowulf, who that requires a warrior to show unyielding courage and seek
embodies the ancient Northern European warrior code, fame, and the rule that requires a king to remain alive so he
comes up against the limitations of that code. He encounters can protect his people. After Beowulf’s death, Wiglaf says
these limitations during a series of combats. The first is with that he chose wrongly: “when one man follows his own will /
Grendel, a creature who “nurse[s] a hard grievance” (l.87) many are hurt” (ll.3077-8). A more significant limitation
against the successful warrior-king Hrothgar and his men. arises from the fact that even an exemplary warrior, like
The nature of Grendel’s grievance is never fully explained, but Beowulf, must eventually meet a foe he cannot overcome
because Grendel is first encountered “haunting the (even if it’s just old age, as in Hrothgar’s case). Beowulf’s
marches” (l.103—a “march” is a border), many readers death is the perfect warrior’s death: before he succumbs, he
have seen Grendel as the embodiment of the people exiled manages to slay a mighty opponent and secure a huge hoard
and displaced by Hrothgar’s military conquests, conquests of treasure for his people. Nevertheless his death is a
which are celebrated under the warrior code. Grendel is not disaster. At his funeral, his people foresee “enemies on the
killed outright, but forced to flee to his “desolate lair” (l.820). rampage, bodies in piles, / slavery and abasement” (ll.
Although Beowulf defeats Grendel, the poem switches to the 3154-5). We are left with a sense that even if there is much
defeated monster’s point of view to show us that Beowulf’s to admire about the warrior code, ultimately it is tragically
heroism has only caused further pain and suffering. misguided.

Beowulf’s second combat is with Grendel’s mother. The story

of Hildeburh (ll.1070-1158) shows us how Grendel’s mother
embodies a limitation of the warrior code. Hildeburh is a
princess who loses all her male relatives because her
husband’s family is feuding with her brother’s family.
However, as a woman, she cannot participate in the feud
herself. All she can do is grieve. Grendel’s mother is a female
“avenger” (l.1258), and many readers have seen her as the
embodiment of all the women left powerless and grieving by
the blood-vengeance required under the warrior code. After
Grendel’s mother attacks, Beowulf forcefully restates this
aspect of the code: “It is always better / to avenge dear
ones than to indulge in mourning” (ll.1384-5). Beowulf’s
thirst for vengeance against Grendel’s mother, who is herself
avenging a killing perpetrated by Beowulf, underlines that the
heroic code entails an unending cycle of bloodshed.

Finally, Beowulf must face his ultimate fate, the dragon. The
dragon represents at least two major limitations of the heroic

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11 Character List that exhibited by the youthful warrior Beowulf. He is a father

figure to Beowulf and a model for the kind of king that Beowulf
becomes.

11.3 Grendel

A demon descended from Cain, Grendel preys on Hrothgar’s

warriors in the king’s mead-hall, Heorot. Because his
ruthless and miserable existence is part of the retribution
exacted by God for Cain’s murder of Abel, Grendel fits solidly
within the ethos of vengeance that governs the world of the
poem.

11.4 Grendel’s Mother

An unnamed swamp-hag, Grendel’s mother seems to

possess fewer human qualities than Grendel, although her
terrorization of Heorot is explained by her desire for
vengeance—a human motivation.

11.5 The Dragon

An ancient, powerful serpent, the dragon guards a horde of

treasure in a hidden mound. Beowulf’s fight with the dragon

11.1 Beowulf constitutes the third and final part of the epic.

The protagonist of the epic, Beowulf is a Geatish hero who 11.6 Shield Sheafson

fights the monster Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and a fire-

breathing dragon. Beowulf’s boasts and encounters reveal The legendary Danish king from whom Hrothgar is

him to be the strongest, ablest warrior around. In his youth, descended, Shield Sheafson is the mythical founder who

he personifies all of the best values of the heroic culture. In inaugurates a long line of Danish rulers and embodies the

his old age, he proves a wise and effective ruler. Danish tribe’s highest values of heroism and leadership. The
poem opens with a brief account of his rise from orphan to

11.2 King Hrothgar warrior-king, concluding, “That was one good king” (11).

The king of the Danes. Hrothgar enjoys military success and 11.7 Beow

prosperity until Grendel terrorizes his realm. A wise and aged

ruler, Hrothgar represents a different kind of leadership from

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The second king listed in the genealogy of Danish rulers with Hrothgar’s nephew, Hrothulf betrays and usurps his cousin,
which the poem begins. Beow is the son of Shield Sheafson Hrethic, the rightful heir to the Danish throne. Hrothulf’s
and father of Halfdane. The narrator presents Beow as a gift treachery contrasts with Beowulf’s loyalty to Hygelac in
from God to a people in need of a leader. He exemplifies the helping his son to the throne.
maxim, “Behavior that’s admired / is the path to power
among people everywhere” (24–25). 11.14 Aeschere

11.8 Halfdane Hrothgar’s trusted adviser.

The father of Hrothgar, Heorogar, Halga, and an unnamed 11.15 Hygelac

daughter who married a king of the Swedes, Halfdane
succeeded Beow as ruler of the Danes. Beowulf’s uncle, king of the Geats, and husband of Hygd.
Hygelac heartily welcomes Beowulf back from Denmark.
11.9 Wealhtheow
11.16 Hygd
Hrothgar’s wife, the gracious queen of the Danes.
Hygelac’s wife, the young, beautiful, and intelligent queen of
11.10 Unferth the Geats. Hygd is contrasted with Queen Modthryth.

A Danish warrior who is jealous of Beowulf, Unferth is unable 11.17 Wiglaf

or unwilling to fight Grendel, thus proving himself inferior to
Beowulf. A young kinsman and retainer of Beowulf who helps him in
the fight against the dragon while all of the other warriors run
11.11 Hrethric away. Wiglaf adheres to the heroic code better than
Beowulf’s other retainers, thereby proving himself a suitable
Hrothgar’s elder son, Hrethric stands to inherit the Danish successor to Beowulf.
throne, but Hrethric’s older cousin Hrothulf will prevent him
from doing so. Beowulf offers to support the youngster’s 11.18 Ecgtheow
prospect of becoming king by hosting him in Geatland and
giving him guidance. Beowulf’s father, Hygelac’s brother-in-law, and Hrothgar’s
friend. Ecgtheow is dead by the time the story begins, but he
11.12 Hrothmund lives on through the noble reputation that he made for
himself during his life and in his dutiful son’s remembrances.
The second son of Hrothgar.
11.19 King Hrethel
11.13 Hrothulf
The Geatish king who took Beowulf in as a ward after the
death of Ecgtheow, Beowulf’s father.

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11.20 Breca

Beowulf’s childhood friend, whom he defeated in a swimming

match. Unferth alludes to the story of their contest, and
Beowulf then relates it in detail.

11.21 Sigemund

A figure from Norse mythology, famous for slaying a dragon.

Sigemund’s story is told in praise of Beowulf and
foreshadows Beowulf’s encounter with the dragon.

11.22 King Heremod

An evil king of legend. The scop, or bard, at Heorot discusses

King Heremod as a figure who contrasts greatly with
Beowulf.

11.23 Queen Modthryth

A wicked queen of legend who punishes anyone who looks

at her the wrong way. Modthryth’s story is told in order to
contrast her cruelty with Hygd’s gentle and reasonable
behaviour.

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12 Character Analysis Hrothgar, who becomes a mentor and father figure to the
young warrior, begins to deliver advice about how to act as a
12.1 Beowulf wise ruler. Though Beowulf does not become king for many
years, his exemplary career as a warrior has served in part to
Beowulf is strongly driven by his sense of loyalty, but he also prepare him for his ascension to the throne.
has a desire for fame. This desire is less focused on personal
notoriety and more on nationalism and bringing pride and The second part of the story, set in Geatland, skips over the
strength to his family (the Geats royals). He defeats three middle of Beowulf’s career and focuses on the very end of his
monsters: Grendel, Grendel's mother, and the dragon. life. Through a series of retrospectives, however, we recover
Beowulf has all the qualities of a good leader: he is kind, much of what happens during this gap and therefore are able
generous, and diplomatic as a king, and he keeps the country to see how Beowulf comports himself as both a warrior and a
in relative peace for 50 years. king. The period following Hygelac’s death is an important
transitional moment for Beowulf. Instead of rushing for the
Beowulf exemplifies the traits of the perfect hero. The poem throne himself, as Hrothulf does in Denmark, he supports
explores his heroism in two separate phases—youth and Hygelac’s son, the rightful heir. With this gesture of loyalty
age—and through three separate and increasingly difficult and respect for the throne, he proves himself worthy of
conflicts—with Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and the dragon. kingship.
Although we can view these three encounters as
expressions of the heroic code, there is perhaps a clearer In the final episode—the encounter with the dragon—the
division between Beowulf’s youthful heroism as an poet reflects further on how the responsibilities of a king,
unfettered warrior and his mature heroism as a reliable king. who must act for the good of the people and not just for his
These two phases of his life, separated by fifty years, own glory, differ from those of the heroic warrior. In light of
correspond to two different models of virtue, and much of these meditations, Beowulf’s moral status becomes
the moral reflection in the story centres on differentiating somewhat ambiguous at the poem’s end. Though he is
these two models and on showing how Beowulf makes the deservedly celebrated as a great hero and leader, his last
transition from one to the other. courageous fight is also somewhat rash. The poem suggests
that, by sacrificing himself, Beowulf unnecessarily leaves his
In his youth, Beowulf is a great warrior, characterized people without a king, exposing them to danger from other
predominantly by his feats of strength and courage, including tribes. To understand Beowulf’s death strictly as a personal
his fabled swimming match against Breca. He also perfectly failure, however, is to neglect the overwhelming emphasis
embodies the manners and values dictated by the Germanic given to fate in this last portion of the poem. The conflict with
heroic code, including loyalty, courtesy, and pride. His defeat the dragon has an aura of inevitability about it. Rather than a
of Grendel and Grendel’s mother validates his reputation for conscious choice, the battle can also be interpreted as a
bravery and establishes him fully as a hero. In first part of the matter in which Beowulf has very little choice or free will at
poem, Beowulf matures little, as he possesses heroic all. Additionally, it is hard to blame him for acting according
qualities in abundance from the start. Having purged to the dictates of his warrior culture.
Denmark of its plagues and established himself as a hero,
however, he is ready to enter into a new phase of his life.

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12.1.1 Beowulf @cliffsnotes

Part of the motivation for the hero's coming to the land of the
The reader is first introduced to Beowulf as he disembarks Danes is to gain more fame. The poem uses the word
from his ship, having just arrived in the land of the Danes unabashedly, but a modern audience might feel
(Scyldings) from his home in Geatland. He is an impressive- uncomfortable with the concept, thinking of empty trophies
looking man. The Scylding coastal guard points out that he in a superficial frame. Within this world of heroic struggle,
has never seen "a mightier noble, / a larger man" (lines however, fame is more than that. A modern audience might
247-248) even though he has held this office and served his best think of fame as reputation. Reputation can protect a
king, Hrothgar, for many years, watching all kinds of warriors leader's people and settle a conflict before it comes to
come and go. Beowulf is huge and strong. We are soon told blows, as Beowulf's reputation later does when he is the king
that he has the strength of 30 men in his hand-grip. Just as of Geatland. Fame is a positive quality, having to do more
important is the way that the young warrior (not much more with earned respect than vanity.
than 20 years of age) carries himself; the Geat has the
bearing of a noble leader, a champion, perhaps a prince. He A more important reason for coming to Hrothgar's aid is
has arrived to help the Scyldings; for 12 years, a mighty man- directly related to a family debt. Years before, Hrothgar
like ogre named Grendel has menaced Hrothgar's great sheltered Beowulf's father, Ecgtheow, from a dangerous feud
mead-hall, Heorot, terrorizing and devouring the Danes. and purchased a settlement of the conflict with the Geat's
enemies, a procedure incorporating wergild (man-payment
In a seminal lecture, often anthologized (see CliffsNotes or man-worth). Beowulf has come to repay Hrothgar's
Resource Center), English novelist and scholar J. R. R. generosity.
Tolkien ("Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics," Proceedings
of the British Academy, XXII [1936], 245-95) argues that the At a banquet in the Geats' honour on the first day of their
central structural motif of Beowulf is the balance between visit, a drunken, jealous Dane named Unferth challenges
beginnings and endings, of youth and age. The most Beowulf's reputation. When Beowulf was an adolescent, he
dominating example of this is the life of Beowulf himself. engaged in a swimming match on the open sea with another
When he arrives in Hrothgar's kingdom, the hero of the epic boy, a royal member of the Brondings tribe named Breca.
is still a very young man. He is out to establish a name for Unferth asserts that Beowulf was vain and foolish to enter
himself. Reputation is a key theme of the poem and of such a dangerous contest and that Breca proved the
central importance to Beowulf. As the coastal guard first stronger, defeating Beowulf in seven nights. Unferth's point is
approaches the Geats, he asks about Beowulf's lineage (line that, if the Geat could not win that swimming match, he is
251). Beowulf mentions his father's accomplishments and surely no match for Grendel.
reputation as well as his king, Hygelac, and his people, the
Geats. To King Hrothgar (418 ff.), he properly reveals more: Beowulf's response to Unferth (529 ff.) further establishes
Beowulf once killed a tribe of giants and has driven enemies the hero's character and maturity. He remains composed
from his homeland. He already has a favorable reputation, and in control, despite his youth. Although he would be
but he is eager for more achievements that will add to his justified in calling Unferth out and attacking him physically,
good name. In the world of Beowulf, a man's good name is Beowulf instead uses wit and facts to correct the Dane. He
his key to immortality. It is all that remains after death. begins by observing, "What a great deal, Unferth my friend,

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/ full of beer, you have said about Breca, / told of his deeds"
(530-32). Beowulf points out that he and Breca swam for five Beowulf's defeat of Grendel's mother demonstrates
nights, not seven. Although he was the stronger, he would remarkable courage and perseverance. Seeking to avenge
not abandon Breca. After rough seas drove them apart, the death of her son and recover his claw, the mother
Beowulf spent the rest of the fifth night fighting vicious water attacks Heorot the next night, surprising everyone. In the
monsters, killing nine. He comments on the workings of Fate morning, Beowulf tracks her to a dark, swampy mere where
(Wyrd), saying that it saved him but only because it was not she and her son live in a cave at the bottom of the lake. There
his time and because he had fought courageously. Beowulf Beowulf defeats her with the help of a magic giant sword and
reminds the gathering that Unferth's reputation is sparse returns with the sword's hilt and Grendel's head as trophies.
except for the fact that he actually killed his own brothers, In a sermon designed to guide Beowulf through a life of
for which he will be condemned to hell even though he may leadership, King Hrothgar warns the young warrior of the
be "clever" with words. Beowulf also points out that Grendel dangers of pride and the perils of old age.
might not be such a problem for King Hrothgar if Unferth's
"battle-spirit, were as sharp as [his] words" (596). The Beowulf's reputation spreads in the last third of the poem. He
rebuttal is an enormous success; before he ever faces serves his king well until Hygelac is killed in battle. When
Grendel, Beowulf proves that he is a man to be reckoned Hygelac's son dies in a feud, Beowulf becomes king and rules
with. successfully for 50 years. Like Hrothgar, however, his peace
in his declining years is shattered by a menacing monster.
The confrontation with Grendel clearly demonstrates The question at the end of Beowulf's life is whether he allows
Beowulf's great strength, but it also illustrates his sense of pride to blind him from prudent action. Does he love fame
fair play and his cool reasoning regarding tactics. Beowulf too much?
refuses to wear armour or use weapons against the ogre
because Grendel is not schooled in the fine art of human A fiery dragon terrorizes the countryside because a lone Geat
warfare and will use no weapons himself. Ironically, the fugitive has stolen a golden flagon from the dragon's
choice to eschew weapons ends up helping Beowulf treasure-trove. Beowulf insists on fighting the dragon alone
because Grendel is protected from them by a magic charm. even though the king's death will leave Geatland vulnerable
To defeat him, an opponent must be superior in hand-to- to attack from old enemies. Led by the fugitive and
claw combat. To study the ogre's approach, Beowulf allows accompanied by eleven of his warriors, Beowulf seeks out
Grendel to attack and devour another of the Geats when the the dragon's barrow. Beowulf's trusted sword, Naegling, is
descendant of Cain enters Heorot that night. Although he is no match for the monster. Seeing his king in trouble, one
losing a friend, Beowulf observes but lies still. When the ogre thane, Wiglaf, goes to his assistance while the others flee to
reaches for his next victim, he receives the shock of his life. the woods. Together, Wiglaf and Beowulf kill the dragon, but
Beowulf, with the hand-grip of 30 men, grabs hold and won't the mighty king is mortally wounded. He has won every
let go. The ensuing battle nearly destroys Heorot but ends battle but one. Some critics feel that, despite the warnings
with a victory for Beowulf. He rips Grendel's right claw from by Hrothgar, pride and age have brought down the epic hero.
its shoulder socket, mortally wounding the beast and Others point out that Beowulf did not have long to rule
sending him scurrying in retreat. The claw hangs from anyway and deserved the right to choose a warrior's death.
Heorot's roof, a macabre trophy.

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12.2 Grendel blesses them but that the ogre himself never can be blessed.
Grendel especially resents the light, joy, and music that he
Grendel is the beast that—annoyed by the noise and partying observes in Hrothgar's beautiful mead-hall, Heorot. The
that goes on in Heorot Hall—terrorizes all who gather at the scop's "Song of Creation" (90-98) especially enrages him
hall, leading to the hall's desertion for 12 years. Grendel is because it tells of the beauty and light of God's creation.
called many names: the "terror-monger," "hell-serf," and
"captain of evil." He is a descendant of the murderous Although Grendel looks something like a man — having two
Biblical character, Cain. His arm is ripped off by Beowulf and arms (or claws), two legs, and one head — he is much larger
he is eventually beheaded. and can defeat dozens of men at a time. He is protected
from man's weapons by a magic charm. He devours some of
Likely the poem’s most memorable creation, Grendel is one the dead on the spot and carries others back to his lair, the
of the three monsters that Beowulf battles. His nature is cave he shares with his mother beneath a mere in a dark fen.
ambiguous. Though he has many animal attributes and a The first night that Beowulf is with the Scyldings, Grendel
grotesque, monstrous appearance, he seems to be guided stomps up from the swamp, bashes open the mead-hall's
by vaguely human emotions and impulses, and he shows door with a single tap, and quickly wolfs down one of the
more of an interior life than one might expect. Exiled to the Geats inside.
swamplands outside the boundaries of human society,
Grendel is an outcast who seems to long to be reinstated. The passage describing Grendel's ascent from the fen (710-
The poet hints that behind Grendel’s aggression against the 727) is one of the finest in Anglo-Saxon poetry. The drama
Danes lies loneliness and jealousy. By lineage, Grendel is a increases as the poet describes Grendel's approach in set
member of “Cain’s clan, whom the creator had outlawed / stages. Dark skies contrast with "the shining wine-hall"
and condemned as outcasts.” (lines 106 to 107). He is thus (715), a source of joy to men and the symbol of civilization.
descended from a figure who epitomizes resentment and Grendel has ruled the hall for 12 years, often spending his
malice. While the poet somewhat sympathetically suggests nights there as the Danes hid elsewhere. He expects to rule
that Grendel’s deep bitterness about being excluded from again this night but meets a human warrior equal to the
the revelry in the mead-hall owes, in part, to his accursed ogre's strength and superior in his tactics.
status, he also points out that Grendel is “malignant by
nature” and that he has “never shown remorse” (line 137). Beowulf observes the monster's method as one Geat is
slaughtered and devoured. Grendel has no chance after that.

12.2.1 Grendel @cliffsnotes Although the battle is furious, Beowulf has won as soon as he
is able to grasp his enemy's claw. The ogre is vulnerable

The ogre who has menaced Hrothgar's people for 12 years is because Beowulf uses no weapons, and the hero has the

a huge, powerful descendant of the biblical Cain, the son of strength of 30 men in his grip. Beowulf rips the monster's arm

Adam and Eve, who killed his brother Abel out of jealousy from its shoulder. Mortally wounded, Grendel flees to the

(Genesis 4). Cain's name in Hebrew is Qayin, meaning swamp. The giant claw later hangs from Heorot's roof as a

"creature," and, according to legend, the monsters of the trophy.

earth are his descendants. Grendel is envious, resentful, and

angry toward mankind, possibly because he feels that God

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In many ways, Grendel is the most interesting character in Hrothgar built the Scyldings into a powerful military and
the epic. He is a mix of man and beast; his fury is based on social entity, symbolized by the erection of his great mead-
very human feelings of resentment and jealousy. The novelist hall, Heorot. More a palace, Heorot is decorated with gold
and Anglo-Saxon scholar John Gardner explores the inner and fine tapestries. It is the centre of Hrothgar's kingdom and
conflicts of the character in his 1971 novel, Grendel, an a place of joy and light, which is exactly what Grendel, who
intensely moving, funny, and perceptive book. has been raiding the hall for a dozen years, resents. For
some time, Hrothgar's men have spent their nights
12.3 King Hrothgar elsewhere as Grendel freely bivouacs in Heorot.

Hrothgar is king of the Danes and saved Beowulf's father Hrothgar has become famous for his leadership and
from certain death, thus earning the loyalty of Beowulf. He generosity, important virtues that are closely linked in the
builds Heorot Hall. His pride for the lavish hall may or may world of Beowulf. As a young king, he once protected
not have contributed to the evil that invades in the form of Beowulf's now deceased father, Ecgtheow, during a blood
Grendel. Grendel kills many of his men, eventually leading feud and purchased peace with Ecgtheow's enemies through
King Hrothgar to accept Beowulf's help to defeat the beast. a kind of payment known as wergild, providing major reasons
Hrothgar is indebted to Beowulf, and they become like father for Beowulf's devotion to Hrothgar at the beginning of the
and son. poem. Hrothgar also became famous for taking care of his
own thanes, sharing treasure and land with them as the
Hrothgar, the aged ruler of the Danes who accepts Beowulf’s heroic code of comitatus prescribes.
help in the first part of the story, aids Beowulf’s development
into maturity. Hrothgar is a relatively static character, a force Hrothgar's speech to Beowulf (1700 ff.) before the Geats
of stability in the social realm. Although he is as solidly depart, known as "Hrothgar's Sermon," is important
rooted in the heroic code as Beowulf is, his old age and his thematically as it warns of the dangers of fame and the
experience with both good and ill fortune have caused him to mutability of time. Hrothgar speaks of the temptations of
develop a more reflective attitude toward heroism than hubris (excessive pride) and tells young Beowulf always to
Beowulf possesses. He is aware of both the privileges and remember that great joy is followed by great sorrow. The old
the dangers of power, and he warns his young protégé not to king offers his own life as an example of the changing
give in to pride and always to remember that blessings may fortunes that can come with age. Foreshadowing Beowulf's
turn to grief. Hrothgar’s meditations on heroism and trials in later life, Hrothgar points out that he ruled
leadership, which take into account a hero’s entire life span successfully for 50 years until Grendel brought him to his
rather than just his valiant youth, reveal the contrast knees. Beowulf, whom Hrothgar thinks of as a son, must
between youth and old age that forms the turning point in beware of pride and old age. Throughout the last third of the
Beowulf’s own development. poem, we are haunted by Hrothgar's message and
compelled to view Beowulf's actions in the context of the
12.3.1 King Hrothgar @cliffsnotes sermon.

The king of the Danes (Scyldings) is a wise and great man, but
he has lost some of his strength with age. In his prime,

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12.4 Grendel's Mother

Although the Danes have heard that the swamp may harbour
Grendel's mother doesn't actively seek out humans until two ogres, they seem to believe that the problem is solved
Grendel is killed. She then takes revenge by killing one of when Beowulf defeats Grendel. On the night after that
Hrothgar's chief elders and retrieves her son's arm before victory, the Scyldings celebrate with a great deal of food and
heading back to her hall under a bloody, boiling swamp. drink. Many of the celebrants spend that night in Heorot
Beowulf dives down to find her and kills her with a magical while Beowulf sleeps elsewhere. The mother stalks up from
sword. her mere, retrieving her son's claw and murderously
abducting one of the Scyldings from the mead-hall.
Grendel’s mother, like her son, is a mysterious humanoid
creature. She enters the poem as an “avenger” (l.1258), When Beowulf comes after her, the mother has another
seeking redress for the death of her son at Beowulf’s hands. advantage. She is in her home territory, which she has ruled
For this reason, some readers have seen Grendel’s mother for a hundred years. As the Geat champion dives deep into
as an embodiment of ancient Northern European society’s the lake, the mother waits and attacks only when he nears
tendency toward unending blood-feuds. Other readers have the bottom. He is virtually helpless as she drags him to the
suggested that she represents the suffering of women under dry, eerily lighted cave for the kill. Once on dry land,
the bloodfeud system. Before Grendel’s mother attacks, we however, Beowulf is able to mount a counter-attack.
hear the story of Hildeburh, a princess who loses all her Although his sword, Hrunting, loaned to him by Unferth, fails
male relatives because her brother’s family is feuding with to penetrate the mother's hide, Beowulf discovers a giant
her husband’s. However, Grendel’s mother is by no means magic sword in the cave and is able to kill the mother with it.
only an embodiment of blood-feuding and its failures. She The sword melts to its hilt after Beowulf uses it to decapitate
lives in a “mere” (l.1362) whose bottom “has never been the corpse of Grendel, which lies nearby. He returns to
sounded by the sons of men” (l.1367). Many readers have Heorot with a greater trophy, the head of the ogre, as well as
seen the mere as powerfully symbolic of the human the hilt of the magic sword.
subconscious, or of the mysteries that lie beyond human
knowledge. To these readers, Grendel’s mother represents Some critics feel that Grendel's mother receives inadequate
the dangers that await anyone who seeks to confront the consideration in the poem. Her motive is as human as it is
unknown, either in the world or in themselves. monstrous as she seeks revenge for her defeated son and
reclaims his arm, which from her point of view must seem a

12.4.1 Grendal’s Mother @cliffsnotes barbaric trophy. She has lived in the mere for a hundred
years and was never the problem that her son was.

Grendel's mother (sometimes called his "dam") is not as Nevertheless, this is Beowulf's poem; the mother is just

huge or as powerful as the son, but she is motivated by another monster in a heroic epic. Other writers will have to

revenge. Her son has returned to their cave mortally enhance her tale.

wounded, one of his two arms (or claws) ripped from its
shoulder socket and hanging, now, beneath the roof of 12.5 Unferth
Hrothgar's mead-hall. Instead of cowering in grief, the
mother seeks revenge.

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Unferth’s challenge to Beowulf’s honour differentiates him as he talks, says Beowulf, King Hrothgar might not have such
from Beowulf and helps to reveal some of the subtleties of a problem with Grendel.
the heroic code that the warriors must follow. Unferth is
presented as a lesser man, a foil for the near-perfect Unferth later admits Beowulf's superiority after the defeat of
Beowulf. (A foil is a character whose traits contrast with and Grendel and lends him a treasured sword, Hrunting, for the
thereby accentuate those of another character.) The battle with Grendel's mother. While the sword is ineffective,
bitterness of Unferth’s chiding of Beowulf about his at least the Dane is making an effort. We might suspect that
swimming match with Breca clearly reflects his jealousy of Unferth's character flaws will surface again, but he has been
the attention that Beowulf receives. It probably also stems humbled and his character improved for the purposes of this
from his shame at being unable to protect Heorot himself— story.
he is clearly not the sort of great warrior whom legend will
remember. While boasting is a proper and acceptable form 12.6 Wealhtheow
of self-assertion, Unferth’s harsh words show that it ought
not to be bitter or disparaging of others. Rather than heroism, Queen Wealhtheow was married to Hrothgar to maintain
Unferth’s blustering reveals pride and resentment. Later, peace between his kingdom and that of her parents. She is a
Unferth’s gift of his sword for Beowulf’s fight against gracious hostess who praises Beowulf and asks him to
Grendel’s mother heals Unferth’s breach of hospitality, but it advise her sons. She counsels Hrothgar that he should
does little to improve his heroic status. Unlike Beowulf, adopt Beowulf if he wishes, but that his nephew Hrothulf
Unferth is clearly afraid to fight the monster himself. should be named heir to the throne.

12.5.1 Unferth @cliffsnotes 12.6.1 Wealhtheow @cliffsnotes

Along with Grendel, Unferth represents the theme of envy in Along with Grendel, Unferth represents the theme of envy in
the epic. Shortly after Beowulf's arrival, Unferth, full of mead, the epic. Shortly after Beowulf's arrival, Unferth, full of mead,
insults the guest at a banquet. This is more than an awkward insults the guest at a banquet. This is more than an awkward
moment for the hosts. Unferth's behaviour goes against the moment for the hosts. Unferth's behaviour goes against the
code of hospitality. Unferth accuses Beowulf, as a lad, of code of hospitality. Unferth accuses Beowulf, as a lad, of
entering a dangerous, foolish seven-night swimming match entering a dangerous, foolish seven-night swimming match
on the open sea against a boy named Breca — and losing. on the open sea against a boy named Breca — and losing.

Fortunately for the Dane, Beowulf demonstrates a noble Fortunately for the Dane, Beowulf demonstrates a noble
spirit as well as ease with language as he refutes the charge spirit as well as ease with language as he refutes the charge
and puts Unferth in his place. In fact, Beowulf says, he swam and puts Unferth in his place. In fact, Beowulf says, he swam
with Breca for five nights, not wanting to abandon the weaker with Breca for five nights, not wanting to abandon the weaker
boy. Rough seas separated them, and Beowulf had to kill nine boy. Rough seas separated them, and Beowulf had to kill nine
mighty sea monsters before going ashore the next day. mighty sea monsters before going ashore the next day.
Beowulf points out that Unferth's fame lies mainly in the fact Beowulf points out that Unferth's fame lies mainly in the fact
that he killed his own brothers. If the Dane could fight as well that he killed his own brothers. If the Dane could fight as well

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as he talks, says Beowulf, King Hrothgar might not have such over Heaven. The dragon hoards his treasure in a “barrow,”
a problem with Grendel. that is, a grave.

Unferth later admits Beowulf's superiority after the defeat of 12.8 Wiglaf
Grendel and lends him a treasured sword, Hrunting, for the
battle with Grendel's mother. While the sword is ineffective, Wiglaf is a trusted companion and a cousin of Beowulf. He
at least the Dane is making an effort. We might suspect that helps Beowulf defeat the dragon when the rest of Beowulf's
Unferth's character flaws will surface again, but he has been men run and hide. In his final moments, Beowulf gives Wiglaf
humbled and his character improved for the purposes of this his battle armour. The poem ends before we know Wiglaf's
story. future, but because Beowulf has not proclaimed an heir and
Wiglaf perceive the warriors as weak, he predicts wars,
12.7 Dragon slavery, and doom for the Geats.

The dragon is another evil, fire-breathing creature obsessed Wiglaf, one of Beowulf’s kinsmen and thanes, is the only
with gold. He has taken ownership of a hoard of gold placed warrior brave enough to help the hero in his fight against the
in a barrow by the lone survivor of a group of people. The dragon. Wiglaf conforms perfectly to the heroic code in that
dragon awakens to find a gold goblet missing and wreaks he is willing to die attempting to defeat the opponent and,
havoc over King Beowulf's land in search of the gold and the more importantly, to save his lord. In this regard, Wiglaf
person who stole it. The dragon is hunted down and killed by appears as a reflection of the young Beowulf in the first part
Beowulf—but not before he fatally wounds the hero. of the story—a warrior who is strong, fearless, valiant, and
loyal. He embodies Beowulf’s statement from the early
The dragon is a mighty and glamorous opponent, an scenes of the poem that it is always better to act than to
appropriate match for Beowulf. The dragon is so well suited grieve. Wiglaf thus represents the next generation of heroism
to bring about Beowulf’s downfall, in fact, that some readers and the future of the kingdom. His bravery and solid bearing
have seen it as a symbolic representation of death itself: the provide the single glint of optimism in the final part of the
unique, personal end that awaits every person. Hrothgar story, which, for the most part, is dominated by a tone of
prepares us to view the dragon in this way when he warns despair at what the future holds.
Beowulf that for every warrior an unbeatable foe lies in wait,
even if it is only old age. However, the dragon also
symbolizes the specific fate that lies in wait for the Geats,
and for pagan society generally. The dragon is “driven […]
to guard heathen gold, / through age-long vigils, though to
little avail” (Part 2, Lines 2275 – 2277). Like Beowulf, the
dragon uses its strength to accrue a huge mound of treasure,
but in the end all the treasure does is bring about its death.
The treasure also brings about Beowulf’s death. Possibly the
poem’s Christian narrator sees greed for treasure as a kind
of spiritual death, suffered by pagans who value treasure

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13 Line Summaries The following night, Grendel struck again, and he has
continued to wreak havoc on the Danes for twelve years. He
13.1 Lines 1 to 300 (A Royal Lineage) has taken over Heorot, and Hrothgar and his men remain
unable to challenge him. They make offerings at pagan
So. The Spear-Danes in days gone by
shrines in hopes of harming Grendel, but their efforts are
and the kings who ruled them had courage and
fruitless. The Danes endure constant terror, and their
greatness.
suffering is so extreme that the news of it travels far and
wide.
The narrator opens the poem with a discussion of Shield
Sheafson, a great king of the ancient Danes and the founder
At this time, Beowulf, nephew of the Geatish king Hygelac, is
of their royal line. He began life as a foundling (an infant
the greatest hero in the world. He lives in Geatland, a realm
abandoned by his parents) but quickly rose to be strong and
not far from Denmark, in what is now southern Sweden.
powerful. All of the clans had to pay him tribute, and, when
When Beowulf hears tales of the destruction wrought by
he died, he was honoured with an elaborate funeral
Grendel, he decides to travel to the land of the Danes and
ceremony. His body was put into a boat, covered with
help Hrothgar defeat the demon. He voyages across the sea
treasures and armour, and cast off to sea. Shield Sheafson’s
with fourteen of his bravest warriors until he reaches
life ended as it began, with him cast adrift on the water.
Hrothgar’s kingdom.

Sheafson’s son, the renowned Beow, inherited the kingdom

Seeing that the newcomers are dressed in armour and
after his father’s death. In time, Beow too passed away and
carrying shields and other equipment for combat, the
Halfdane, his son, became king. After Halfdane, Hrothgar
watchman who guards the Danish coast stops Beowulf and
stepped forward to rule the Danes. Under Hrothgar, the
his crew and demands to know their business. He admits
kingdom prospered and enjoyed great military success, and
that he has never seen outsiders come ashore so fearlessly
Hrothgar decided to construct a monument to his success—
and guesses that Beowulf is a noble hero. Beowulf explains
a mead-hall where he would distribute booty to his retainers.
that he is the son of Ecgtheow and owes his loyalty to
The hall was called Heorot, and there the men gathered with
Hygelac. He says that he has heard about the monster
their lord to drink mead, a beerlike beverage, and listen to the
wreaking havoc on the Danes and has come to help
songs of the bards.
Hrothgar. The watchman gives his consent and tells Beowulf
that he believes his story. He tells the Geats to follow him,
For a time, the kingdom enjoyed peace and prosperity. But,
mentioning that he will order one of the Danes to watch
one night, Grendel, a demon descended from Cain (who,
Beowulf’s ship for him.
according to the Bible, slew his brother Abel), emerged from
the swampy lowlands, to listen to the nightly entertainment
13.2 Lines 301 to 709
at Heorot. The bards’ songs about God’s creation of the
earth angered the monster. Once the men in the mead-hall The watchman guides Beowulf and his men from the coast to
fell asleep, Grendel lumbered inside and slaughtered thirty the mead-hall, Heorot, where he takes his leave. A herald
men. Hrothgar’s warriors were powerless against him. named Wulfgar, who is renowned for his wisdom, stops
Beowulf and asks him to state his business with Hrothgar.

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Beowulf introduces himself and requests to speak to the Unferth by pointing out his obvious helplessness against
king. Wulfgar, impressed with the group’s appearance and Grendel.
bearing, takes Beowulf’s message immediately to Hrothgar.
Hrothgar tells Wulfgar that he remembers Beowulf from Beowulf’s confidence cheers the whole hall, and soon the
when he was a young boy and recalls his friendship with warriors are laughing and drinking happily. Wealhtheow, wife
Beowulf’s father, Ecgtheow. He says that he has heard tales of Hrothgar and queen of the Danes, enters with the
of Beowulf’s great prowess—one story holds that the Geat ceremonial goblet, which she offers to everyone in the room.
has the strength of thirty men in each of his hands—and She thanks God for sending Beowulf to fight Grendel, and
hopes that Beowulf has come to help the Danes against Beowulf replies with a formal boast, stating that he will either
Grendel. He orders Wulfgar to welcome the Geats to distinguish himself with a heroic deed or die in the mead-hall.
Denmark. Pleased, Wealhtheow takes her seat next to Hrothgar.

Beowulf comes before Hrothgar, whom he greets solemnly. When night falls, the Danes leave the hall to Beowulf and his
Beowulf recounts some of his past glories and offers to fight men. Beowulf lays aside his weapons and removes his
Grendel unarmed. Hrothgar recounts a feud during which armour, restating his intention to fight Grendel unarmed. He
Beowulf’s father killed Heatholaf, a member of the Wulfing says that he considers himself to be as dangerous as
tribe. Hrothgar sent treasure to the Wulfings to mend the Grendel. Beowulf lies down to wait, while his fearful men lie
feud, and Beowulf’s father pledged his allegiance to awake, doubting that any of them will live to see morning. In
Hrothgar. Hrothgar then accepts Beowulf’s offer to fight the dark night outside the hall, Grendel approaches
Grendel, though he warns him that many heroes have died in stealthily, creeping toward the small band of Geats.
the mead-hall trying to battle the monster. He invites the
Geats to sit and enjoy a feast in Heorot with the Danish 13.3 Lines 710 to 1007
warriors.
Gleefully imagining the destruction that he will wreak,

At the feast, a Dane named Unferth, envious of his Grendel bursts into Heorot. He tears the door from its hinges

kinsmen’s admiration of Beowulf, begins to taunt the Geat. with his bare hands and immediately devours a Geatish

He claims that Beowulf once lost a swimming match against warrior while Beowulf carefully observes. When Grendel

Breca and that Beowulf will meet with defeat for a second reaches out to snatch up Beowulf, he is stunned to find his

time when he faces Grendel in the mead-hall. Unruffled, arm gripped with greater strength than he knew possible.

Beowulf accuses Unferth of drunkenness and describes his Terrified like a cornered animal, Grendel longs to run back to

own version of what happened in the swimming match. the safety of the swamplands. He tries to escape, but

Carrying swords to defend themselves against sea Beowulf wrestles him down. The combatants crash around

monsters, he and Breca had struggled in icy waters for five the hall, rattling the walls and smashing the mead-benches.

days and five nights when suddenly Beowulf found himself Grendel begins to shriek in pain and fear; the sound terrifies

pulled under by a monster. After slaying the monster and all who hear it. Beowulf’s men heroically hack at the demon

eight other sea beasts, Beowulf was washed ashore on the as Beowulf fights with him, but no weapon on earth is

coast of Finland. Beowulf notes that neither Unferth nor capable of harming Grendel. Beowulf summons even greater

Breca could have survived such an adventure and mocks strength and rips Grendel’s arm completely out of its socket.

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Fatally wounded, Grendel slinks back to his swampy home After the gifts have been distributed, the king’s scop comes
to die. Back in the mead-hall, Beowulf holds up his gory forward to sing the saga of Finn, which begins with the Danes
trophy in triumph. He proudly hangs the arm high on the wall losing a bloody battle to Finn, the king of the Frisians, a
of Heorot as proof of his victory. neighbour tribe to the Danes. The Danish leader, Hnaef, is
killed in the combat. Recognizing their defeat, the Danes
The following morning, the Danish warriors are amazed at strike a truce with the Frisians and agree to live with them
Beowulf’s accomplishment. They race around on horseback separately but under common rule and equal treatment.
in celebration, following the tracks of Grendel’s retreat to the Hildeburh, a Danish princess who is married to Finn, is
marshes. Beowulf’s renown begins to spread rapidly. A doubly grieved by the outcome of the battle: she orders that
Danish bard sings Beowulf’s story to honour him and also the corpses of her brother, the Danish leader Hnaef, and her
recites the story of Sigemund, a great hero who slew a son, a Frisian warrior, be burned on the same bier. The
terrible dragon. The dragon was the guardian of a treasure Danes, homesick and bitter, pass a long winter with the
hoard, which Sigemund won by slaying the dragon. The bard Frisians. When spring comes, they rise against their
also sings of, and contrasts Beowulf with, Heremod, an evil enemies. Finn is then defeated and slain, and his widow,
Danish king who turned against his own people. Hildeburh, is returned to Denmark.

Hrothgar enters the mead-hall to see the trophy. He thanks When the scop finishes recounting the saga, Wealhtheow
God for finally granting him relief from Grendel. He then enters, wearing a gold crown, and praises her children,
praises Beowulf, promises him lavish rewards, and says that Hrethric and Hrothmund. She says that when Hrothgar dies,
he has adopted the warrior in his heart as a son. Beowulf she is certain that the children will be treated well by their
receives Hrothgar’s gratitude with modesty, expressing older cousin, Hrothulf, until they come of age. She expresses
disappointment that he did not kill Grendel in the hall so that her hope that Beowulf too will act as a friend to them and
all could have seen the demon’s corpse. The narrator offer them protection and guidance. She presents Beowulf
mentions that the trophy arm, which seems to be made of with a torque (a collar or necklace) of gold and a suit of mail
“barbed steel,” has disproved Unferth's claims of Beowulf’s armour, asking again that he guide her sons and treat them
weakness. Order is restored in Heorot, and all the Danes kindly.
begin to repair the great hall, which has been almost
completely destroyed. That night, the warriors sleep in Heorot, unaware that a new
danger lurks in the darkness outside the hall.
13.4 Lines 1008 to 1250 (The Banquet and the Saga of
Finn: Honour, Grief, and New Threats) 13.5 Lines 1251 to 1491 (The Vengeance of Grendel’s
Mother)
Hrothgar hosts a great banquet in honour of Beowulf. He
bestows upon him weapons, armour, treasure, and eight of Wise sir, do not grieve. It is always better
his finest horses. He then presents Beowulf’s men with to avenge dear ones than to indulge in mourning.
rewards and compensates the Geats with gold for the
Geatish warrior that Grendel killed.

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As the warriors sleep in the mead-hall, Grendel’s mother, a his property to Hygelac if he, Beowulf, should be killed. He
horrible monster in her own right, descends on Heorot in a also bequeaths his own sword to Unferth.
frenzy of grief and rage, seeking vengeance for her son’s
death. When she falls upon and seizes a sleeping man, the (His helmet) was of beaten gold,
noise wakes the others. The warriors seize their swords and princely headgear hooped and hasped
rush toward her. The monster panics and flees, still carrying by a weapon-smith who had worked wonders
her victim, Hrothgar's trusted adviser, Aeschere, in her grasp.
Beowulf, having been given other sleeping quarters, is away 13.6 Summary: Lines 1492 to 1924 (The Hero’s
from Heorot when Grendel’s mother makes her raid. By the Triumph: Beowulf’s Battle with Grendel’s
Mother and His Return to Geatland)
time he arrives at the hall, she is gone. The warriors discover
that she has stolen Grendel's arm as well.
Choose, dear Beowulf, the better part,
eternal rewards. Do not give way to pride.
Devastated with grief over the loss of his friend and
counsellor, Hrothgar summons Beowulf and explains what
Beowulf swims downward for the better part of a day before
has occurred. He entreats Beowulf to seek out and kill
he sees the bottom. As he nears the murky lake floor,
Grendel’s mother, describing the horrible, swampy wood
Grendel’s mother senses his approach. She lunges at him
where she keeps her lair. The place has a magical quality.
and clutches him in her grip, but his armour, as predicted,
The water burns and the bottom of the mere, or lake, has
prevents her from crushing him. She drags Beowulf to her
never been reached. Even the animals seem to be afraid of
court, while a mass of sea-monsters claws and bites at him.
the water there.
Beowulf wields Hrunting, the sword lent to him by Unferth,
and lashes at Grendel’s mother’s head, but even the
Hrothgar tells Beowulf that he must depend on him a second
celebrated blade of Hrunting is unable to pierce the
time to rid Heorot of a demon. He says that he will give him
monster’s skin. Beowulf tries to fight the sea-witch using only
chests of gold if he rises to the challenge. Beowulf agrees to
his bare hands, but she matches him blow for blow. At last,
the fight, reassuring Hrothgar that Grendel’s mother won’t
he notices a sword hanging on the wall, an enormous
get away. The warriors mount up and ride into the fens,
weapon forged for giants. Beowulf seizes the huge sword and
following the tracks of their enemy. When they reach a cliff’s
swings it in a powerful arc. The blade slices cleanly through
edge, they discover Aeschere’s head lying on the ground. The
the Grendel’s mother’s neck, and she falls dead to the floor,
scene below is horrifying: in the murky water, serpents and
gushing with blood. The hero is exultant. A light appears, and
sea-dragons writhe and roil. Beowulf slays one beast with an
Beowulf looks around, his sword held high in readiness. He
arrow.
spies Grendel's corpse lying in a corner. Furious at the sight
of the fiend, he decapitates Grendel as a final repayment for
Beowulf, “indifferent to death,” prepares himself for combat
all of the lives that Grendel took.
by donning his armour and girding himself with weapons (line
1442). Unferth loans him the great and seasoned sword
On land, the Danes lose hope when they see blood well up
Hrunting, which has never failed in any battle. Beowulf
from the depths. Sure that their champion is lost, they return
speaks, asking Hrothgar to take care of the Geats and return

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to Heorot in sorrow. Only the small band of Geats, Beowulf’s 13.7 Summary: Lines 1925 to 2210 (Beowulf’s
kinsmen, waits on. Ascension to King)

Back in the monster’s court, the blade of the giant’s sword

Beowulf and his men return to the magnificent hall of King
begins to melt, burned by Grendel’s fiery blood. Beowulf
Hygelac and to Queen Hygd, who is beautiful and wise,
seizes its hilt, which remains solid and, grasping Grendel’s
though very young. The narrator tells the story of the
head in his other hand, swims for the surface. He finds that
legendary Queen Modthryth, who “perpetrated terrible
the waters he passes through are no longer infested now
wrongs” against her subjects, torturing and even killing many
that the demon has been destroyed. When he breaks the
innocent people who she imagined were offending her.
surface, the Geats are overjoyed as they advance to meet
Modthryth’s behaviour improved, we are told, once she was
him and unfasten his armour.
married to the great king of the Angles, Offa.

The group returns to Heorot in triumph. Four men impale the

Beowulf and his men approach the hall, where the Geats,
heavy head of Grendel on a spear and lug it between them.
who have heard that their hero has returned, are preparing
When they arrive at the hall, the Danes gawk at the head in
for his arrival. Hygelac extends a formal greeting while Hygd
horror and amazement. Beowulf presents the head and the
pours mead for the warriors. Hygelac asks Beowulf how he
sword hilt to Hrothgar, assuring him of his future security.
fared in the land of Hrothgar, recalling that he had known
Hrothgar praises Beowulf’s goodness, evenness, and loyalty,
that Beowulf’s task would be a fearsome one and that he had
contrasts him with the evil King Heremod, and predicts a
advised Beowulf not to face such a dangerous foe.
great future for him. He delivers a long speech about how to
be a good and wise ruler by choosing eternal rather than
Beowulf begins his tale by describing the courteous
earthly rewards. Hrothgar then promises to shower Beowulf
treatment that he received from Hrothgar and Wealhtheow.
with treasure the following morning.
He then prophesies an unhappy outcome to the peace-
weaving engagement of Freawaru, Hrothgar’s daughter, to
Another banquet ensues, with great feasting and revelry.
Ingeld the Heathobard. He predicts that the sight of the
Afterward, Beowulf retires to get some much-needed rest. In
ancestral possessions of each worn by the kin of the other
the morning, he has Hrunting returned to Unferth and tells
(the result of many years of warring and plundering) will
Hrothgar that he and his men long to return home to
cause memories of the deep and lengthy feud between the
Geatland. Hrothgar praises Beowulf again, saying that he has
Danes and the Heathobards to surface, so that they will not
united the Geats and the Danes in ties of friendship and
be able to keep themselves from continuing to fight.
loyalty. He presents Beowulf with twelve treasures. Despite
his urgings that Beowulf return to Denmark soon, Hrothgar
Beowulf then tells the story of his encounter with Grendel. He
knows that he will never see Beowulf again. The Geats return
particularly emphasizes the monster’s ferocity and the
to the coast, where they grant a reward to the watchman
rewards that he received from Hrothgar. He relates the
who has guarded their ship. They then sail back to Geatland
battle with Grendel’s mother as well. He then presents his
and return to the hall of Hygelac.
king with a large part of the treasure given to him by
Hrothgar, including suits of armour and four of the great
horses. He gives Hygd a priceless necklace—the torque

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given him by Wealhtheow—and three horses. Beowulf is old king, Beowulf grieves and wonders what he might have
praised throughout Geatland for his valorous deeds and done to deserve such punishment from God. He begins to
courteousness. Hygelac gives him a great deal of treasure plot his revenge. He commissions a mighty shield from the
and land of his own to rule. iron-smith, one that he hopes will stand up against the
breath of flame. He is too proud to assemble a huge army for
In time, Hygelac is killed in battle with the Shyflings, and the the fight, and, remembering how he defeated Grendel single-
kingdom falls to Beowulf. For fifty years he rules the Geats, handedly in his youth, feels no fear of the dragon.
becoming a great and wise king.
The poet recounts the death of King Hygelac in combat in
13.8 Summary: Lines 2211 to 2515 (The Wrath of the Friesland. Hygelac fell while Beowulf survived thanks to his
Dragon: Beowulf’s Final Challenge) great strength and swimming ability. Upon returning home,
Beowulf was offered the throne by the widowed Hygd, who
Soon it is Geatland’s turn to face terror. A great dragon lurks knew that her own son was too young and inexperienced to
beneath the earth, jealously guarding its treasure, until one be an effective ruler. Beowulf declined, however, not wanting
day a thief manages to infiltrate the barrow, or mound, where to disturb the order of succession. Instead, he acted as
the treasure lies. The thief steals a gem-covered goblet, protector and guardian to the prince and supported his rule.
arousing the wrath of the dragon. The intruder, a slave on the Only when Hygelac’s son met his end in a skirmish against
run from a hard-handed master, intends no harm by his theft the Swedes did Beowulf ascend the throne. Under Beowulf’s
and flees in a panic with the goblet. reign, the feuding with Sweden eventually ceased when
Beowulf avenged Hygelac’s death.
The poet relates that many centuries earlier, the last survivor
of an ancient race buried the treasure in the barrow when he Now, ready to face one last adversary, Beowulf gathers
realized that the treasure would be of no use to him because eleven men to investigate the area. They discover the thief
he, like his ancestors, was destined to die. He carefully who stole the dragon’s goblet and press him to take them to
buried the precious objects, lamenting all the while his the barrow. They wish each other luck in the fight that will
lonely state. The defeat of his people had left the treasures follow, and Beowulf has a premonition of his own death. On
to deteriorate. The dragon chanced upon the hoard and has the cliff outside the barrow, Beowulf speaks to his men,
been guarding it for the past three hundred years. recounting his youth as a ward in King Hrethel’s court. He
tells of the accidental killing of one of Hrethel’s sons by
Waking up to find the goblet stolen, the dragon bursts forth another and attempts to characterize the king’s great grief.
from the barrow to hunt the thief, scorching the earth as it He describes the wars between the Geats and the Swedes
travels. Not finding the offender, the dragon goes on a after Hrethel’s death, recalling his proud days as a warrior in
rampage, breathing fire and incinerating homes and villages. the service of Hygelac. He then makes his final boast: he
It begins to emerge nightly from its barrow to torment the vows to fight the dragon, if only it will abandon its barrow
countryside, still seething with rage at the theft. and face him on open ground.

Soon, Beowulf's own throne-hall becomes the target of the

dragon’s fiery breath, and it is burned to the ground. Now an

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13.9 Lines 2516 to 2820 (Beowulf’s Final Battle) Beowulf lies dead, and Wiglaf is bowed down with grief at the
loss of his lord. The dragon, too, lies slain on the ground. The
Beowulf bids farewell to his men and sets off wearing a mail- poet briefly commemorates the beast’s end. Slowly, the
shirt and a helmet to fight the dragon. He shouts a challenge Geatish warriors who had fled from the battle straggle back
to his opponent, who emerges from the earth. Man and to the barrow to find Wiglaf still vainly trying to revive their
dragon grapple and wrestle amid sheets of fire. Beowulf fallen leader. The men are ashamed, and Wiglaf rebukes
hacks with his sword against the dragon’s thick scales, but them bitterly, declaring that all of Beowulf’s generosity has
his strength is clearly not what it once was. As the flames been wasted on them. The cost of their cowardice, he
billow, Beowulf’s companions run in terror. Only one, Wiglaf, predicts, will be greater than just the life of a great ruler. He
feels enough loyalty to come to the aid of his king. Wiglaf suggests that foreign warlords will be sure to attack the
chides the other warriors, reminding them of their oaths of Geats now that Beowulf can no longer protect them.
loyal service to Beowulf. Now the time has come when their
loyalty will be tested, Wiglaf declares, and he goes by Wiglaf sends a messenger with tidings to the Geats, who
himself to assist his lord. wait nervously for news of the outcome of the battle. The
messenger tells them of Beowulf’s death and warns them
Beowulf strikes the dragon in the head with his great sword that the hostile Franks and the Frisians will most certainly
Naegling, but the sword snaps and breaks. The dragon lands attack them. He expresses concern about the Swedes as
a bite on Beowulf’s neck, and blood begins to flow. Wiglaf well, who have a long-held grudge against the Geats; he
rushes to Beowulf’s aid, stabbing the dragon in the belly, and relates the history of their feud and tells how the Geats
the dragon scorches Wiglaf’s hand. In desperation Beowulf secured the last victory. Without Beowulf to protect them,
pulls a knife from his belt and stabs it deep into the dragon’s the messenger predicts, the Geats risk invasion by Swedes.
flank. The blow is fatal, and the writhing serpent withers. But The poet confirms that many of the messenger’s predictions
no sooner has Beowulf triumphed than the wound on his will prove true.
neck begins to burn and swell. He realizes that the dragon
bite is venomous and that he is dying. He sends Wiglaf to The Geats then rise and go to Beowulf’s body. They discover
inspect the dragon’s treasure and bring him a portion of it, also the fearsome, fifty-foot-long corpse of the dragon. It is
saying that death will be easier if he sees the hoard that he revealed that the hoard had been under a spell, so that no
has liberated. Wiglaf descends into the barrow and quickly person could open it except by the will of God. Wiglaf
returns to Beowulf with an armload of treasure. The old king, recounts Beowulf’s last requests and readies the people to
dying, thanks God for the treasure that he has won for his build his funeral pyre. With seven of the greatest Geatish
people. He tells Wiglaf that he must now look after the Geats thanes, Wiglaf returns to the dragon’s bier to collect the
and order his troop to build him a barrow that people will call treasure that Beowulf bought with his life. They hurl the
“Beowulf’s Barrow.” After giving Wiglaf the collar from his dragon’s body into the water.
own neck, Beowulf dies.

The pyre is built high and decked with armour, according to

13.10 Lines 2821 to 3182 (Beowulf’s Funeral) Beowulf’s wishes. The body is laid in and the fire is lit—its
roar competes with the sound of weeping. A Geatish woman
laments Beowulf’s death and grieves about the war-torn

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future that she foresees for her people. The Geats place
Beowulf’s remains on a cliff high above the sea in a barrow
that will be visible to all passing ships. Sorrowfully, they
recount that their king was kind and generous to his people,
fair-minded, and eager to earn praise.

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14 Line Analysis performing heroic deeds and by doling out heroic sums of
treasure. Because Sheafson receives so much booty from his
14.1 Analysis: Lines 1 to 300 conquests, the poet says of him, “That was one good king”
(line 11). Hrothgar is likewise presented as a good leader,
Behaviour that’s admired
because he erects the mead-hall Heorot for his men.
is the path to power among people everywhere.

Another major aspect of the heroic code in Beowulf is

It is not surprising that Beowulf begins with a tribute to the
eloquence in speech. Beowulf is imposing not only because
ancestry of King Hrothgar, since within the warrior culture
of his physical presence but also because of his powerful
that the poem depicts, patriarchal lineage is an extremely
oratorical skill. Speech and poetry were extremely important
important component of one’s identity. Characters are
among the Anglo-Saxons and Scandinavians, as they often
regularly named as the sons of their fathers—Beowulf, for
are in civilizations that rely on oral narratives to preserve
example, is often referred to as “Ecgtheow’s son.”
history and myth (characters in Homer’s Iliad are also
Patriarchal history anchors the story in a linear time frame
judged by how they speak). Beowulf’s boastful demeanour
that stretches forward and backward through the
as he declares his intention to slay the monster is not an
generations. In light of the great importance of familial
indication of undue vanity but rather a customary part of
lineage in this culture, it is interesting that Shield Sheafson,
heroic behaviour. The watchman’s reply that
who inaugurates the Danish royal line, is an orphan—he is
both founder and “foundling.” The reader has the sense that
anyone with gumption
if this ordinary personage had not been fatherless, of
and a sharp mind will take the measure
unknown lineage, the story could have no definitive starting
of two things: what’s said and what’s done
point. We later learn that Beowulf was also left fatherless at
a young age.
follows logically from Beowulf’s value of eloquence. In the -
watchman’s eyes, brave words must be backed up by brave
The delineation of a heroic code is one of the most important
deeds (lines 287–289).
preoccupations of the poem. In this first section, some of the
central tenets of this code become apparent. In the story of
A well-won reputation ensures that a warrior will become a
Sheafson in the poem’s opening lines, the poet offers a
part of history, of the social fabric of his culture, as the
sketch of the life of a successful hero. Sheafson’s greatness
inclusion of the story of Sheafson in the poem immediately
is measured by the number of clans that he conquers. As the
reminds us. Throughout the epic, fame is presented as a
defeated have to pay him tribute, it is clear that strength
bulwark against the oblivion of death, which lurks
leads to the acquisition of treasure and gold. In the world of
everywhere in the poem and casts a sobering pall over even
the poem, warriors are bound to their lords by ties of deep
the most shining acts of heroism. The description of
loyalty, which the lords maintain through their protection of
Sheafson’s funeral foreshadows the poem’s final scene,
their warriors and also through ritualized gestures of
which depicts the funeral of another heroic king. The tales of
generosity, or gift-giving. Because their king is powerful,
heroism that unfold in the intervening lines are thus framed,
Sheafson’s warriors receive treasure. A hero is therefore
like life itself, within the envelope of death. The sea acts as
defined, in part, by his ability to help his community by
another important and ever-present boundary in Beowulf; the

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sea-burial with which the poem begins helps to establish the corroborated. Beowulf can respond only with a series of
inexorable margins of life in the story. elaborate boasts about his doings to preserve his honour.
Throughout Beowulf, boasting is presented as a key
14.2 Analysis: Lines 301 to 709 component of one’s reputation, a valid way to assert one’s
position in a hierarchy determined by deeds of valour.
The two digressions in this section—Hrothgar’s story of his Beowulf’s boasting, which especially pleases Wealhtheow,
former association with Beowulf’s father and Beowulf’s story actually increases his honour and raises the level of
of his swimming match against Breca—help to shed light on expectations—for both those around him and the reader—as
the main story by refining the reader’s understanding of the to how he will fare in the impending battle with Grendel.
Germanic heroic code of values. In Hrothgar’s story of his
previous association with Beowulf’s father, we learn that But such boasting is a delicate social operation, and this
there is a history of obligation between these two families. scene helps to clarify the difference between proper and
This anecdote explains the concept of the wergild, or “death- petulant boastfulness. Feeling upstaged by Beowulf, Unferth
price,” a set price that one pays, as Hrothgar did on calls Beowulf’s exploits foolhardy and accuses him of vanity.
Ecgtheow’s behalf, to compensate the kin of anyone a But it is Unferth himself who is guilty of vanity, since he is
warrior has killed. Paying the price of a man’s life is the only jealous of Beowulf. Etiquette dictates that it is inappropriate
way to keep the cycle of vengeance that characterizes a feud for Unferth to attempt to dishonour a guest; once he does,
from continuing indefinitely. Such a payment replaces the however, Beowulf’s retaliation is appropriate and even
volley of violent retaliation with an exchange of obligation. necessary to maintain his reputation. Hrothgar’s behaviour,
Thus Beowulf is at Heorot both to avenge the death of so by contrast, is more dignified. He acknowledges that there is
many Danes at the hands of Grendel and also to discharge a certain “humiliation” in the fact that the Danes cannot
his father’s debt to Hrothgar. solve their own problems, but he does not allow this
disgrace to make him resentful of the superior warrior who
Interestingly, up until this point of the poem, Beowulf’s has come to help (although one can argue that his assertion
decision to come to Hrothgar’s aid has been described by that Beowulf owes him on behalf of Ecgtheow helps him
the narrator as a heroic act of Beowulf’s own deciding rather lessen his embarrassment at having to ask for help).
than an act of obligation or a payment of debt. When Beowulf
explains his visit to the Danish coast guard, he again Reading closely, we find that the story that Beowulf tells is
presents his journey as one made of his own free will. He communalist in spite of its boastful tone. He depicts the
doesn’t respond directly to Hrothgar’s story about Ecgtheow, culture of competition in which he and Breca were raised as
perhaps wanting to bolster his claim that he has come fraternal and respectful, not vain and obsessive as Unferth
seeking the monster of his own volition, not because he would have it. Though he makes a sharp stab at Unferth
owes Hrothgar on behalf of his father. when he points out his ineffectuality against Grendel,
Beowulf ends his oration with a beautiful image of restored
The second digression, Beowulf’s account of his swimming peace and happiness for his hosts, the Danes. Beowulf’s
match against his childhood companion Breca, comes when correction thus not only better represents the true values of
Unferth challenges Beowulf’s heroic status. As there were no the society but also illustrates the proper way to tell a story.
witnesses to Beowulf’s exploits, his story cannot be

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His story is more in keeping with the values of the code of (103). The poet’s culture finds the borders of society
honour than is Unferth’s bitter speech. threatening, and Grendel is presented as an outsider who
has penetrated the boundaries. Since Hrothgar, like Grendel,
14.3 Analysis: Lines 710 to 1007 established himself by conquering his neighbours, some
critics see the marauding Grendel as the embodiment of the
Beowulf is divided into three main parts, each of which society’s own sin come back to haunt it. The nature of his
centres on the hero’s struggle against a particular monster— abode—a swampy, dark, womblike landscape—supports
first Grendel, then Grendel’s mother, then the dragon. In this interpretation. He seems to be an incarnation of evil
Beowulf’s bloody battle against Grendel, the first part of the created by the human conscience. Furthermore, it is
story reaches its climax. The poet chooses to relate much of important to note that Grendel and Beowulf forego weapons
this struggle from Grendel’s perspective rather than from to engage in ferocious hand-to-hand combat. This clash is
Beowulf’s, emphasizing the fear and pain that Beowulf inflicts not a mere battle in a culture dominated by warfare but
upon the demon. This narrative technique makes Beowulf rather a more personal, primal conflict between equal,
seem even more godlike; he seems to be an unstoppable opposite forces.
heroic force. Throughout the fight, Beowulf is treated as more
than human. He shows himself stronger and more powerful The Beowulf poet’s description of the scop, or bard, who
than even the monstrous Grendel, and he seems completely sings Beowulf’s praises after the defeat of Grendel shows
invulnerable. It is never entirely clear what kind of being that he clearly values good workmanship, both in objects
Grendel actually is—he is described as a demon, fiend, spirit, and in poetry. The narrator emphasizes the craftsmanship of
and stranger (in the Middle Ages, the word monster was the bard’s “well-fashioned lines,” just as he tends to dwell on
used to describe birth defects; Grendel is later referred to as the skill with which weapons and armour are forged. The
“an unnatural birth” [1353]). In any case, he seems to be a bard’s stories of Sigemund and Heremod reflect on the
horrific beast, a large and distorted creature of vaguely greatness of Beowulf by comparison and contrast,
human shape. His supernatural monstrousness makes respectively. The Sigemund episode relates a familiar story
Beowulf’s conquest of him all the more impressive. from Norse mythology, which foreshadows Beowulf’s fight
with the dragon in the third part of the epic. The evil king
Many readers believe that each of the three monsters in the Heremod, who fails to fulfil the responsibilities of a lord to
book has a symbolic or allegorical significance. The narrator his people, represents Beowulf’s opposite. By comparing
seems to present Grendel as a representation of evil in the Beowulf to a king, the scop anticipates Beowulf’s destiny for
abstract. He can also, however, be interpreted as an evil the throne in Geatland.
force lurking within the Danish society itself. The theological
implications of his descent from Cain support such an Heremod also serves as a foil for Hrothgar. Hrothgar’s
interpretation. The Old Testament relates how God punished speech on the morning after the combat attributes Beowulf’s
Cain for his murder of his brother Abel by cursing him to victory to God without detracting from Beowulf’s personal
wander. Grendel, too, is cursed and wanders, “haunting the glory. He feels himself to be bound in a “new connection”
marches, marauding round the heath / and the desolate with Beowulf by this great act of service. His appreciation
fens” (103–104). The “marches” are the borders, and in Old
and dedication to Beowulf are manifest in his promises that
English Grendel is called a “mearc-stapa,” or border-stepper
Beowulf will have the honours and rewards that are the

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appropriate recompenses for faithful service to a powerful of using women as peace tools is problematic for the men
lord. Unlike Heremod, Hrothgar represents the dutiful ruler too. Here an uncle and a nephew are on opposing sides,
in every way. Consequently, the Danes’ loyalty to Hrothgar even though their Germanic culture prizes a particularly
doesn’t abate even when they are celebrating and revering strong bond between a man and his sister’s son. In the
Beowulf: “there was no laying of blame on their lord, / the Finnsburg episode peace proves untenable. Hildeburh must
noble Hrothgar; he was a good king” (lines 861–862). be taken back to Denmark—the ties between the two groups
must be severed—before the conflict can rest.
14.4 Analysis: Lines 1008 to 1250 (The Banquet and
the Saga of Finn: Honour, Grief, and New The story also gives the reader a sense of the Anglo-Saxon
Threats)
idea of wyrd, or fate, in which individuals conceive of

The bard’s tale of the conflict between the Danes and the themselves as directed by necessity and a heroic code that

Frisians—the Finnsburg episode, as this poem-within-a- compels them to act in certain fixed ways. The strong

poem is commonly called—contains some of the most discussion of fate in this section is ominous, and the reader

beautiful and resonant language in Beowulf, utilizing many quickly gets the sense that the Danes and Geats are a little

devices characteristic of Anglo-Saxon poetry. One such too exuberant in their rejoicing over the defeat of Grendel.

device is deliberate, emphatic understatement, as in the The narrator compounds this troubling feeling by informing

lines, “Hildeburh had little cause / to credit the Jutes” (lines us that a reversal of fortune is coming: “how could they know

1070–1071), where the point is that, in fact, she has fate, / the grim shape of things to come” (lines 1233–
1234). Beowulf’s plot often anticipates itself in this manner.
enormous cause to discredit them. Also prominent is the use
It may even seem to us as though the narrator is giving away
of kennings—compound words that evoke, poetically and
the plot and destroying the suspense. For the Beowulf poet,
often metaphorically, specific ideas, such as “ring-giver”
however, the pull of fate is so strong that an event that is
(line 1101) for king (a king being one who rewards his
fated to happen in the future already has a strong presence.
warriors with rings) and “sea-lanes” (line 1156) for ocean.
Fate walks among these characters whether they know it or
not.
The Finnsburg episode relates loosely to Beowulf’s central
narrative. Although it isn’t relevant to the main plot, it invokes
The narrator’s tendency to project forward to future events
the idea of vengeance as a component of honour. The story
manifests itself as well in his hints that Hrothulf, Hrothgar’s
also highlights a tension in the heroic code by presenting the
nephew, will usurp the throne from Hrothgar’s sons.
point of view of the Danish princess Hildeburh. Married to
Wealhtheow’s statement that she is certain of Hrothulf’s
the Frisian king but herself a daughter of the Danes,
goodness creates a moment of dramatic irony, as the poet is
Hildeburh experiences a divided loyalty. She has a son
well aware that Hrothulf has evil in mind. The treachery
fighting on one side and a brother on the other. Like many
related in the Finnsburg episode casts a similarly ominous
other women in the Germanic warrior culture depicted in
pall over Wealhtheow’s speech and suggests that treachery
Beowulf, Hildeburh functions as a “peace-pledge between
will mark the future just as it has the past. Such continuity is
nations”—an epithet that the poet later applies to
symbolized in the golden torque that Wealhtheow presents
Wealhtheow (line 2017). Through marriage, Hildeburh helps
to Beowulf. The poet’s glance forward to Hygelac’s death
to forge a connection between tribes. Of course, the practice
while wearing the torque (which Beowulf will have given him)

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reinforces how symbols link the past, present, and future in their whole ancestry is hidden” (lines 1355–1356). The idea
this culture. of a hidden ancestry is obviously suspect and sinister in this
society that places such a high priority—a sacredness,
14.5 Analysis: Lines 1251 to 1491 (The Vengeance of even—on publicizing and committing to memory one’s
Grendel’s Mother) lineage.

The intensity of the epic increases in these lines, as its

Grendel’s relation to Cain has been mentioned at several
second part begins with the arrival of Grendel’s mother at the
points in the story and is revisited here. Having Cain for an
hall. The idea of the blood feud, which has been brought up
ancestor is obviously a liability from the perspective of a
earlier in the scop’s stories and in Hrothgar’s memory of the
culture obsessed with family loyalty. Grendel’s lineage is
Wulfings’ grudge against Ecgtheow, now enters the main
therefore in many ways an unnatural one, demonic and
plot. Just as Grendel’s slaughter of Hrothgar’s men requires
accursed, since Cain brought murder, specifically murder of
avenging, so does Beowulf’s slaying of Grendel. As Beowulf
kin, into the world. As discussed earlier, it is possible to
tells Hrothgar, in a speech with central importance to his
interpret Grendel and his mother, considering the
conception of the heroic code of honour, “It is always better
unnaturalness of their existence, as the manifestation of
/ to avenge dear ones than to indulge in mourning / . . . /
some sort of psychological tension about the conquering and
When a warrior is gone, glory will be his best and only
killing that dominate the Danish and the Geatish societies.
bulwark” (lines 1384–1389). In this speech, Beowulf
Certainly, the humans’ feud with the monsters seems to
explicitly characterizes revenge as a means to fame and
stand outside the normal culture of warfare and seems to
glory, which make reputations immortal. As this speech
carry a suggestion of moral and spiritual importance.
demonstrates, an awareness of death pervades Beowulf.
That some aspect or memory of a person remains is
The question of Grendel’s lineage is one of many examples of
therefore of great importance to the warriors. The world of
the Beowulf poet’s struggle to resolve the tension between
the poem is harsh, dangerous, and unforgiving, and
his own Christian worldview and the obviously pagan origins
innumerable threats—foreign enemies, monsters, and
of his narrative. The narrative’s origins lie in a pagan past, but
natural perils—loom over every life.
by the time the poem was written down (sometime around
700 a.d.), almost all of the Anglo-Saxons had been
One of the most interesting aspects of Grendel’s mother’s
converted to Christianity. The Scandinavian settings and
adherence to the same vengeance-demanding code as the
characters thus would have been distant ancestral
warriors is that she is depicted as not wholly alien. Her
memories for the inhabitants of England, as the migrations
behaviour is not only comprehensible but also justified. In
from Scandinavia and Germany had taken place centuries
other ways, however, Grendel and his mother are indeed
earlier. Throughout the epic, the poet makes references to
portrayed as creatures from another world. One aspect of
this point and tries to reconcile the behaviour of his
their difference from the humans portrayed in the poem is
characters with a Christian system of belief that often seems
that Grendel’s strong parent figure is his mother rather than
alien to the action of the poem. Early on, for example, he
his father—his family structure that is out of keeping with the
condemns the Danes’ journeys to pagan shrines, where they
vigorously patriarchal society of the Danes and the Geats. As
make offerings, hoping to rid themselves of Grendel.
Hrothgar explains it, “They are fatherless creatures, / and
Additionally, Beowulf’s heroic exploits are constantly framed

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in terms of God’s role in them, as though Beowulf owes all of boundaries of human society—an advantage that Beowulf
his abilities to providence—an idea that hardly seems enjoys in his encounter against Grendel—is now lost. This
compatible with the earthly boasting and reputation-building time, Beowulf must struggle against a resistant natural
with which he occupies himself throughout the poem. The environment in addition to a ferocious monster. The reader
conflict between the Anglo-Saxon idea of fate (wyrd) and the already has been prepared for Beowulf’s superhuman
Christian God was probably a widespread moral tension in swimming abilities by the earlier story of the contest with
the poet’s time, and it animates Beowulf from beginning to Breca. However, the mere, or lake, in which Grendel’s mother
end. lives is no ordinary body of water. It teems with blood and
gore, as well as with unsavoury creatures of all descriptions.
14.6 Analysis: Lines 1492 to 1924 (The Hero’s It is an elemental world of water, fire, and blood, and one
Triumph: Beowulf’s Battle with Grendel’s with an extremely unholy feel to it.
Mother and His Return to Geatland)

Many readers have pondered the significance of Grendel and Imagery of darkness and light is important in this underwater

his mother—whether they are part of the same evil force or world. The darkness of the lair symbolizes evil, and it leads

represent two separate ideas. Earlier, after Grendel’s defeat, to Beowulf’s general disorientation in this unfamiliar

there are frequent suggestions, even amid the celebration, environment. The first glimmer of light that he sees signifies

that the evil that Grendel represents has not been stamped his arrival at the very heart and hearth of this den of terror.

out. These hints may lead the reader to suspect that Grendel Once he defeats Grendel’s mother, her lair is illuminated

himself is still alive—though Beowulf rips his arm off, we more thoroughly: “A light appeared and the place

never actually see Grendel die, and Beowulf regrets letting brightened / the way the sky does when heaven’s candle / is
shining clearly” (lines 1570–1572). Because light bears the
him get away. That the remaining threat proves instead to be
implication of Christian holiness and salvation, with these
the monster’s mother suggests, perhaps, that although an
words, the poet suggests that hell has been purged of its evil
instance of evil has been eliminated with Grendel, the evil
and sanctity restored. Additionally, it seems clear that by the
must still be eradicated at its source—Grendel’s mother
time Beowulf gets back onto land, he has undergone a sort of
might be thought of as representing a more foundational or
rebirth, a transition from a brave but somewhat reckless
primordial evil than Grendel himself. On the other hand,
warrior into a wise and steadfast leader. Indeed, the
there is less theological language attached to her malice
remainder of this section is dominated by elaborate formal
than to Grendel’s. She seems to be more unambiguously
oratory detailing the characteristics of successful
animalistic and less a symbol of pure evil than he is. For
participation in society. In particular, Beowulf receives
example, her attack on Heorot is even appropriate and
earnest advice from Hrothgar, by now a father-figure, about
honourable by the standards of the warrior culture, as it
how to comport himself both as a man and as a ruler.
marks an attempt to avenge her son’s death.

14.7 Analysis: Lines 1925 to 2210 (Beowulf’s

This second encounter prompts a change of scene in the
Ascension to King)
poem, drawing the hero out of the safety of the mead-hall
and into the dark, alien, suggestive world of his adversaries. This transitional section returns Beowulf to his homeland and
The advantage of fighting on familiar terrain within the introduces us briefly to his king and queen, Hygelac and

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Hygd. Like Wealhtheow in Denmark, Hygd is presented as a

positive example of proper behaviour in women—she is In his retelling of his experiences in Denmark, Beowulf
gracious in bearing and manner, attentive to the men around emphasizes the treasure that he has won as much as the
her, and loyal to her husband and lord. In order to highlight poet does in his narration of the events. Throughout Beowulf,
these positive qualities, the poet positions the legendarily a tension manifests itself between the pagan regard for
wicked Queen Modthryth as Hygd’s foil (a character whose treasure as a symbol of personal valour and the Christian
traits contrast with and thereby accentuate those of another conception of treasure as a symbol of sinful greed. As we
character). Beowulf is set in a highly male-dominated have seen, treasure is directly related to success in war and
world—perhaps one even more male-dominated than that of an accumulation of treasure signifies an accumulation of
Homer’s Iliad—governed by violence, honour, and doom. In honour. Most important, the treasure must continue to be
this culture, women are seen as marriageable objects, links redistributed. In this sense, Hrothgar is a good king because
between warring tribes to achieve peace (Wealhtheow is he is such a generous “ring-giver” and Beowulf a good
referred to as “peace-pledge between nations” [line 2017]). retainer because he gives Hygelac and Hygd more than half
of his rewards. The poem’s Christian undertones, however,
Beowulf is clearly sceptical about the power of marriage to focus on earthly possessions as unimportant. For example,
heal the anger and hatred generated between blood after Beowulf slays Grendel’s mother, Hrothgar advises
enemies. His dire predictions about the marriage of Beowulf to “choose . . . the better part, / eternal rewards,”
Hrothgar’s daughter, Freawaru, to an enemy clansman, warning him, essentially, not to rest on the laurels of his
Heathobard, reveal his belief that the desire for vengeance conquests (lines 1759–1760).
will always overcome the peace that intermarriage attempts
to establish. The events of the Finnsburg episode, in which This section also further develops the image of the mead-hall
the marriage-tie was quickly violated and the bride returned as an important element in Anglo-Saxon warrior culture.
to her kinsmen, seem to validate this sentiment. In any case, Hygelac’s hall in Geatland proves just as magnificent and just
this detail about the engagement of Hrothgar’s daughter and as important a place of sanctuary and reward in a world
its political context is one of several new elements that where danger lurks on every horizon as Heorot, the great hall
Beowulf’s retelling introduces, keeping the story from of the Danes. In the mead-hall, boasts can be made, jokes
becoming too repetitive. can be exchanged, and the idea of doom can be postponed.
It is in the mead-hall that warriors can revel in the glory and
Beowulf’s pessimistic speculations about this union add to the reputations that they risk such peril to win.
the discourse on treasure that has been running throughout
the poem. His argument that some ancestral item will catch The ceremonies in Hygelac’s hall seem to reflect a growing
a family member’s eye and renew the feud seems valid—we intimacy between Beowulf and the king, his uncle, as well as
have seen that many items of treasure, such as the various a growing respect for a warrior who had previously been
swords and the necklace that Wealhtheow gives Beowulf, are undervalued, as we now learn for the first time: “(Beowulf)
in fact heirlooms, loaded with symbolic and memorial had been poorly regarded / for a long time” (lines 2183–
significance. Thus, Freawaru, as a peace-pledge, is pitted 2184). Thus, the retelling in the mead-hall of Beowulf’s heroic
against treasure, which has the potential to rekindle bad deeds—a retelling that may seem anticlimactic to many
memories and feuds.

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readers—is an important political moment for Beowulf and throne after Hygelac’s death and ruled for fifty years. Now,
an important step in his advancement from warrior to ruler. however, we find out about a significant gesture of
generosity on Beowulf’s part toward Hygelac’s son. By
14.8 Analysis: Lines 2211 to 2515 (The Wrath of the declining the throne and taking on the guardianship of the
Dragon: Beowulf’s Final Challenge) young heir until the heir comes of age, Beowulf shows that
his attitude toward power is neither ambitious nor
This section moves us into the third part of the poem, which
mercenary. He thus stands in contrast to the power-hungry
centres around the aged Beowulf’s fight with the dragon.
usurper Hrothulf. In proclaiming of Beowulf that “He was a
From beginning to end, the tone of this section is one of
good king,” the poet echoes his praise of the venerable
death and doom. The unknown ancestor who buries the
Shield Sheafson and of Hrothgar (line 2390).
treasure, for example, behaves as mournfully as if he were
actually burying his deceased kinsmen—or, indeed, himself.
The tragic story of the death of Hrethel’s son at the hands of
Also, there are repeated hints that Beowulf will not survive
his own brother offers an echo of the earlier case of divided
this encounter. Much of this section is retrospective and
loyalty in the Finnsburg episode. There, the Danish princess
nostalgic, as Beowulf, sensing that his end is near, feels
Hildeburh was distressed by the fact that her son and her
compelled to rehearse the story of his distinguished life.
brother were at war, fighting on opposite sides, and that
ultimately both were killed. Here, the tension is similar but
The emphasis on the treasure itself in this section rehashes
even more frustrating. Hrethel’s grief at the accident is great,
the moral ambiguity of materialism caused by the overlaying
but because of the peculiar circumstances surrounding his
of a Christian value system on a pagan story. As translator
son’s death, Hrethel is locked in inaction. Under the heroic
Seamus Heaney points out in his introduction, the idea of
code, grief is something to be purged through vengeance, but
gold in the Sigemund episode is associated almost entirely
vengeance here would mean the death of another son—an
with goodness and honour, while here it is also associated
excruciating and unsatisfying prospect.
with greed, theft, evil, and death. But the anecdote of the
Last Survivor, which tells how the gold came to be buried in
The circumstances surrounding and leading up to Beowulf’s
the barrow, demonstrates a different ethos. The survivor
confrontation with the dragon prepare us for a climactic
seems to realize that the treasure is meaningless without a
spectacle. The poet has aligned Beowulf with the force of
community in which to circulate. This realization isn’t exactly
good throughout the story, and the dragon’s direct attack on
a Christian lesson in the transience of earthly things, since
Beowulf’s hall renders this imminent encounter an inevitable
no alternative spiritual world is proposed; neither, however,
clash between good and evil. The contrast drawn between
does it reflect a greedy, purely materialistic lust for gold. In
Hrothgar, who earlier calls on the young Beowulf to eradicate
this anecdote, the Beowulf poet seems to have given the
Grendel, and the now old Beowulf, who enlists no such help
pagan ethos a fairly sympathetic and even-handed
against the dragon, accentuates Beowulf’s valour and instils
treatment.
in us a confidence that Beowulf is still mighty enough to
eradicate a menacing foe. The poet’s explicit comparison
The lengthy passages of recapitulation and reminiscence fill
between Hygelac, who died, and Beowulf, who lived, in the
in the details of Beowulf’s political biography. In the previous
combat in Friesland similarly builds our expectations that
section, the reader learns only that Beowulf came to the
Beowulf will succeed in his quest.

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as symbols of the transmission of values through

Yet Beowulf’s premonition of his own death attests to his generations or of bonds of kinship and loyalty. Beowulf
strong sense of fate, an important component of these recognizes this symbolic function when he reflects that he
characters’ self-conceptions. Beowulf’s reminiscences would pass on his armour to his own son if he had one. His
about his glory days and the narrator’s mention of Beowulf’s relief upon seeing the treasure demonstrates his desire to
old age reinforce the reality that every life—even that of a leave something to his people—a sort of surrogate
legendary warrior—must come to an end. Thus, the poem offspring—when he dies. He knows that, even though he has
gives us the feeling that this clash can end only in total slain the dragon, his victory will feel hollow if there is no
destruction. Beowulf’s call for the dragon to face him on subsequent enactment of the ritual of reward and gift-giving.
open ground has the same primal feel to it as his youthful Looking upon the treasure—ensuring himself of its physical
decision to fight Grendel unarmed. Whereas the earlier clash reality—eases Beowulf’s mind before death.
establishes Beowulf’s reputation as a hero, we know this last
clash must seal Beowulf’s heroic reputation forever. That the treasure that Wiglaf finds is rusty and corroded,
however, adds a pathetic, ironic quality to the scene.
14.9 Analysis: Lines 2516 to 2820 (Beowulf’s Final Whereas Beowulf’s first two encounters with monsters end
Battle) with him being granted treasures whose splendour
represents his valour, the final encounter ends with Beowulf
The dragon is the poem’s most potent symbol, embodying
clutching objects whose decaying state epitomizes his own
the idea of wyrd, or fate, that imbues the story with an
proximity to death. Furthermore, these riches will be
atmosphere of doom and death. Whereas Beowulf is
entombed with Beowulf, so that the treasure will be hoarded,
essentially invulnerable to Grendel and his mother, he is in
in effect, rather than redistributed, as the heroic code
danger from the beginning against the dragon. As Beowulf
normally demands. In a way, Beowulf is like the original
feels his own death approaching, the dragon emerges from
burier of the treasure, who realized that he was the last of his
the earth, creating the feeling that the inevitable clash will
line—he knows that his lineage will not continue. Because
result in Beowulf’s death. The poet emphasizes Beowulf’s
the nature of Beowulf’s fight with the dragon is so different
reluctance to meet death, to “give ground like that and go /
from that of his fights with Grendel and his mother, some
unwillingly to inhabit another home / in a place beyond”
critics choose to see the poem as having a dipartite, or two-
(2588–2590). This poetic evocation of death as constituting
part, structure rather than a tri-partite one. In the first two
movement from one realm to another—from the earthly
fights, we see a warrior confident in his indestructibility; in
realm to the spiritual one—reveals the influence of Christian
the last fight, on the other hand, we see a warrior aware of
ideology on the generally pagan Beowulf. It is also poignant
his mortality.
from the perspective of the warrior ethos, in which leaving
one’s homeland, the anchor of one’s entire identity, is a very
The treasure also stands for the growing bond between
serious and significant undertaking.
Beowulf and Wiglaf, the old hero and the new. Of Beowulf’s
men, Wiglaf is the only one who conforms to the heroic
That Beowulf should be so adamant in his desire to see the
standards of loyalty and valour. Wiglaf, in this section,
treasure before he dies has puzzled many readers. It is
establishes himself as the legitimate successor to Beowulf,
important to remember that treasure objects often function
who has no natural heir. In this way, he is similar to the young

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Beowulf, who becomes Hrothgar’s adoptive son. Wiglaf offers a great deal of insight into the importance of the
fiercely swears that he would rather die than return home warrior-king figure in early feudal societies. In a world where
without having protected his leader. This vow, too, reminds small societies are constantly at war over land, wealth,
us of the young Beowulf, who is so eloquent in enunciating resources, and honour, the presence of a powerful king is
the code of honour and so perfectly epitomizes its values. essential to the safety and well-being of a people. When a
The continuity of honour from one generation to the next is king dies, his people become vulnerable to the marauding
ratified when Beowulf takes the collar of gold from his own forces beyond their borders. The doom that hangs over the
neck and, as his final act, gives it to his young friend. In Old entire narration of Beowulf’s story seems to descend swiftly
English, a laf is an heirloom or remnant, and Wiglaf means upon his people the moment that he dies, and the wailing
“war survivor.” The poet equates Wiglaf with the treasure Geats are well aware of what the lack of Beowulf’s protection
(and, of course, the poem)—he will survive Beowulf’s means for them. Wiglaf suggests as well that the weakness
lifetime and carry on the great hero’s legacy. and deficiency of his fellow warriors will encourage invaders.
The Geats have sacrificed their reputation as valiant warriors
14.10 Analysis: Lines 2821 to 3182 (Beowulf’s Funeral) by refusing to come to the aid of their king, and reputation is
itself an important layer of defence. Once word of their
The conclusion of the epic begins with a brief but lovely cowardice gets out, they will surely become targets of
elegiac passage in honour of the dragon, consigning it, along attack.
with Beowulf, to the company of those who can no longer
exercise their greatness. The poet emphasizes the dragon’s By the time of the funeral, Wiglaf’s initial rage against his
beauty and grace of movement (“Never again would he compatriots has cooled somewhat, and he speaks once
glitter and glide” [2832]), illustrating that the beast was more for the community. As extensively as it honours
magnificent in its own right and a worthy match for the great Beowulf’s greatness, the final scene of the poem comes
hero. The poet’s admiring words about the dragon glorify closer than any other to criticizing his behaviour. Wiglaf
Beowulf’s feat in slaying such a creature and demonstrate a reflects that there may have been an element of
respect for the slain enemy that Grendel and his mother irresponsibility in Beowulf’s single-mindedness and daring
never enjoyed. The poet here demonstrates his sensitivity to when he proclaims, “Often when one man follows his own
balance—what the translator calls “four-squareness”—as he will / many are hurt. This happened to us” (3077–3078).
dwells on the two bodies lying side by side, two remarkable This declaration, in conjunction with the earlier statement
lives come to a close. The symmetry and pacing in this that Beowulf was too proud to field a large army against the
nostalgic moment help to prepare us for the elaborate dragon, suggests that his actions were not wholly
ceremony of the funeral with which the poem concludes. Of courageous but also, to a degree, foolhardy and headstrong.
course, the first foreshadowing of Beowulf’s funeral comes Like Wiglaf, we are left to ponder how courage can balance
much earlier, with the recounting of the death of Shield with judgment to yield true heroism.
Sheafson at the beginning of the poem. The story has now
come full circle. The issue of the cursed treasure compounds the ambiguity
surrounding the meaning of Beowulf’s death. The poet’s
Wiglaf’s rebuke of his fellow warriors, along with the assertion that the ancient warrior acted wrongly in burying
messenger’s prophecy about Geatland’s imminent troubles, the gold underground suggests that Beowulf is the God-

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chosen liberator of the imprisoned wealth. Though Beowulf

approaches the matter of the treasure unselfishly, wishing to
free his people from the menace of the dragon, his death
nevertheless seems something of a punishment. Ultimately,
however, in a culture of heroism—in which so much
emphasis is placed on virtue, in which warriors would rather
die than live in shame—the noble funeral that Beowulf
receives validates his choices in life. The poem Beowulf
exemplifies this culture’s emphasis on memorializing
departed heroes; indeed, the mere existence of the poem
itself is a testament to Beowulf’s virtue and the esteem his
people placed upon him.

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15 Important Quotes repetition of consonant sounds, across the caesura to bind

the two half-lines together through sound (“foundling . . .

So. The Spear-Danes in days gone by flourish”). He also replicates the Beowulf poet’s extensive
and the kings who ruled them had courage and use of multiple names or phrases for a single person, group,
greatness. or idea; thus Shield Sheafson, in the space of two lines, is
... referred to as “scourge of many tribes” and “wrecker of
There was Shield Sheafson, scourge of many mead-benches.” Finally, the compound word “whale-road,”
tribes, used here to refer to the sea, is one of the most famous
a wrecker of mead-benches, rampaging among examples of the Anglo-Saxon rhetorical figure called the
foes. kenning, which replaces a noun with a metaphorical
...
description of the noun.
A foundling to start with, he would flourish later
on
In addition to these stylistic features, the opening lines also
...
introduce a number of thematic ideas that prove important
In the end each clan on the outlying coasts
throughout the poem. The poet’s presentation of the
beyond the whale-road had to yield to him
ancestor Shield Sheafson as the model of heroism is
and begin to pay tribute. That was one good
representative of the poem’s obsession with patriarchal
king.
history. Characters are constantly defined in terms of their
(1–11)
fathers and ancestors. This passage also emphasizes heroic
action itself as a cultural value—even a fatherless individual
These lines, which open the poem, establish the highly
can make a name for himself if he behaves like a hero. Thus,
stylized nature of Seamus Heaney’s translation and set forth
the orphan Shield Sheafson earned an immutable reputation
some of the poem’s central ideas. Heaney’s choice to
as “one good king” by the end of his life. The great force of
translate the first word of the poem as “So” has been much
reputation will also continue to be an important theme. By
remarked upon. It had previously been translated into such
establishing fame in his lifetime, an individual can hope to be
poetic-sounding invocations as “Hark” and “Lo” or, more
remembered by subsequent generations—the only
casually, “Listen.” In his introduction, Heaney explains his
consolation that death affords.
choice by pointing out that “so,” in the speech of his Ulster
relatives, “operates as an expression which obliterates all
previous discourse and narrative, and at the same time And a young prince must be prudent like that,

functions as an exclamation calling for immediate giving freely while his father lives

attention.” From the outset, then, the poem whips us into its so that afterwards in age when fighting starts
steadfast companions will stand by him
world while maintaining an inviting, conversational tone.
and hold the line. Behaviour that’s admired
is the path to power among people everywhere.
Heaney’s translation re-creates many of the conventions of
(20–25)
Anglo-Saxon poetry. He breaks his lines into two halves with
a strong caesura, or pause, wherever possible (lines 4, 5,
This excerpt, which expounds the virtues of the early Danish
and 11, for example). Second, he uses alliteration, or
king Beow, illustrates the kind of political prudence that

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characterizes Hrothgar, who is a descendant of Beow. The “indulgence”—an inappropriate and ineffective way of
heroic code’s system of loyalties entails a very specific responding to the death of a comrade. Beowulf’s reminder to
political and diplomatic structure. Generosity is valued Hrothgar that vengeance is the real warrior’s response, and
greatly in a king, but there is no attempt to disguise the fact the truest sign of love and loyalty reflects a fundamental
that it is motivated by the need to maintain the support of a value of warrior culture, namely an aggressive approach to
band of retainers. The warrior culture accepts and embraces life. Part of this approach involves the understanding that
this give-and-take relationship between ruler and ruled as only reputation will perpetuate a warrior’s existence after
necessary for society to function effectively. The emphasis death. Beowulf, for example, perceives life as a race to glory
on the loyalty of the warriors (“when fighting starts / (“Let whoever can / win glory before death”). This speech
steadfast companions will stand by him”) has a special encapsulates the poem’s tension between doom and death,
resonance for Beowulf, given the disloyalty of his men in his on the one hand, and the necessity of behaving courageously
encounter with the dragon. and honourably, on the other. Beowulf’s energetic emphasis
on action helps temper the pessimism surrounding the
This passage also emphasizes the importance of behaviour inevitability of death that saturates the poem.
in securing the respect and support of others. Because this
warrior society so highly values its heroic code, it highly Beowulf got ready,
esteems those who conform to the code’s principles. donned his war-gear, indifferent to death;
Beowulf vaunts himself as a great warrior and backs up his his mighty, hand-forged, fine-webbed mail
words by defeating Grendel; he is thus celebrated and would soon meet with the menace underwater.
received as a hero. Unferth, on the other hand, proves an It would keep the bone-cage of his body safe:
empty chatterer, unwilling to fight Grendel or Grendel’s ...

mother. Though such verbal elements as boasts and stories [His helmet] was of beaten gold,

are crucial to the warrior culture, heroes are, above all, princely headgear hooped and hasped
by a weapon-smith who had worked wonders. . . .
defined by action.
(1442–1452)

Wise sir, do not grieve. It is always better

These lines describe Beowulf’s preparation for his battle with
to avenge dear ones than to indulge in mourning.
Grendel’s mother. The treatment of weaponry and armour is
For every one of us, living in this world
means waiting for our end. Let whoever can of great importance to the Beowulf poet. We see, here and

win glory before death. When a warrior is gone, elsewhere, that armour has a double history, much like a

that will be his best and only bulwark. warrior does: a history of its making, which corresponds to
(1384–1389) the family lineage of an individual, and a history of
performance, which corresponds to reputation. These lines

Beowulf utters this compressed statement of the heroic seem to imply that the success of a weapon in battle is

code after Grendel’s mother kills Aeschere, Hrothgar’s related to the skill with which it was crafted. The poet pays a

trusted advisor. Although Hrothgar’s grief seems great deal of attention, in general, to the craftsmanship that

understandable in light of the principle of loyalty that goes into physical objects and feats of language.

operates in this culture, Beowulf speaks of it as an

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This passage is also characteristic in its exposition of the goeth before a fall.” Hrothgar specifically warns Beowulf not
idea of fate. The poet’s narration, though always in the past to “give way to pride,” an admonition that is discordant with
tense, often looks ahead to what will happen either in the the culture of boasts and reputation that other parts of the
immediate future—in the next few lines of the poem, even— poem celebrate. Hrothgar also emphasizes to his young
or in the long term. The poet tells us, for example, that friend that life is fleeting and that he should orient himself
Beowulf’s armour “would keep the bone-cage of his body toward “eternal rewards”—a supremely Christian idea—
safe.” Though this tendency violates the reader’s expectation rather than worldly success. Throughout the poem, however,
that a narrator won’t give away what will happen next, the it seems that eternal rewards can be won only through
poem is composed with a different set of literary worldly success—the reward of fame for being a valiant
expectations in mind. According to the warrior culture in warrior.
which the poem is set, part of the meaning of fate is that
future events are already contained in the present. To the Hrothgar expresses the ephemeral quality of human life in
Beowulf poet, then, it would seem foolish and pointless to try beautiful terms. Calling Beowulf the “flower of warriors,” he
to counteract fate’s powerful presence. Rather, he accepts it employs an image that doesn’t evoke Beowulf’s strength and
and includes it in his narrative. fortitude but instead emphasizes the fragility of his life and
the fact that his youth—his “bloom”—will “fade quickly.”

5. O flower of warriors, beware of that trap. This choice of imagery encapsulates the idea, implicit in this
Choose, dear Beowulf, the better part, passage, that there are two “death[s]” that threaten the
eternal rewards. Do not give way to pride. warrior. He must be prepared not only for a “jabbing blade or
For a brief while your strength is in bloom javelin from the air,” which will wound him, but also for
but it fades quickly; and soon there will follow “repellent age,” which will eat away at his youthful audacity
illness or the sword to lay you low, and force him to think in terms of honour, nobility, and
or a sudden fire or surge of water leadership that aren’t dependent on mere physical prowess.
or jabbing blade or javelin from the air
or repellent age. Your piercing eye
will dim and darken; and death will arrive,
dear warrior, to sweep you away.
(1758–1768)

This passage is the culmination of a long speech, often

referred to as “Hrothgar’s sermon,” in which Hrothgar warns
Beowulf of the seductive dangers of success after Beowulf
defeats Grendel’s mother. Hrothgar asserts that power
causes the soul to grow distracted by fortune’s favour and so
to lose sight of future perils. The speech is one of many
points in the poem where the Beowulf poet overlays
Christian morals onto the pagan world that he depicts. The
idea under consideration here is the Christian maxim “pride

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16 Quotes by themes look on here by the barrow, that I have been

blessed to acquire for my dear people, before the
16.1 Christianity time of my passing.

Such then was their custom, the hope of Beowulf is speaking these words as he nears the end of his
heathens; in their hearts They bore hell, they life, after he has defeated the fiery dragon who guarded an
knew not the Creator, the Judge of all deeds— ancient hoard of treasure. His praise of God reflects
neither acknowledged the Lord, nor knew how to Christian values. But his words are also an incantation. Near
praise the Protector of Heaven, the Ruler of the end of the poem the poet reveals that, because of an
Glory. ancient spell, Beowulf would have been condemned to hell if
he had not named God as the source of the treasure. Here
The poet introduces Christian doctrine very early in the and throughout the poem, the poet uses pagan story
poem, when Hrothgar and his noble Danes are desperate to elements to convey a Christian message.
rid themselves of the monster Grendel. The custom to which
the poet refers is praying for help in heathen temples. The 16.2 Heroism
poet is acknowledging that the characters have pagan
values, while also suggesting that true hope comes from
In his own homeland, the thane of Hygelac, the
God. As the story progresses, the audience will encounter valiant Geat, heard the tales told of Grendel.
more and more instances of heroes acknowledging the Lord This Geat was among men the greatest in
and praising the Ruler of Glory. strength, most noble and mighty, for as long as
his life-days were destined to last.
For it is wondrous to say how the mighty God,
through magnanimous spirit, gives out as gifts to Heroism is the glorification of the warrior hero and of the
the kin of men their wisdom, lands and rulership. heroic code of conduct. This first appearance of Beowulf in
He is lord of all things. the poem shows him to be a worthy representative of that
code. The hero is valiant, strong, noble, and mighty, a legend
Hrothgar is speaking to Beowulf after the hero has killed not in his own time and loyal to his leader Hygelac. And he is on
only Grendel but also Grendel’s mother, thus saving the alert for wrongs to be righted. From the moment Beowulf
Hrothgar’s kingdom twice. Hrothgar has already lavished hears about Grendel, the audience of that time would
praise and treasure on the hero and claimed him as a son. naturally infer that the hero would eventually take on the
Now Hrothgar offers praise to God as well. Hrothgar’s words monster.
of praise suggest his confidence that his own rulership and
inherited lands are signs of God’s favour. Your fame is renowned wherever men journey,
my dear friend Beowulf, among all the peoples.
I wish to give thanks, speaking such words as I You hold power with balance, with wisdom of
may, to the almighty Ruler, the King crowned mind. Now I shall fulfil our friendship as we
with glory, the eternal Lord, for these riches I earlier agreed. And you shall bring peace to your

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people for a long time to come, a source of death scenes contain some of the most vivid images. The
strength to the heroes. Beowulf poet never lets the audience forget that a warrior’s
life might be cut short in the most gruesome possible way.

This excerpt is part of a speech made by Hrothgar to Beowulf Indeed, outrage and fear over a horrible death endow the

after Beowulf has killed his second monster, Grendel’s warrior with extra courage and strength. This passage

mother. Hrothgar is articulating the basic values of the describes the last murder Grendel commits before the hero

heroic code. The warrior hero gains fame through strength. Beowulf kills him by ripping out his arm.

His heroic character combines power and wisdom, and his

strongest obligation is to bring peace to his people. Hrothgar Then Hildeburh ordered her son to be placed fast
is about to fulfil his friendship by loading Beowulf and his by Hnaef on the pyre to commit to the flames,
band with treasure as their reward for defeating the for burning the body, and with him positioned at

monsters and removing the threat to the kingdom. his uncle’s shoulder. The woman then wailed,
sang out in her grief, as that warrior was raised
up.
And so he survived, the son of Ecgtheow, every
one of the dangers of brutal battles, his tests of
courage, till at last the day came when he would The poet recounts a story sung by one of Hrothgar’s bards at

be forced to fight with the dragon. the feast given by Hrothgar to honour Beowulf for killing
Grendel. Hildeburh is a Dane, who is married to Finn, king of

The poet summarizes the later part of Beowulf’s life, during the Jutes. Her brother, Hnaef of the Scyldings, and a party of

which the hero became a king. While the aging hero prepares Danish warriors are visiting the Jutes when fighting breaks

himself to fight the dragon, the poet reviews other battles out. Hildeburh loses her brother, a Dane, and her son, a Jute.

Beowulf has fought and won over the years. This review Her behaviour at the funeral is one of the most powerful

describes how Beowulf used his power to restore order, images in the poem, and a grim reminder that there is more

maintain peace, and avenge wrongs. Beowulf’s heroic code death to come in Beowulf’s story.

requires him to respond to every test of courage and to

remain a warrior to the end. His spirit was sad, restless and ready for death—
his fate drawing near, which would seek out the

16.3 Mortality old warrior to find the hoard of his soul, and to
sever the tie of his life with his body. Not for
long after that was the spirit of the war-chief
Nor did the demon think to delay, but for his first
wound up in the flesh.
victim he swiftly seized a sleeping warrior and slit
him wide open, biting into the body, drinking
blood in streams, swallowing huge mouthfuls—till The poet describes Beowulf as he prepares for his final

soon he had eaten the entire man’s corpse, even battle, in which he will face a fiery dragon that is guarding an

feet and hands. ancient hoard of treasure. In the manner of a pagan warrior,
Beowulf equates death with fate. But the poet inserts the

Warfare is the occupation of heroes. So, it is not surprising metaphor of the soul as a treasure, in order to introduce the

that mortality is a major theme of heroic poetry and that more Christian idea that life is something separate from the

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body. The poet is preparing the audience for the death of the men had earlier taken away from the enemy’s
hero. hoard. They left the treasures of earls in the
earth for keeping, the gold in the ground, where
16.4 Treasure yet it still lies, as fruitless to men now, as it
formerly was.

There was a mass of treasures, wealth brought

there from far-away lands. Nor have I heard of a This passage is the poet’s concluding, and rather cynical,
ship more splendidly laden with weapons for comment on the theme of treasure. The quip about “brave-
battle and dress for war, with swords and shirts spirited men” reminds the audience that all but one of
of mail. Beowulf’s men had fled in fear, leaving the aging hero to fight
the dragon. The men had then shared in the treasure once
Treasure is a thematic golden thread that the poet weaves the dragon was defeated. Now these same men are being
through almost every scene of Beowulf. This passage from asked to return the treasure for burial. Leaving the treasure
the Prologue describes the funeral ship of a great hero and buried—and presumably still to be rediscovered—is an
king. The excerpt shows that treasure had far more than imaginative and dramatic final flourish. The last line is
monetary value in Beowulf’s world. The king had rewarded enigmatic: It suggests that men might still find buried
his followers with treasure; in death his people used treasure treasure useful.
to honour his memory. Ships, weapons, and armour were
highly prized by the warrior society, so the Beowulf poet 16.5 Evil
added details about them to enrich the tale.

For Cain got no joy from committing that wrong,

I heard that Beowulf gave Queen Hygd a neck- but God banished him away from mankind. From
ring wondrously ornamented, given him by him all wicked offspring were born: giants and
Wealhtheow, now his gift to royal Hygd, with elves, and evil demon-creatures, and gigantic
three graceful horses bearing shining saddles. monsters—those who fought God, time beyond
time. But God repaid them!

The poet describes Beowulf as he returns to his own land,

bearing the treasures he earned by defeating Grendel and In pagan mythology, monsters represented evil, and it was

Grendel’s mother. Beowulf presents the neck ring given to the mission of heroes to overcome evil by slaying the

him by the Danish queen to his own king’s wife. The episode monsters. By the time of Beowulf, evil was being equated

shows the ritual significance of treasure: Wealhtheow with fighting against God. The Beowulf poet reconciles the

rewarded the hero “from our people’s treasures.” By passing pagan and Christian viewpoints by making mythological

the treasure on to Queen Hygd, Beowulf is strengthening the creatures the offspring of Cain, who committed the first

bonds between the two queens and their people. murder in the Bible by killing his brother. This claim is poetic
license and folklore, not official Christian teaching, but it

They brought to the barrow precious rings and intensifies the basic conflict between evil and good.

jewels, all such adornments as the brave-spirited

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Thus he defeated the demon, laid low hell’s

creature, and the wretched one departed,
deprived of joy, to seek out his death-place, a
fallen foe of mankind. And now came his mother,
hungering for men’s death, who desired to go on
a sorrowful journey to avenge her slain son.

The poet describes two evils, the monster Grendel, whom

Beowulf has just defeated, and Grendel’s mother, whom
Beowulf will soon fight. Grendel is evil because he is a demon
from hell and thus a “foe of mankind.” His mother’s evil is
more ambiguous, because killing for vengeance was allowed
in the warrior culture of Beowulf’s time. Grendel’s mother is
evil, not because she seeks sorrowful revenge but because
she is a creature of hell who hungers for death. The opposite
of evil, in this passage and throughout the poem, is joy.

So also an old woman, her hair loose and waving,

sang in her sorrow a song of lament for Beowulf’s
passing, repeating her prophecy that she feared
the invading armies of bitter foes, a great many
slaughters, the terror of war-troops, humiliation
and captivity. Heaven swallowed the smoke.

The rare appearance of a woman creates a vivid image and a

strong reality check on heroic sentiments. The evils that the
old woman foresees are not created by hell-born monsters
but by human beings. The poet gives increasing emphasis to
this idea—that humans create evil—as the poem
progresses. Now, in the final scene of the poem, the poet
reminds the audience that Beowulf’s true heroism was his
ability to protect his people from human evil. The smoke that
heaven swallows comes from Beowulf’s funeral pyre.

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17 Other Quotes between good and evil. It is the first time

that Grendel (evil) realizes he may not
1. He was spawned in that slime/of Cain, prevail over Beowulf (good). Grendel is
murderous creatures banished/by God. fearful now for the first, and only, time in
a. Narrator, Lines 64–193 (Terror at King his life.
Hrothgar's Hall) 5. The cup was carried to him ... /... and a
b. These lines establish Grendel as an evil wealth of [gold]/graciously bestowed.
character descended from Cain, who a. Narrator, Lines 852–1250 (The
because of jealousy, killed his brother Celebration)
Abel. b. These lines reflect on both Beowulf and
2. I drove/five great giants into chains. ... I King Hrothgar. Through the gifts of gold,
swam/in the blackness of night, hunting Hrothgar not only honours Beowulf and
monsters. rewards his bravery, but he also
a. Beowulf, Lines 194–661 (Beowulf in demonstrates his own generosity—as
Heorot) dictated by the heroic code.
b. In this monologue, Beowulf establishes 6. It is always better/to avenge dear ones than
himself as a fearless warrior to be to indulge in mourning.
respected and honoured—worthy of taking a. Beowulf, Lines 1251–1904 (Danger
on the symbol of evil (Grendel). Returns)
3. If death does take me, send ... my armour to b. This statement, spoken after Grendel's
Hygelac. ... Fate will unwind as it must! mother kills Aeschere, again speaks to
a. Beowulf, Lines 194–661 (Beowulf in Beowulf's understanding of the heroic
Heorot) code—that it is always crucial to act in a
b. Before fighting Grendel, Beowulf courageous manner. In this case, that
acknowledges fate's master plan in the means exacting vengeance.
battle between good and evil. He also 7. After many trials/he was destined to face
honours generosity over greed by ordering the end of his days/... as was the dragon.
his wealth sent back to his uncle. a. Narrator, Lines 2510–2891 (Beowulf's
4. [Grendel] discovered himself/In a handgrip Final Battle)
harder than anything/He had encountered b. Here the poet foreshadows the outcome
in any man. ... He could not escape./He was of Beowulf's final battle. After the many
desperate to flee to his den and hide. conflicts Beowulf easily won in his youth,
a. Narrator, Lines 662–851 (The Battle) now in old age he feels vulnerable.
b. This establishes Beowulf's strength; as Although he intends to slay the dragon
noted several times in the poem, he is as without assistance, he realizes he may not
strong as 30 men. This part of the survive the encounter. He puts his life on
encounter between Beowulf and Grendel is the line to save his people from the
also the tipping point in the struggle dragon; the dragon fights to defend his

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treasure. When the combatants mortally such as courage, strength, generosity, and
wound each other, each dies protecting the capability to govern wisely. These
what he values most. characteristics, again, reflect those
8. Defend your life now/with the whole of your promoted in the heroic code.
strength. I shall stand by you.
a. Wiglaf, Lines 2510–2891 (Beowulf's Final
Battle)
b. Here Wiglaf refers to the heroic code,
calling upon Beowulf to be courageous and
honourable to the last. He declares that he
also will act in accordance with the code
in standing by Beowulf and assisting in the
fight against the dragon.
9. I give thanks to God/for all this gold and
treasure that I see before me/and for the
opportunity to give it/to my countrymen on
this, my last day./I have traded my life for
this treasure/so be sure to use it for the
good of our country.
a. Beowulf, Lines 2892–3182 (Beowulf's
Funeral)
b. Beowulf has just given his life to take the
dragon's treasure. Through his action he
has valiantly defeated evil and greed. By
giving the treasure to his people, he is also
fulfilling the heroic code's demands for a
generous ruler. However, in this moment,
he questions whether wealth was worth
the loss of his life.
10. They said that of all the kings upon the
earth/he was the man most gracious and
fair-minded,/kindest to his people and
keenest to win fame.
a. Narrator, Lines 2892–3182 (Beowulf's
Funeral)
b. In this tribute after Beowulf's death, the
Geats honour Beowulf as a great king,
listing the characteristics of a great leader,

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18 Literary Devices Much of Beowulf is devoted to articulating and illustrating the

Germanic heroic code, which values strength, courage, and
18.1 Themes loyalty in warriors; hospitality, generosity, and political skill
in kings; ceremoniousness in women; and good reputation in
18.1.1 The Importance of Establishing Identity all people. Traditional and much respected, this code is vital
to warrior societies as a means of understanding their
As Beowulf is essentially a record of heroic deeds, the relationships to the world and the menaces lurking beyond
concept of identity—of which the two principal components their boundaries. All of the characters’ moral judgments
are ancestral heritage and individual reputation—is clearly stem from the code’s mandates. Thus individual actions can
central to the poem. The opening passages introduce the be seen only as either conforming to or violating the code.
reader to a world in which every male figure is known as his
father’s son. Characters in the poem are unable to talk about The poem highlights the code’s points of tension by
their identity or even introduce themselves without referring recounting situations that expose its internal contradictions
to family lineage. This concern with family history is so in values. The poem contains several stories that concern
prominent because of the poem’s emphasis on kinship divided loyalties, situations for which the code offers no
bonds. Characters take pride in ancestors who have acted practical guidance about how to act. For example, the poet
valiantly, and they attempt to live up to the same standards relates that the Danish Hildeburh marries the Frisian king.
as those ancestors. When, in the war between the Danes and the Frisians, both
her Danish brother and her Frisian son are killed, Hildeburh is
While heritage may provide models for behaviour and help to left doubly grieved. The code is also often in tension with the
establish identity—as with the line of Danish kings values of medieval Christianity. While the code maintains
discussed early on—a good reputation is the key to that honour is gained during life through deeds, Christianity
solidifying and augmenting one’s identity. For example, asserts that glory lies in the afterlife. Similarly, while the
Shield Sheafson, the legendary originator of the Danish royal warrior culture dictates that it is always better to retaliate
line, was orphaned; because he was in a sense fatherless, than to mourn, Christian doctrine advocates a peaceful,
valiant deeds were the only means by which he could forgiving attitude toward one’s enemies. Throughout the
construct an identity for himself. While Beowulf’s pagan poem, the poet strains to accommodate these two sets of
warrior culture seems not to have a concept of the afterlife, it values. Though he is Christian, he cannot (and does not
sees fame as a way of ensuring that an individual’s memory seem to want to) deny the fundamental pagan values of the
will continue on after death—an understandable story.
preoccupation in a world where death seems always to be
knocking at the door.
18.1.3 Heroic Code

18.1.2 Tensions Between the Heroic Code and Other This theme, found in Beowulf and other Anglo-Saxon,
Value Systems Germanic, and Greek tales, is made up of a set of rules
governing honourable behaviour primarily for warriors and
rulers. To conform to the heroic code, warriors were

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expected to be courageous, loyal, and strong. Their loyalty to bold encounter with the dragon is morally ambiguous
their ruler was never in question; in fact, they would be because it dooms them to a kingless state in which they
willing to sacrifice everything, including their lives, in order to remain vulnerable to attack by their enemies. Yet Beowulf
protect those to whom they were loyal. Rulers were also demonstrates the sort of restraint proper to kings when,
expected to display great generosity in rewarding those who earlier in his life, he refrains from usurping Hygelac’s throne,
served them. They were also expected to be capable of choosing instead to uphold the line of succession by
governing wisely. supporting the appointment of Hygelac’s son. But since all of
these pagan kings were great warriors in their youth, the

18.1.4 Good Warrior vs Good King tension between these two important roles seems inevitable
and ultimately irreconcilable.

Over the course of the poem, Beowulf matures from a valiant

combatant into a wise leader. His transition demonstrates 18.1.5 Evil
that a differing set of values accompanies each of his two
roles. The difference between these two sets of values Many readers have seen Beowulf’s monsters as
manifests itself early on in the outlooks of Beowulf and King embodiments of evil, representing the idea that evil is a
Hrothgar. Whereas the youthful Beowulf, having nothing to mysterious, inhuman force. All three monsters emerge from
lose, desires personal glory, the aged Hrothgar, having much darkness, inflicting fear and suffering on the poem’s human
to lose, seeks protection for his people. Though these two characters. Grendel, in particular, is closely allied with the
outlooks are somewhat oppositional, each character acts as forces of evil. He is a “fiend out of hell” (l.100) and a
society dictates, he should give his particular role in society. descendant of the cursed sinner Cain. However, none of the
monsters acts out of sheer evil alone. Grendel’s mother is
While the values of the warrior become clear through legitimately seeking vengeance for her son’s death. Even
Beowulf’s example throughout the poem, only in the poem’s Grendel nurses “a hard grievance” (l.87), and we
more didactic moments are the responsibilities of a king to understand that even if his deeds are evil, Grendel acts out of
his people discussed. The heroic code requires that a king isolation, envy, and fear. By giving the monsters
reward the loyal service of his warriors with gifts and praise. comprehensible, human motives and at moments even
It also holds that he must provide them with protection and showing us their points of view, Beowulf humanizes evil,
the sanctuary of a lavish mead-hall. Hrothgar’s speeches, in suggesting that evil is both an unspeakable threat from the
particular, emphasize the value of creating stability in a darkness and at the same time an ordinary part of human
precarious and chaotic world. He also speaks at length life. When we hear the poem’s stories of war between
about the king’s role in diplomacy, both with his own humans, of Beowulf and Hygelac emerging from the sea to
warriors and with other tribes. slaughter their enemies, we might begin to wonder if there’s
anything inhuman at all about Grendel or his mother.
Beowulf’s own tenure as king elaborates on many of the
same points. His transition from warrior to king, and, in 18.1.6 Good versus Evil
particular, his final battle with the dragon, rehash the
dichotomy between the duties of a heroic warrior and those
of a heroic king. In the eyes of several of the Geats, Beowulf’s

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Beowulf and Hrothgar are the two main representatives of On one level, Beowulf is from beginning to end a poem about
good in the poem, while Grendel, his mother, and the dragon confronting death. It begins with a funeral, and proceeds to
embody the concept of evil. Where Grendel, his mother, and the story of a murderous monster. Beowulf enters the story
the dragon battle only because of their hatred and greed, as a hero who has chosen to risk death in order to achieve
Beowulf goes into conflict on behalf of others and, when fame. As Beowulf fights Grendel’s mother at the bottom of
given rewards, shares them rather than retaining the riches the mere, even his close friends believe he has died. Some
for himself. Beowulf's victory over the three monsters is readers have seen his journey to the bottom of the mere as a
described as almost biblical battles of superhuman strength symbolic death, drawing on the Christian story of the
and courage against evil incarnate. “Harrowing of Hell,” in which Jesus, after dying on the
Cross, descends to Hell in order to divide the saved from the

18.1.7 Treasure damned. The final third of the poem is devoted to Beowulf’s
death and funeral. Some readers have argued that the poem

Although “glory” (l.1388), is what motivates Beowulf and the presents pagan mortality as tragic: Beowulf and the other

other heroic warriors of the poem, they measure their glory in heroes lead frightening, death-filled lives, and die without

treasure. The gloriousness of Beowulf’s achievement in killing any hope of salvation. However, other readers have found

Grendel is measured by the amount of treasure Hrothgar Beowulf all the more heroic because he accomplishes his

gives him as a reward. At the same time, Hrothgar’s deeds in the shadow of certain death, without hope of

gloriousness as a king can be measured by his generosity resurrection. For these readers, Beowulf suggests that a

with his treasure. When Beowulf gives the lion’s share of his good, brave life is worth living at any cost.

reward to Hygelac, it shows us in quantifiable terms how

loyal Beowulf is to his king, and therefore how well he 18.1.9 Loyalty
upholds the warrior code, while also indicating how
excellent a king Hygelac is. However, Beowulf is deeply Loyalty was a guiding force during the period in which
sceptical about the value of treasure. The poem’s biggest Beowulf was written and is evident within the poem. The
hoard of treasure belongs to the monstrous dragon, and it theme of loyalty appears multiple times in Beowulf's actions.
does him no good. When Wiglaf enters the barrow to The loyalty is passed on from generation to generation as
examine the hoard, he finds it already “tarnished and seen by Beowulf's loyalty to King Hrothgar. He was loyal to
corroding” (ll.2761-2). Many readers have found Beowulf’s Hrothgar for several reasons: Hrothgar was his king and had
dying wish to see the treasure he has won disquieting. To the saved his father's life, and Beowulf honoured the longtime
poem’s original Christian audience, it may have been even loyalty shared by his father and King Hrothgar. Beowulf
more disquieting: it’s a reminder that, in his final moments, displayed loyalty to King Hygelac of Geatland, giving him
Beowulf’s mind is on temporary, worldly things instead of much of the reward that King Hrothgar had bestowed on
God and eternal life. Beowulf and serving Hygelac steadfastly until the king's
death. When offered the crown upon Hygelac's death,

18.1.8 Mortality Beowulf instead declared that Prince Heardred should be

king—and then served the young king loyally. Only at the
death of King Heardred did Beowulf accept the crown, and
then ruled Geatland for 50 years.

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and fidelity to his office and his people for 50 years. In his

18.1.9.1 Loyalty @cliffsnotes final test, the burden of loyalty will rest on other, younger
shoulders.
A theme in a literary work is a recurring, unifying subject or
idea, a motif that allows us to understand more deeply the Preparing for his last battle, with the fiery dragon, Beowulf
character and their world. In Beowulf, the major themes puts his trust in 11 of his finest men, retainers who have
reflect the values and the motivations of the characters. vowed to fight to the death for him. Although the now elderly
king insists on taking on the dragon alone, he brings along the
One of the central themes of Beowulf, embodied by its title 11 in case he needs them. When it is apparent that Beowulf
character, is loyalty. At every step of his career, loyalty is is losing the battle to the dragon, however, all but one of his
Beowulf's guiding virtue. men run and hide in the woods. Only Wiglaf, an
inexperienced thane who has great respect for his king,
Beowulf comes to the assistance of the Danes (Scyldings) for remains loyal. Wiglaf calls to the others in vain. Realizing
complicated reasons. Certainly he is interested in increasing that they will be no help and that his king is about to be killed,
his reputation and gaining honour and payment for his own he stands beside the old man to fight to the death — theirs or
king back in Geatland. However, we soon learn that a major the dragon's. For Beowulf, sadly, it is the end. Although he
motivation is a family debt that Beowulf owes to Hrothgar. and Wiglaf kill the dragon, the king dies. As he dies, Beowulf
The young Geat is devoted to the old king because Hrothgar passes the kingdom on to the brave and loyal Wiglaf.
came to the assistance of Beowulf's father, Ecgtheow, years
before. Now deceased, Ecgtheow had killed a leader of 18.1.10 Reputation
another tribe in a blood feud. When the tribe sought
vengeance, Hrothgar, then a young king, sheltered Beowulf's Another motivating factor for Beowulf — and a central theme
father and settled the feud by paying tribute (wergild) in the in the epic — is reputation. From the beginning, Beowulf is
form of "fine old treasures" (472) to Ecgtheow's enemies. rightly concerned about how the rest of the world will see
Hrothgar even remembers Beowulf as a child. The tie him. He introduces himself to the Scyldings by citing
between the families goes back many years, and Beowulf is achievements that gained honour for him and his king. When
proud to be able to lend his loyal services to Hrothgar. a drunken Unferth verbally assaults Beowulf at the first
banquet, at issue is the hero's reputation. Unferth's slur is
When the hero returns to Geatland, he continues his loyalty the worst kind of insult for Beowulf because his reputation is
to his uncle and king, Hygelac, risking his life even when the his most valuable possession. Reputation is also the single
tactics of the ruler are not the best. After Hygelac is killed in quality that endures after death, his one key to immortality.
an ill-advised raid on Frisia, Beowulf makes a heroic escape That's why Beowulf later leaves the gold in the cave beneath
(2359 ff.) back to Geatland. Beowulf could become king then the mere, after defeating the mother, preferring to return with
but is more loyal than ambitious. Queen Hygd offers Beowulf Grendel's head and the magic sword's hilt rather than
the throne after her husband dies, thinking that her young treasure. He has and continues to amass treasures; his
son (Heardred) is unable to protect the kingdom; Beowulf intent now is in building his fame.
refuses and serves the young king faithfully. After Heardred
is killed, Beowulf does become king and rules with honour

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Unferth's slur accuses Beowulf of foolishly engaging in a Although people may live heroic lives and win many battles,
seven-day swimming contest on the open sea, as a youth, death eventually defeats everyone, along with the various
and losing. If Beowulf can't win a match like that, Unferth works they leave behind. The keeper of rings, sad that his
asserts, he surely can't defeat Grendel. Beowulf defends his civilization has passed away, hides his people's splendid
reputation with such grace and persuasion that he wins the treasures for safekeeping and the dragon guards the riches
confidence of King Hrothgar and the rest of the Danes. He for hundreds of years. Yet death claims them both, and
points out that he swam with Breca for five nights, not Wiglaf finds that much of the treasure also has perished,
wanting to abandon the weaker boy. Rough seas then drove fallen victim to tarnish and rust. The strength and courage
them apart, and Beowulf had to kill nine sea monsters before called for in the heroic code help warriors fight against death,
going ashore in the morning. His reputation intact, Beowulf As Beowulf tells Hrothgar, who laments the death of his
prepares to meet Grendel and further enhance his fame. friend Aeschere, "It is always better/to avenge dear ones than
to indulge in mourning." In the end, Beowulf meets his defeat
As he discusses Beowulf's later years, the poet lists the and death, slain by the dragon's poisonous bite—delivered
virtues (2177 ff.) leading to the great man's fine reputation. in the same conflict in which he killed the dragon. The sting
Beowulf is courageous and famous for his performance in of death is lessened for Beowulf by the knowledge that he
battle but equally well known for his good deeds. Although will be given a funeral worthy of a hero.
aggressive in war, Beowulf has "no savage mind" (2180) and
never kills his comrades when drinking, an important quality 18.1.12 Hospitality
in the heroic world of the mead-hall. Beowulf respects the
gifts of strength and leadership that he possesses. For rulers such as King Hrothgar and King Hygelac, a
significant part of the heroic code relates to generosity and
As he prepares to meet the dragon, near the end of the hospitality. Visiting nobility and warriors returning from
poem, now King Beowulf again considers his reputation. He conflict expect to be hosted at grand banquets in the king's
insists on facing the dragon alone despite the fact that his mead hall. The 12 years of terror that Grendel brought to
death will leave his people in jeopardy. Hrothgar's Sermon Heorot Hall took the lives of many of Hrothgar's subjects
warned Beowulf of the dangers of pride, and some critics and also disrupted the governing of the kingdom. Without the
have accused the great warrior of excessive pride (hubris) in use of his hall, Hrothgar could not offer the hospitality
the defence of his reputation. A more considerate judgment expected. There's little wonder, therefore, that the feasts
might be that Beowulf is an old man with little time left and held to celebrate Beowulf's arrival and his victories over
deserves the right to die as a warrior. The final words of the Grendel and Grendel's mother show such an outpouring of
poem, stating that Beowulf was "most eager for fame' generous hospitality.
(3182), might be best understood by a modern audience by
remembering that, in Beowulf's world, fame is synonymous 18.1.13 Generosity and Hospitality
with reputation.

The Scyldings' King Hrothgar and Queen Wealhtheow

18.1.11 Death and Defeat embody the themes of generosity and hospitality. The code
of the comitatus is at the heart of the Beowulf epic. In this

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system, the king or feudal lord provides land, weapons, and a 'precious'] gift" (973), a kind of macabre gratuity for services
share of treasure to his warriors (called thanes or retainers) rendered. Beowulf had, ironically speaking, tried to be the
in return for their support of the leader in battle. The leader's perfect host; but he wanted the entire ogre body as his tip.
generosity is one of his highest qualities. There are more than Grendel left only his claw as a cheap compensation.
30 different terms for "king" in the poem, and many of them
have to do with this role as provider. He is the "ring-giver' 18.1.14 Envy
(35) or the "treasure-giver" (607); his seat of power is the
"gift-throne" (168). Despite Unferth's jealous rant at the first banquet, the most
serious embodiment of envy in the poem is Grendel. The ogre
When booty is seized from an enemy in battle, everything who has menaced Hrothgar's people for 12 years is envious
goes to the king. He then allots treasure to each warrior of the Danes because he can never share in mankind's hope
according to the man's achievements as a soldier. When or joy. The monster's motivation is one of the few undeniably
Beowulf defeats Grendel and Grendel's mother, he expects Christian influences in the epic. Grendel is a descendant of
and receives great riches as his reward, including a golden Cain, the biblical son of Adam and Eve who killed his brother
banner, helmet, and mail-shirt, as well as a jewelled sword, Abel out of jealousy (Genesis 4). The legend is that the
magnificent horses with golden trappings that hang to the monsters of the earth are Cain's descendants and eternally
ground, a gem-studded saddle, and a golden collar. Such damned. Grendel resents men because God blesses them
generosity is emblematic of Hrothgar's character. In turn, but will never bless him. The bright lights and sounds of joy
Beowulf will present these treasures to his own king, emanating from Hrothgar's magnificent mead-hall, Heorot,
Hygelac, who will then honour Beowulf with appropriate gifts. especially annoy the ogre.
Propriety/generosity is, thus, a crucial part of the political,
military, social, and economic structure of the culture. The scop's "Song of Creation" angers Grendel because it
reminds him of the light and hope of God's creation and the
Wealhtheow shares in the gift giving and is the perfect loss he suffers because of Cain's sin. Grendel stomps up
hostess. When she serves mead in Heorot, it is an act of from the mere to devour Danes and rule nightly over Heorot
propriety and diplomacy, attending first to her king and then as a form of revenge stemming from this envy.
to various guests, paying special attention to Beowulf. An 18.1.15 Revenge
improper queen would be one like Modthrytho (1931 ff.)
who was so inhospitable as to have her own warriors Revenge serves as a motivating factor for several characters
executed for the offense of merely looking into her eyes. throughout the poem, initially stirring Grendel and his
mother. Grendel seeks revenge upon mankind for the
Hospitality is such an established part of the culture that the heritage that he has been dealt. He delights in raiding Heorot
poet feels free to refer to it with casual humour. When because it is the symbol of everything that he detests about
Beowulf reports to Hrothgar on his victory over Grendel (957 men: their success, joy, glory, and favor in the eyes of God.
ff.), he ironically speaks in terms of hospitality. He tried, he Grendel's mother's revenge is more specific. She attacks
says, to "welcome my enemy" (969) with a firm handshake Heorot because someone there killed her son. Although she
but was disappointed when he received only a "visitor's is smaller and less powerful than Grendel, she is motivated
token" (971), Grendel's giant claw, "that dear [meaning

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by a mother's fury. When Beowulf goes after her in the mere, presence in society that must be exorcised for the society’s
she has the added advantage of fighting him in her own safety. They are all outsiders, existing beyond the boundaries
territory. As she drags him into her cave beneath the lake, her of human realms. Grendel’s and his mother’s encroachment
revenge peaks because this is the very man who killed her upon human society—they wreak havoc in Heorot—forces
son. Only Beowulf's amazing abilities as a warrior and the Beowulf to kill the two beasts for order to be restored.
intervention of God or magic can defeat her.
To many readers, the three monsters that Beowulf slays all
Revenge also motivates the many feuds that the poet refers seem to have a symbolic or allegorical meaning. For
to and is a way of life — and death — for the Germanic instance, since Grendel is descended from the biblical figure
tribes. Old enmities die hard and often disrupt attempts at Cain, who slew his own brother, Grendel often has been
peace, as the poet recognizes. Upon his return to Geatland, understood to represent the evil in Scandinavian society of
Beowulf (2020 ff.) speculates about a feud between marauding and killing others. A traditional figure of medieval
Hrothgar's Scyldings and the Heathobards, a tribe in southern folklore and a common Christian symbol of sin, the dragon
Denmark with whom Hrothgar hopes to make peace through may represent an external malice that must be conquered to
the marriage of his daughter. Beowulf is sceptical, prove a hero’s goodness. Because Beowulf’s encounter with
envisioning a renewal of hostilities. In fact, the Heathobards the dragon ends in mutual destruction, the dragon may also
do later burn Heorot in events not covered by the poem but be interpreted as a symbolic representation of the inevitable
probably familiar to its audience. Another example of encounter with death itself.
revenge overcoming peace occurs in the Finnsburh section
(1068-1159). 18.2.2 The Oral Tradition

Beowulf's final battle is the result of vengeance. A dangerous Intimately connected to the theme of the importance of
fire-dragon seeks revenge because a fugitive slave has establishing one’s identity is the oral tradition, which
stolen a valuable cup from the monster's treasure-hoard. preserves the lessons and lineages of the past, and helps to
His raids across the countryside include the burning of spread reputations. Indeed, in a culture that has little
Beowulf's home. Beowulf then seeks his own revenge by interaction with writing, only the spoken word can allow
going after the dragon. individuals to learn about others and make their own stories
known. This emphasis on oral communication explains the
18.2 Motifs prevalence of bards’ tales (such as the Heorot scop’s
relating of the Finnsburg episode) and warriors’ boastings
18.2.1 Monsters (such as Beowulf’s telling of the Breca story). From a broader
perspective, Beowulf itself contributes to the tradition of oral
In Christian medieval culture, monster was the word that celebration of cultural heroes. Like Homer’s Iliad and
referred to birth defects, which were always understood as Odyssey, Beowulf was passed on orally over many
an ominous sign from God—a sign of transgression or of bad generations before being written down.
things to come. In keeping with this idea, the monsters that
Beowulf must fight in this Old English poem shape the
poem’s plot and seem to represent an inhuman or alien

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18.2.3 The Cyclical Nature of Life brother Abel—a crime for which his descendants (including
Grendel) were banished. Grendel lives with his mother in a
Beowulf is structured primarily around three main battles bloody swamp—the harrowing setting for their
with great foes. Though Beowulf’s fight with Grendel banishment—where he jealously fumes about the "din of
immediately incurs the retaliation of Grendel’s mother, the the loud banquet" in Heorot Hall each night. He feasts on
fight with the dragon doesn’t occur until fifty years later. Danish warriors, proving his strength over the celebrated
These three antagonist fights serve as an allegorical tableau "heroes." When Beowulf defeats Grendel, it is a classic
of the life of a leader. Conflict arises in the form of Grendel, literary example of good triumphing over evil.
and the fallout from his defeat leads to direct, almost
immediate consequences. In the fifty years that follow, 18.3.2 Grendel's Claw and Head
seasons of peace and disruption ebb and flow, and even
though it is ultimately the dragon that kills Beowulf, the Beowulf had hoped to have an entire Grendel body to present
cyclical nature of life is such that if it wasn’t the dragon, it to King Hrothgar after his battle with the ogre in Heorot. He
would be something else; death is inevitable, whether it be has to settle for the right arm or claw, ripped from its
at the hands of this foe or the next, as exemplified in the shoulder socket, when the mortally wounded adversary
concept of wyrd. flees to the swamp. The claw is hung high beneath Heorot's
roof (most likely on the outside beneath the gables) as a
Throughout the poem, the reader sees old kings pass on and symbol of Beowulf's victory.
new kings rise and grow old themselves, weaving a pattern of
ongoing change, conflict, and resolution. Perhaps best Grendel's mother also sees it as a symbol, representing her
exemplifying the cyclical nature of life is Hrothgar, who has personal loss and mankind's macabre sense of what might
lived through enough to know that there is no true sense of be an appropriate trophy. Filled with grief and rage, she
stability. Kingdoms will see times of peace and times of retrieves the arm from Heorot and kills another Scylding in
adversity, and a wise king not only knows to anticipate both, the process. When Beowulf tracks her to the mere and ends
but also appreciates the value in savouring beauty and hope up in her underwater cave, he has no more interest in the
when it is present. claw. Grendel's head, which he is able to find after a strange,
perhaps holy brilliance illuminates the dimly lighted cave, is
18.3 Symbols much more impressive. He ignores the vast treasure in the
cave, instead choosing to carry the magnificent, huge head
Epic poems were often used to spur warriors on in battle, as symbolic of his victory over both ogres.
and Beowulf is likely no exception. The symbols in this poem
clearly present a good-versus-evil relationship that could be 18.3.3 Dragon
interpreted to inspire warriors in a variety of situations.

The dragon symbolizes greed. He hoards gold and treasures

18.3.1 Grendel in his lair, which represents the opposite of the Anglo-
Saxons' accepted practice. As demonstrated in Beowulf,
Grendel symbolizes evil and jealousy. He is a descendant of gold is to be used by the ring-givers (kings) to reward the
Cain, the biblical character who jealously murdered his

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deeds of heroes, particularly successful warriors returning symbolic object is renewed when we learn that Hygelac died
from conquest. The dragon, having seized the treasure left in battle wearing it, furthering the ideas of kinship and
behind by the Last Survivor, does nothing with the gold, continuity.
simply hoarding the riches instead. (The Last Survivor could
himself be seen as a hoarder; he collected the treasures of 18.3.6 Heorot
his dead civilization and put them to no use.) Another
example of the dragon's greed is demonstrated after a A literary symbol is something, often an object, that stands
runaway slave steals a single golden goblet from his lair. for a significant concept or series of ideas. Often a symbol is
Searching for the thief, the dragon burns Beowulf's home and emblematic of the values of the characters. In Beowulf,
whole villages in his kingdom—all in vengeance over the some of the most important symbols are Hrothgar's mead-
theft of a single cup. hall, Grendel's cave, Grendel's arm and head, and the
dragon's treasure-trove.
18.3.4 The Dragon's Treasure-Trove
Hrothgar's great mead-hall, Heorot ("Hall of the Hart"),
The dragon's treasure-trove poignantly represents the vanity functions as both setting and symbol in the epic. It is much
of human wishes as well as the mutability of time. The more than a place to drink. Symbolically, Heorot represents
dragon's barrow holds wealth in abundance, yet the wealth the achievements of the Scyldings, specifically Hrothgar, and
is of no use to anyone. The ancient treasures in the hoard their level of civilization. The hall is a home for the warriors
once belonged to a regional tribe of warriors who were killed who sleep there and functions as a seat of government. It is
in battle some 300 years previously. Only one survivor, who a place of light, warmth, and joy, contrasting with Grendel's
is called the "keeper of the rings" (2244), lived to hide the morbid swamp as well as the dark and cold of winters in
treasures in the barrow. Scandinavia. In Heorot, Hrothgar celebrates his victories and
rewards his thanes (warriors) with various treasures. The
Just as the dead warriors cannot use the treasure, neither building is like a palace. It towers high and is compared to a
can the dragon. He devotes his life to guarding a treasure cliff. The gables are shaped like horns of the hart. People
that he frankly has no use for. Beowulf gives his life defeating from neighboring tribes have respectfully contributed to the
the dragon and gaining this impressive treasure for his rich decorations and intricate designs. The hall is also
people, but they won't benefit from it either. The treasure is symbolic in that it is the setting of Beowulf's first great battle,
buried with the great warrior in his funeral barrow and, we the defeat of Grendel. When Grendel invades the hall, he
are told, remains there still, a mighty horde of riches that is of knows that he strikes at the very heart of the Scyldings. That
absolutely no use to anybody. lends special meaning to his victories and to Beowulf's
eventual liberation of the hall from the ravages of the ogres.

18.3.5 The Golden Torc (or Torque)

18.3.7 The Cave
The collar or necklace that Wealhtheow gives Beowulf is a
symbol of the bond of loyalty between her people and The cave where Grendel and his mother hide from the world
Beowulf—and, by extension, the Geats. Its status as a is symbolic of their lives as outcasts. Hidden beneath a

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treacherous mere in the middle of a dark, forbidding swamp, honour great warriors and their accomplishments. It is
the cave allows them a degree of safety and privacy in a meant to be a refuge where members of the court and the
world that they view as hostile. They certainly are not realm's warriors can gather to feast and celebrate. That
welcome at Heorot, and they know it. Grendel has held Heorot Hall under attack for 12 years
represents a case of situational irony: the people's safe
The cave also represents their heritage. As descendants of haven has undergone a "reversal from bliss to grief."
Cain, they are associated with sorcery, black magic,
demons, ancient runes, and hell itself. When Grendel's 18.3.9 The Banquet
mother is able to fight Beowulf in the cave, she has a distinct
advantage; his victory is all the more significant. It is not The great banquet at Heorot after the defeat of Grendel
clear whether he wins because of his own ability, the represents the restoration of order and harmony to the
influence of magic (the giant sword), or God's intervention. Danish people. The preparation involves the rebuilding of the
All are mentioned, probably because the poet borrowed damaged mead-hall, which, in conjunction with the banquet
from various influences in creating the poem. The cave itself itself, symbolizes the rebirth of the community. The
represents a world alien to Heorot. One is high and bright speeches and giving of gifts, essential components of this
and full of song and joy, towering as the Scyldings' greatest society’s interactions, contribute as well to the sense of
achievement. The other is dark and dank and full of evil, wholeness renewed.
beneath a mere in the middle of a fen and the symbolic home
of resentful outcasts.

18.4 Protagonist

18.3.8 The Mead-Hall Beowulf drives the action of the poem with his desire for
fame and glory as a warrior. This desire leads him to travel to

The poem contains two examples of mead-halls: Hrothgar’s Denmark to fight Grendel, and also to accept the challenge

great hall of Heorot, in Denmark, and Hygelac’s hall in of fighting Grendel’s mother. Many years later, Beowulf’s

Geatland. Both function as important cultural institutions fundamental motive remains unchanged: his desire for fame

that provide light and warmth, food and drink, and singing motivates him to fight the dragon. Some readers have argued

and revelry. Historically, the mead-hall represented a safe that this failure to change over time is a flaw in Beowulf’s

haven for warriors returning from battle, a small zone of character. While a warrior should seek out glorious battles, a

refuge within a dangerous and precarious external world that king is needed by his people, and pursuing excessive battles

continuously offered the threat of attack by neighbouring can be seen as reckless and prideful. Wiglaf seems to see it

peoples. The mead-hall was also a place of community, this way: “Often when one man follows his own will / many

where traditions were preserved, loyalty was rewarded, and, are hurt” (ll.3076-7). Other readers have seen Beowulf’s

perhaps most important, stories were told and reputations pride as a flaw in the warrior code itself: the same desire for

were spread. glory that made Beowulf king also makes him a reckless king.
Beowulf’s death leaves his people vulnerable and afraid,

Heorot Hall is a symbol not only of happiness and pride, but suggesting that ultimately Beowulf’s fame and glory is worth

also of distress. The great hall is Hrothgar's legacy, built to

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little. On the other hand, the poem is itself a monument to poem that its poet ever saw Scandinavia. The world of the
Beowulf’s fame. poem is organized from the centre outwards. At the centre of
each kingdom is a mead-hall, a place of warmth, laughter,
18.5 Antagonist friendship, storytelling and celebration. Beyond the mead-
hall, the world is cold and dark, getting darker the further you
Beowulf’s antagonists are the three monsters: he literally go from the hall. Terrible evils lurk in the outer darknesses.
combats them, and these three fights form the three major Beowulf is obsessed with these spaces, the borders
episodes of the poem. All three monsters are charismatic between civilization and wilderness. Grendel is a “mearc-
and mysterious, and readers have disagreed about what they stapa” (l.103), a “border-stepper,” and all three of the
represent. Some readers have seen them as symbols of poem’s monsters lurk in the edge-wildernesses. Beowulf,
different flaws in the pagan Northern European warrior code. too, is associated with wild border spaces: we first meet him
To these readers, Grendel represents the envy and on a beach, and he’s also on the shore when we leave him, in
resentment of defeated peoples, his mother represents the his burial mound.
endless cycle of blood-vengeance, and the dragon
represents greed for treasure. Other readers have argued 18.7 Genre
that the monsters’ symbolism is more universal: they
represent death, evil, or the dangers that lurk beyond the Beowulf is a heroic epic, a long poem which recounts the
limits of human knowledge. Yet another interpretation of the deeds of a legendary warrior. In a heroic epic, the warrior
monsters is as embodiments of Beowulf’s own darknesses. protagonist sets a moral example: through his story, the
He shares Grendel’s outsider status, Grendel’s mother’s lust value and meaning of a society’s ethical code can be
for vengeance, and the dragon’s treasure-greed and pride. examined. For instance, Virgil’s Aeneid tells the story of
One of the things that makes Beowulf an enduring work of art Rome’s legendary founder Aeneas in order to examine the
is that the monsters are complex and unknowable, as all limitations of dutifulness, which was an important and
truly terrifying opponents must be. Every generation can find traditional value in Ancient Rome. The ethical code in
in Beowulf’s battles a reflection of their own most painful and Beowulf is the warrior code of ancient Northern Europe. This
glorious struggles. code was already becoming a thing of the past (at least in
England) when the poem was written. As a result, Beowulf is
18.6 Setting both a study of a particular ethical code, and also a study of
the fact that all human ethical codes—all human values—
Beowulf is set in Scandinavia, sometime around the year 500 are flawed and impermanent. For this reason, the famous
A.D, in the territories of two tribal groups, the Geats and the Beowulf-scholar (and author of The Lord of the Rings) J.R.R.
Scyldings, who really existed and really lived in those areas Tolkien suggested that the poem should be labelled an
during the period of the poem. Many of the poem’s figures, “elegy” rather than an “epic.” An elegy is a poem about
including Hrothgar, Hygelac and Wiglaf, may have been real mourning. Beowulf can be seen as an elegy because it
people, and all the poem’s marginal events—such as the mourns a heroic set of values which have been lost, and
death of Hygelac and the feud between Geats and Swedes— which may have been tragically misguided in the first place.
may have really happened. However, the landscape of the
poem is fictional and symbolic. There’s no evidence in the

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18.8 Style of their desire for vengeance. When the poem switches to
Grendel’s point of view during his fight with Beowulf, the
The style of Beowulf is plain-spoken and inventive. The reader understands that violence causes suffering and calls
poem’s language is richly physical, with a particular forth vengeance even when it is used against an
emphasis on bodies and their fragility: “flames wrought unmistakably evil opponent.
havoc in the hot bone-house” (l.3148). Here, “bone-house,”
meaning “body,” is an example of a “kenning.” A kenning is a
18.10 Tone
particular kind of metaphor, in which two nouns are
combined to create a new word, which is used in place of The tone of Beowulf is melancholy. Although the poem
another noun. Another example is “whale-road” for “sea” celebrates the deeds of Beowulf and other great leaders, this
(l.10). Kennings are a major feature of Beowulf”s style. They celebration is infused with an understanding that even the
help to create the poem’s solid feel by describing things in greatest leaders, and the most morally good—by pagan
strongly imagistic terms. The picture of whales travelling standards—are dead and gone. Their people suffered
through the water, or bones holding the flesh up, is more “slavery and abasement” (l.1355), and their hoards of
immediate than the picture conjured by “sea” or “body.” treasure are “tarnished and corroding” (ll.2761-2). Beowulf
Another notable feature of the poem’s style is its verse form, begins with a funeral and builds toward a final note of loss
known as “alliterative verse.” Each line of the poem is and despair at another funeral, when the Geats “[wail] aloud
broken into two halves, each half containing two stressed for their lord’s decease” (l.3149). The Christian perspective
syllables. The halves are linked by the fact that one or both of of the poem’s narrator adds an extra layer of melancholy to
the stressed syllables in the first half of the line alliterates the tone. From the narrator’s point of view, the great heroes
with the first stressed syllable in the second half of the line. of the past are not only dead and gone. They were also
The balancing of each line, and the intricate patterning of terribly misguided during their lives, because they never had
sounds, makes the poem feel solidly built. the chance to achieve salvation: “the Lord God […] was
unknown to them. Oh, cursed is he / who in time of trouble
18.9 Point of View has to thrust his soul / in the fire’s embrace’ (ll.183-5).

Beowulf is told from a third-person omniscient point of view. 18.11 Foreshadowing

The poem’s narrator has access to the interior thoughts and
feelings of all the characters, even the dragon. The narrator Most—perhaps all—of Beowulf’s events are foreshadowed,
and the most important events are announced outright,
also comments on the action, usually to draw out moral
usually just before they happen. The poem’s original
implications: “Behavior that’s admired / is the path to
audience almost certainly knew the story of Beowulf
power among people everywhere” (ll.24-5). By switching
already, so the poet is not concerned with spoiling it.
between the perspectives of different characters, the poem
Instead, foreshadowing emphasizes Beowulf’s central theme
underlines a central theme: that violence causes more
of inevitability. The fate of a person, or of a whole people, is
violence. For instance, by telling the story of Hygelac’s
inevitable, and that fate is always the same: death and
victory over the Swedes largely from the Swedish king
destruction.
Ongentheow’s point of view (ll.2949-2981), the poem
emphasizes the suffering of the Swedes and the inevitability

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18.11.1 Beowulf’s death cruel and dangerous. This effect underlines a central theme
of the poem: that the warrior ethic of pre-Christian Northern
From the beginning, Beowulf is haunted by the death of
Europe was responsible for an unending cycle of violence
kings, and the danger the loss of a king poses to his people.
and feuding.
The poem begins with the funeral of Shield Sheafing, the
legendary “gōd cyning” (“good king”—l.11) of the Danes.
18.11.3 Grendel’s mother’s appearance
This funeral foreshadows that the poem will end with the
funeral of another king: Beowulf. Between these funerals, we
Like most of the poem’s central events, the appearance of
learn about the deaths of three more kings, Hrothgar,
Grendel’s mother is announced outright before it happens:
Hygelac and Heardred. As Beowulf’s fatal battle with the
“an avenger lurked and was still alive / grimly biding time”
dragon approaches, the hero himself foresees his fate: “He
(ll.1257-8). Her appearance is also foreshadowed more
was sad at heart, / unsettled yet ready, sensing his death”
subtly in the story of Hildeburh, which Hrothgar’s poet tells
(ll.2419-20). This heavy foreshadowing creates a sense that
on the night that Grendel’s mother is due to attack. Hildeburh
Beowulf’s death, although tragic for his people, is not only
is a princess who loses her son, her husband, and her
inevitable but unremarkable: all kings die, even the best, and
brother in battle. Her story foreshadows the attack of
even the most powerful tribes are doomed to “slavery and
Grendel’s mother, who is avenging the death of her son. By
abasement” (l.3155).
tying Grendel’s mother to Hildeburh, this instance of
foreshadowing also suggests one way to understand what
Grendel’s mother represents. Thanks to the warrior code, the
women in Beowulf’s world are frequently left defenceless
18.11.2 Beowulf’s triumph over Grendel and grieving. Above all, women are unable to avenge
themselves, so they cannot take refuge in the warrior’s
The poem clearly announces that Beowulf will defeat
response to the loss of a loved one in battle: “It is always
Grendel: “[Grendel’s] fate that night / was due to change,
better / to avenge dear ones than to indulge in mourning”
his days of ravening / had come to an end” (ll.733-5).
(ll.1384-5). Grendel’s mother embodies the grief and pain of
Beowulf’s victory is also foreshadowed by his rhetorical
the poem’s women, which cannot find expression or solace
defeat of Unferth in the mead-hall, and by the story of his
within the warrior code.
defeat of the sea-monsters. By removing all doubt about the
outcome of the fight, this foreshadowing creates a sense
that in this moment Beowulf is invincible. Although fate
ultimately destroys every man, fate also brings victories and
successes which are all the sweeter because they are short-
lived. By removing any worries we might have about Beowulf,
the foreshadowing of Grendel’s defeat helps us to
sympathize with the monster during the fight, which is
described largely from Grendel’s point of view. As a result,
even this heroic combat against a “God-cursed” (l.711)
opponent is tinged with an understanding that violence is

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19 Questions & Answers It is a code of conduct for rulers, warriors, and the general
population. According to the code, the hero displays loyalty,
19.1 At the time Beowulf was composed, how was the strength, and courage, and is "prudent," but also gives
poem likely shared?
"freely" to others. In giving, the hero will be rewarded with

Poems and stories during the Middle Ages were mostly "steadfast companions" who will stand by his side in battle
and never leave him. By exhibiting courageous and heroic
shared through oral performances. It is likely that this poem,
behaviors, a hero will be rewarded with the "power among
written perhaps as early as 700 CE, was memorized and
people" and those people will stay loyal to him.
shared as a reading or a performance for large audiences.
The poem opens by reminding listeners that they are used to
hearing praise of heroes from long ago. 19.4 In Beowulf, what evidence suggests that
Christian philosophy plays a role in the story?

19.2 In Beowulf, what evidence is provided that There is a great deal of evidence about the inclusion of
Hrothgar's lineage is renowned for great and
Christian beliefs in Beowulf, including the mention of Cain's
heroic deeds?
clan and the murder of Abel from the Old Testament of the
The poem begins with the following lines: "So. The Spear- Christian Bible. Throughout the poem, there are references
Danes in days gone by/and the kings who ruled them had to biblical principles. In Lines 181–183, the author says,
courage and greatness./We have heard of those princes' "deep in their hearts they remembered hell. The Almighty
heroic campaigns." (Lines 1–3.) The author introduces King Judge of good deeds and bad, the Lord God, Head of the
Hrothgar's ancestors, starting with one of the most famous Heavens and High King of the World, was unknown to
of these princes, Shield Sheafson. The verses describe King them." Many times, the author or main characters reference

Hrothgar's great-grandfather's power, saying that "each clan that the "Lord" will decide their fate or determine who is
... had to yield to him/and begin to pay tribute. That was worthy.
one good king." (Lines 9–11.) Then the author elaborates on
Shield Sheafson's funeral. The people mourn this loss and 19.5 In Beowulf, what might Heorot Hall symbolize and
the ceremony's lavishness attests to how much Hrothgar's why?

lineage was revered. King Hrothgar's grandfather, Beow,

Heorot Hall may be a symbol of the pride that comes with
succeeds Shield, and the author states, "He was well
power, or it could simply be a symbol of a great king and his
regarded and ruled the Danes/for a long time after his
generosity to his loyal subjects. Hrothgar states that Heorot
father took leave/of his life on Earth." (Lines 54–6.)
Hall is a place where he can give back to the people. Later,
Following Beow, his son Halfdane rules, and he is called "the
as it lies empty following Grendel's rampage, one might also
fighter prince." Hrothgar is Halfdane's son, and he says,
be led to believe that it symbolizes the fall that often comes
"The fortunes of war favoured Hrothgar./Friends and
with power, success, and pride. In that time period, great
kinsmen flocked to his ranks,/young followers, a force that
halls were the embodiment of security and community.
grew/to be a mighty army." (Lines 64–67.)
19.6 How does the author show that King Hrothgar
and the Danes hold pagan beliefs in Beowulf?
19.3 What is the heroic code in Beowulf and what are
its rewards?

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Hrothgar seeks the counsel of his trusted advisers to plot a extremely large, but he can't be so large that Beowulf isn't
way to defend Heorot from Grendel's repeated attacks. In realistically able to defeat him.
Lines 170–181, Hrothgar sets up shrines and presents
offerings to the pagan gods in hopes they will come to the aid 19.10 In Beowulf, what is the connection between
of his kingdom. Beowulf and King Hrothgar?

Beowulf's father, Ecgtheow, had been a friend of King

19.7 In Beowulf, what causes Grendel to attack King
Hrothgar's people? Hrothgar. When Ecgtheow killed a man named Heatholaf of
the Wylfing clan (also spelled Wulfing), it caused great
Grendel is upset at first by all the commotion that is caused tension between the Geats and the Wylfings. By law
by the building of Heorot Hall. He then becomes enraged by Ecgtheow owed compensation to the dead man's family, but
the constant feasting and celebration. He doesn't like to see he could not afford to pay. After King Hrothgar paid off the
or hear joy and happiness. After making his first kill, Grendel Wylflings, Ecgtheow pledged his loyalty to him. Beowulf
becomes bloodthirsty and does it again and again. Along wants to repay Hrothgar on behalf of his deceased father.
with other provocations, it can easily be said that Grendel Why does Beowulf want to fight Grendel?
was evil and that he was looking for any reason to unleash
his hate. Beowulf wants to fight Grendel in order to win treasure and,
more importantly, fame (which he calls a warrior’s “best
19.8 The people of Beowulf's time revere the ocean bulwark” [l.1389]). Under the ancient Northern European
and ships, their main source of transportation. warrior code, a warrior should seek out the most challenging
What example of people's respect for ships and
opponents he can find, in order to enhance his own
the sea are found in Beowulf?
reputation. Hrothgar suggests that Beowulf may have chosen
In Lines 32–35, the author describes the ship that was Shield to fight Grendel in order to discharge a debt to him, when he
Sheafson's final resting place as a "craft for a prince. They tells the story of paying a large sum of money on Beowulf’s
stretched their beloved lord in his boat, laid out ... father’s behalf. However, Hrothgar may simply be trying to
amidships." Such elaborate burials at sea display the save face: it is embarrassing for him to depend on Beowulf’s
people's high regard for their rulers and also that sending help.
them off to sea was the appropriate way to honour them. 19.11 What warning does Hrothgar give Beowulf?

19.9 Although there is little description of Grendel in In lines 1700-84, Hrothgar warns Beowulf about the dangers
Beowulf, what might the audience conclude of kingship. He tells Beowulf that he should “not give way to
about him? pride” (l.1760), which makes great leaders complacent
when they should be watchful for new dangers. On the other
Grendel is described as having the strength to tear down iron
hand, Hrothgar goes on to suggest that death and defeat are
doors, rip men apart, and eat them. Magic protects Grendel
inevitable, pride or no pride: “death will arrive, / dear
from weapons, and none can penetrate his skin. Although
warrior, to sweep you away” (ll.1767-8).
shielded by the magic, it can be assumed that he also has
tough, leathery skin. Beowulf kills Grendel by using his bare
19.12 Why does Unferth question Beowulf’s ability?
hands to rip off the creature's arm. Grendel might be

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Unferth is “sick with envy” (l.502) of Beowulf’s reputation down; he ultimately kills her in her lake lair. Fifty years later,
and courage. From a dramatic point of view, Unferth’s during which Beowulf has ruled nobly, a treasure-guarding
challenge gives Beowulf a chance to demonstrate his skill at dragon is awakened. As Beowulf and Wiglaf hunt and defeat
boasting. Boasting was considered a legitimate way for a the dragon, Beowulf is fatally wounded and dies.
warrior to enhance his reputation, and as Beowulf tells the
story of his swimming race we learn that the hero is as good 19.16 What feats has Beowulf already accomplished
at boasting as he is at fighting. [when he is introduced]?

Beowulf claims that he has avenged and defended his people

19.13 What is Grendel?
against formidable foes, and captured and killed monsters

Grendel’s exact nature is left mysterious. We know that he is on land and in the sea. Despite Unferth’s claims that Beowulf

shaped like a man (“weres wæstmum,” [l.1352]), but so had lost a swimming match against Breca, Beowulf asserts

large that it takes four warriors to carry his head. He is a that he and Breca had engaged in a battle in the water for five

descendant of Cain, the Biblical figure cursed by God for the days and nights. There, he was pulled underwater by

murder of his brother, and he is also a “mearc-stapa” (l.103), creatures, and killed nine of them. He boasts of returning

a “border-stepper.” Some readers have argued that Grendel from battle covered in the blood of his enemies.

symbolically represents the people displaced—exiled

beyond the borders—by the violent crimes of Hrothgar and
of Northern warrior society generally. Other readers have
suggested that Grendel represents the unknowable threats 19.17 What is Beowulf's dying wish?

that lie beyond the borders of human knowledge.

As Beowulf dies, he asks Wiglaf to build a barrow in his
name. A tall and ornate pyre is built, adorned with armour,
19.14 Why does Beowulf want to see the treasure?
per Beowulf’s request. After his body is burned, his remains

As he lies dying, Beowulf demands to see the treasure he has are placed in the barrow, and the Geats speak highly of their

won from the dragon. He may hope that the wealth he has just and noble king.

captured will guarantee his lasting fame. He certainly hopes

that this wealth will compensate his people for their loss of 19.18 What makes Hrothgar a good king?

their king. However, the poem makes it clear that this hope is
Not only has Hrothgar led stably for many years, but he
ill-founded. The treasure is “tarnished and corroding”
possesses the wisdom and reflections of his
(ll.2761-2), and much of it is re-buried with Beowulf.
accomplishments and experience. Though he finds himself
in a position of privilege, Hrothgar has taken to heart just
19.15 Who does Beowulf fight?
how swiftly the wheel of fortune can bring about change, and

The poem features three primary antagonists for Beowulf. warns Beowulf of such shifting tides. He also remains

First, he fights Grendel when he attacks the hall of Heorot. morally grounded, aware of humanity’s wavering

After defeating the monster, Grendel’s mother attacks the temperaments, and maintains a quality of level-headedness

hall, causing Beowulf and his band of warriors to hunt her throughout his leadership.

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19.19 What gifts does Wealhtheow give Beowulf? and ultimately engages in battle with a dragon even while
knowing or suspecting that it will bring about his own death.
After the feast in celebration of Grendel’s defeat,
Wealhtheow gives Beowulf a golden torque and a suit of 19.23 Why does Grendel’s mother take back Grendel’s
chain mail armour. With such gifts, she is expressing a hope arm?
that Beowulf will look after her sons with kindness and serve
as a role model or mentor to them after she and Hrothgar Beowulf was able to kill Grendel by tearing his arm from his

die. body. After Grendel flees and dies in his home swamp,
Beowulf hangs the arm as a bloodied trophy for all in Heorot
to see. When Grendel’s mother raids the hall, she takes the
19.20 Why does the dragon attack Beowulf's kingdom?
arm not only so she can have the body of her son fully intact,
A thief enters the dragon’s barrow, intent on stealing his but also to send a message. Gone is the trophy of their
treasure. As the thief steals a goblet, he inadvertently victory, allowing for the promise of Grendel’s mother’s
awakens the dragon, who is filled with fury. The dragon retaliation.
leaves his keep, driven to find the thief and the stolen goblet.
In his search, the dragon brings about fiery wrath upon any 19.24 What is the meaning of the Anglo-Saxon term
homes or villages it passes. “wyrd”?

"Wyrd" speaks to fate or destiny, but in a way that differs

19.21 How does the dragon kill Beowulf?
from that of fate from an ancient Greek perspective. Wyrd is

As Beowulf fights the dragon, he realizes that he does not a more active form of fate, where the emphasis dwells less

possess the same strength that he had fifty years earlier. All on the inevitability of the gods’ decree, and more on the

of his companions flee except for Wiglaf, who remains to understanding that individuals are compelled to act in

help Beowulf in his fight. Though Beowulf manages to land a certain ways by necessity and heroic code.

blow to the dragon’s head, his sword breaks as he does so,

and the dragon bites Beowulf’s neck. After Wiglaf and
Beowulf deliver the killing blows, poison from the dragon’s
bite causes Beowulf’s wound to burn and swell, thus sealing
his fate.

19.22 What qualities characterize Beowulf as a hero?

Beowulf is focused on protecting his people and land, and is

always willing to engage in battle, even later in his life. The
two primary timelines of the poem portray different forms of
the ideal hero: a young warrior who is eager to fight, and a
just and noble king possessing the wisdom of experience,
one who follows the advice of those who came before him

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20 Essays Beowulf-poet may have been familiar with The Aeneid, a

heroic epic by the Roman poet Virgil. What’s certain is that
20.1 Historical Context Essay: Christianity in Anglo- Beowulf has several features which are common to most or
Saxon Society
all of the Anglo-Saxon poetry which survives. Beowulf’s

The people who would become the Anglo-Saxons first celebration of the warrior code, and particularly of unyielding

migrated to England in the fifth century. At that time they courage in the face of overwhelming opposition, can be

were pagans, believing in many gods. However, starting found in another surviving poem, The Battle of Maldon. The

around 600 A.D., the Anglo-Saxons began converting to tension in Beowulf between the new ethical principles of

Christianity. By the time Beowulf was written the new religion Christianity and the older principles of pagan Scandinavia

was strongly established throughout the country. Since can be found in much Anglo-Saxon religious poetry, most

monasteries were the main hubs of education, most literate notably The Dream of the Rood. Beowulf’s melancholy tone

people were monks. Many scholars believe it’s likely that the is also common in Old English poetry. Two poems in

Beowulf-poet was a monk. However, Christian beliefs sat particular, The Seafarer and The Wanderer, crystallize this

uneasily with the existing cultural values of Anglo-Saxon melancholy mood.

society, which continued to draw heavily on the warlike

values of the their pagan ancestors. From the late eighth 20.3 Central Idea Essay: Honor Codes & Heroism

century, Christian England came under attack from pagan

Beowulf is set in Scandinavia, sometime in the fifth or sixth
Danes. On the one hand, these invasions required English
century A.D. The ethical code of ancient Scandinavian
kings and aristocrats to re-embrace warrior values. On the
society valued strong warrior-kings who could protect their
other, the Danish invasions helped to crystallize Christianity
people from outside threats (primarily, other warrior-kings
as a distinguishing feature of English identity. One of
and their armies). Under this code, warriors were expected
Beowulf’s central concerns is the tension between the values
to demonstrate unwavering courage, loyalty to their leader
of the pagan warrior code and the values upheld by Christian
and strength and skill in combat. They were also expected to
belief. The poet seems convinced of the truth of Christian
stand up for their families and tribes by taking blood-revenge
teachings, but he is also bewitched by the glamour of the old
against anyone who killed a kinsman or friend. For warriors
ways.
who conformed to these expectations, the rewards included
treasure, the chance to become a king and, above all, fame.
20.2 Literary Context Essay: Old English Poetry
Beowulf is presented as the ideal warrior. He is almost

Because Beowulf accounts for nearly a tenth of all the lines inhumanly brave and strong. He is loyal to his king, Hygelac,

of Old English poetry that have survived, it’s impossible to and he leaps to take revenge even against opponents who

reconstruct in any detail the literary context in which it was haven’t harmed him personally (like Grendel and Grendel’s

written. The story of Beowulf had probably been passed mother). He values fame more than life itself: “Let whoever

down orally for many generations before Beowulf was can / win glory before death. When a warrior is gone, / that
will be his best and only bulwark” (ll.1387-9).
written. It’s possible that the Beowulf-poet was drawing on
earlier written versions of the story, or on existing poems
However, Beowulf was written not in sixth-century
about other heroic warriors. Many educated Anglo-Saxons
Scandinavia, but in Anglo-Saxon England between the eighth
knew Latin, and some readers have suggested that the

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and eleventh centuries. The people of Anglo-Saxon England In our culture, preoccupation with material goods usually
had migrated from Scandinavia, and in the centuries since connotes shallowness, and the pursuit of riches is often
the migration they had begun to develop a different set of seen as incompatible—or at least difficult to reconcile—with
ethical values, strongly influenced by their conversion to our moral convictions. In Beowulf, however, the Danes,
Christianity. Beowulf demonstrates profound scepticism Geats, and Swedes’ collective reverence for treasure is not
about the ultimate value of the Scandinavian warrior code. represented as a shortcoming or moral weakness. In fact,
The poem suggests that Beowulf, the ideal warrior-king, is the poem often uses treasure as a symbol of the
scarcely distinguishable from the monsters he lives to Scandinavian people’s most cherished cultural values.
destroy. Like Grendel, Beowulf is frighteningly strong, fights
without weapons, lacks a father, and, above all, is an In Beowulf, kings, heroes, and other powerful men must
outsider from beyond the Shieldings’ borders. Grendel’s continuously establish their reputations, both those they
mother is motivated by revenge, just as Beowulf takes have inherited and those they have earned. Characters
revenge on her. The dragon’s great vice is greed for treasure, accomplish the former by reminding listeners of their famous
but as Beowulf lies dying he, too, wants only to gaze on the ancestors and the latter by collecting treasures. The
treasure he has seized. By criticizing Beowulf’s decision to magnificent rewards Beowulf receives from Hrothgar testify
act alone—“when one man follows his own will / many are to the Geatish warrior’s valour and prowess, just as the
hurt” (ll.3077-8)—Wiglaf suggests another way in which majestic Heorot signifies Hrothgar’s power. Sometimes, a
Beowulf resembles the solitary dragon. splendid object is enough to gain a man respect, even
without his having earned it through brave deeds—the
Beowulf is not entirely critical of Beowulf’s heroism, however. Danish guard who watches Beowulf’s ship, for example, gets
The narrator openly admires the protagonist’s courage and a sword “with gold fittings” that in the future will make him
strength. The fact that the poet has decided to write an epic “a respected man / at his place on the mead-bench”
poem about Beowulf at all implies that he sees value in his (1901–1903). On the other hand, loss of treasure
example. Nevertheless, the poem presents what is good symbolizes a fall from power. After Beowulf dies, the poet
about Beowulf’s heroism as a thing of the past. Beowulf’s announces the end of a glorious Geatish era by noting that
two-part structure emphasizes the glory of Beowulf’s youth, “no follower” will wear the treasure Beowulf wins from the
and the sad inevitability of his death. Likewise, the poem has dragon in his memory, “nor lovely woman / link and attach
a two-part view of warrior-king heroism: it was glorious, in its [it] as a torque around her neck.” Treasure symbolizes
way, once upon a time, but now it is over, and that’s for the prosperity and stability; without these attributes, the Geatish
best. The glory of the Scandinavian warriors is human and clan can no longer be seen in jewels and finery.
impermanent, and with the benefit of hindsight it is obvious
to the poet that Beowulf’s fame is insubstantial compared to The kings of Beowulf also use treasure to solidify their most
the glory of God: “The truth is clear: / Almighty God rules important bonds: those with their followers, and those with
over mankind / and always has” (l.700-1). other nations. Each king has a duty to give his most loyal
thanes riches, a responsibility indicated by the frequent use
20.4 What is the role of treasure in Beowulf? of royal epithets such as “ring-giver,” “gift-lord,” and “gold-
friend to retainers.” The act is not only a matter of custom,
but also of honour. Among his other crimes, the wicked

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Heremod is accused of giving “no more rings / to honour the race. In this case, the accumulation of glorious wealth was
Danes” (1719–1720). In this culture, treasure is not for not enough to gain a lasting legacy, and the treasure only
hoarding but for circulating in socially useful ways. On an enhances the survivor’s terrible loneliness, as he is “left with
international level, the kings use treasure to strengthen nobody / to bear a sword or to burnish plated goblets / put
alliances and avoid conflict among the various Scandinavian a sheen on the cup” (2252–2253). Just a few lines earlier,
tribes. Friendly tribes may exchange gifts, while hostile Beowulf had imagined how the sight of the Danes wearing
nations may pacify one another with gold or with the paying “glittering regalia” and “burnished ring-mail” originally
of blood tributes. In this scheme, women represent the most belonging to the Heatho-Bards would provoke the Heatho-
valuable token of exchange, as kings often betroth their Bards to viciously attack their guests. And after Beowulf’s
daughters to foreign rulers for political gain. The constant death, the poet bitterly describes how the treasure left in the
mention of the gold and jewels that adorn Wealtheow dragon’s lair is “as useless to men now as it ever was”
suggest her political value: The queen not only wears (3168). As the poem looks ahead to both the Danish war
treasure, in a sense, she is treasure. with the Heatho-Bards and the Geatish devastation following
Beowulf’s death, the creeping disillusion with wealth hints at
Finally, treasure also symbolizes the contradictory feelings the darkness looming on the horizon.
the Geats and Danes have toward death, a constant
presence in this dark, brutal era. Though the poet writes from 20.5 What Does the Ending Mean?
an explicitly Christian perspective, the Geats and Danes
At the end of the poem, Beowulf goes to fight the dragon,
seem to lack a notion of a divine afterlife. In this world,
anticipating that it will be his last battle. He succeeds in
human existence remains limited to the mortal lifespan.
killing his opponent, but he is mortally wounded. His people
However, people have the opportunity to achieve some kind
give him a glorious funeral, but they have been left
of afterlife by accruing wealth, prestige, and glory while they
unprotected, and they foresee “enemies on the rampage,
live: Owning significant treasure increases the likelihood that
bodies in piles, / slavery and abasement” (Part 2, Lines
one’s name and reputation will live on after death. At the
3154 to 3155). This ending crystallizes the poem’s
same time, the Geats and Danes realize that treasure
argument that the ancient Northern warrior code was
remains earthbound, unable to accompany its owner into the
ultimately misguided. Even a truly great warrior-king, like
hereafter. Both of these notions figure into the Scandinavian
Beowulf, can do nothing to protect his people in the end. In
funeral ritual of sending a king off to sea in a burning ship
fact, the Geats are left especially vulnerable because their
filled with treasure. The more rings, swords, and coats of
king killed so many enemies, the friends and relatives of
mail piled upon the ship, the greater the king’s glory;
whom can now be expected to seek revenge. Nevertheless,
however, those riches eventually burn away or become
Beowulf’s death is presented as heroic. The dragon is a
otherwise lost to the king’s people. In Beowulf, treasure
fabulous opponent, whose power and beauty is conveyed in
simultaneously has an eternal and an evanescent quality.
elaborate poetic language, and the reader cannot help but be
stirred by Beowulf’s courage in going to battle knowing that
Amidst the general veneration of treasure, though, come
he is unlikely to survive. Beowulf’s final note is complex: its
some discordant notes. In one of the poem’s most mournful
hero was a great man, yet his greatness has added up to little
moments, the narrator describes “some forgotten person”
more than suffering for his people.
burying the collective riches of his entire, equally forgotten

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20.6 How is Beowulf structured? How does this 20.7 Beowulf is set in a male-dominated world full of
structure relate to the theme or themes of the violence and danger. What role does patriarchal
work as a whole? history play in this world? Why does it matter to
the warriors who their ancestors were?
Beowulf is loosely divided into three parts, each of which
centres around Beowulf’s fight with a particular monster: first The obsession with patriarchal history manifests itself

Grendel, then Grendel’s mother, then the dragon. One can throughout Beowulf, which opens by tracing Hrothgar’s male

argue that this structure relates to the theme of the epic in ancestry and constantly refers to characters as the sons of

that each monster presents a specific moral challenge their fathers. An awareness of family lineage is one way in

against which the Anglo-Saxon heroic code can be which the heroic code integrates itself into the warriors’

measured and tested. Beowulf’s fight with Grendel evokes most basic sense of identity. By placing such an emphasis

the importance of reputation as a means of expanding one’s on who their fathers were and how their fathers acted, the

existence beyond death. Grendel’s great and terrifying nature men of Beowulf bind themselves to a cycle of necessity

ensures that Beowulf will long be celebrated for his heroic governed by the heroic code. For example, because

conquering of this foe. His subsequent encounter with Beowulf’s father owed a debt of loyalty to Hrothgar, Beowulf

Grendel’s mother evokes the importance of vengeance. Just himself owes a debt of loyalty to Hrothgar. In this way,

as Beowulf exacts revenge upon Grendel for killing Hrothgar’s patriarchal history works to concretize and strengthen the

men, so too must Grendel’s mother seek to purge her grief by warrior code in a world full of uncertainty and fear.

slaying her son’s murderer. Beowulf’s final encounter with

the dragon evokes a heroic approach to wyrd, or fate. One might contrast this socially accepted version of

Though he recognizes that his time has come and that he will patriarchal history with the various alternative models that

thus not survive his clash with the dragon, he bravely the poem presents. Grendel, for example, descends from

embraces his duty to protect his people, sacrificing his life to Cain, the biblical icon of familial disloyalty, and the avenging

save them. of his death is undertaken by a female relative rather than a

male one. Examples of family discontinuity abound as well.

Alternatively, one might make a division of the text into two For instance, Shield Sheafson is an orphan, and the Last

parts, examining youth and old age as the two distinctive Survivor represents the end of an entire race. Beowulf is

phases of Beowulf’s life. Along these lines, the gap of fifty similar to both of these characters—his father died while

years between the first two conflicts and the last marks the Beowulf was still young, and Beowulf himself dies without an

dividing line. One of the main thematic points highlighted by heir. The anxiety about succession focuses attention on the

such a division is the difference in responsibilities of the ties between generations. Both Hrothgar and Hygelac

warrior and of the king. As a young warrior, Beowulf is free to depend on the loyalty of others if their sons are to inherit

travel afar to protect others, but as an old king, he must their respective kingships. All of these concerns help

commit himself to guard his own people. Additionally, emphasize the importance of family heritage as a cultural

whereas Beowulf focuses on the heroic life early on, seeking value.

to make a name for himself, he must focus on fate and the

maintenance of his reputation late in life. 20.8 What role does religion play in Beowulf?

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The Beowulf story has its roots in a pagan Saxon past, but by
the time the epic was written down, almost all Anglo-Saxons
had converted to Christianity. As a result, the Beowulf poet is
at pains to resolve his Christian beliefs with the often quite
un-Christian behaviour of his characters. This tension leads
to frequent asides about God, hell, and heaven—and to
many allusions to the Old Testament throughout the work. In
the end, however, the conflict proves simply irresolvable.
Beowulf doesn’t lead a particularly good life by Christian
standards, but the poet cannot help but revere him. Though
some of Beowulf’s values—such as his dedication to his
people and his willingness to dole out treasure—conceivably
overlap with Christian values, he ultimately lives for the
preservation of earthly glory after death, not for entrance into
heaven. Though his death in the encounter with the dragon
clearly proves his mortality (and perhaps moral fallibility),
the poem itself stands as a testament to the raw greatness
of his life, ensuring his ascension into the secular heaven of
warrior legend.

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21 Study Help Essay Questions

10. Would you say that the characters in Beowulf are as
1. Discuss the significance of the heroic code of comitatus psychologically complex those in modern works of
in Beowulf, considering specifically the actions of literature? Do they undergo any development as the
Beowulf as a young warrior, Wiglaf as a young warrior, poem progresses?
and the cowardly retainers at the dragon fight.
11. Why does Beowulf begin and end with a funeral? What
2. Consider two of the following as symbols: Heorot, does this reveal about one of the themes of the myth?
Grendel's claw, the cave, or the dragon's treasure-
12. What are the similarities and differences that is noticed
hoard.
in the text concerning Christian and Pagan motifs that
appear throughout the story? What could be the factors
3. How does the poet use the theme of revenge in the
that created these influences?
poem? Consider the motivation of characters such as
Grendel, Grendel's mother, and the dragon, as well as
Beowulf.

4. Other than Beowulf, who is your favourite character in

the poem? Why?

5. What is the importance of Hrothgar's sermon? Cite at

least two specific points that he makes and how they
affect our understanding of Beowulf.

6. What role does the mead-hall play in Anglo-Saxon

warrior culture? What is the proper relationship
between a lord and his warriors? What examples can
you find throughout Beowulf?

7. What is the role of women in the heroic culture of

Beowulf? 3. How does treasure function in Beowulf?
How do the characters and the poet seem to feel about
the element of gold, as it appears throughout the poem?

8. What role do the digressions play in Beowulf? What light

do they shed on the main action?

9. Is Beowulf an ideal hero and king? Is there anything

lacking in his character?

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22 Glossary sheltered by Heardred. Eadgils, supplied by Beowulf,

later killed Onela.
1. abysm of time a reference to the hellish chaos, the 22. Ecgtheow Beowulf's father.
unfathomable chasm that spawned Grendel's mother 23. Ecgwela a former Danish leader.
and other descendants of Cain. 24. eddy a current running contrary to the main current,
2. Aelfhere some scholars think that this is a reference to sometimes producing whirlpools.
Beowulf, indicating that Wiglaf is related, perhaps a 25. Eofor and Wulf fought Swedes' King Ongentheow to his
cousin. death. For a chronology of the Geats' feuds, see
3. alacrity: (n) a joyful willingness to complete a task Chickering, pp. 361-62.
4. barrow: (n) a mound of rocks or dirt placed on top of a 26. Eomer son of Offa.
burial chamber 27. fen: (n) bog, swamp, or other low wet area.
5. battle-flame the sword, Hrunting. 28. feud-bites a kenning for wounds.
6. Battle-Scylfings Swedes. The Geats have a long feud 29. Fitela nephew of Sigemund, possibly his bastard son.
with the Scylfings. 30. flagon a vessel for holding mead or other alcoholic
7. battle-talon another reference to Grendel's claw. liquids, usually made of metal or pottery and featuring a
8. bawn: (n) a protective wall surrounding Heorot Hall spout as well as a handle.
9. bewail: (v) to express regret, grief, or disappointment 31. Folcwalda father of Finn.
10. body-warden a kenning for a chain-mail shirt. 32. Frankish pertaining to the Franks, a Germanic tribe in
11. The bold Scylding the poet associates Beowulf with the the Rhine region.
Scyldings, perhaps out of respect for his loyal service, 33. Franks and Frisians Germanic tribes united in
even though the champion is a Geat. opposition to the Geats.
12. bone-house a kenning for the body. 34. Frisia Hygelac was killed in an apparently ill-conceived
13. Bright-Danes another name for the Scyldings, the battle with the western Frisians (allies of the Franks),
reference to shining light. not by King Finn's people of the Finnsburh episode.
14. burnished polished until glossy. Hygelac's death (c. 520 AD) is one historical event in
15. chant-wood a kenning for the scop's harp, with which he the epic; it was recorded by Saint Gregory of Tours in his
accompanied himself as he sang or chanted a story- Historia Francorum.
song. 35. Froda king of the Heathobards, father of Ingeld.
16. chief of the War-Scyldings Hnaef. 36. gannet's bath a gannet is a large sea bird; its "bath,"
17. crest-glider a kenning for ship. therefore, would be the sea itself.
18. Daeghrefn a Frisian warrior, champion of the Hugas, 37. Garmund Offa's father.
whose beating heart Beowulf, as a young man, crushed 38. garrote a metal collar used for execution by
with his bare hands. strangulation or breaking the neck.
19. dawn-scorcher, flame-snake, the worm epithets for 39. Geats also called Weder-Folk or Weders. This is
the dragon. Beowulf's tribe in southwestern Sweden.
20. doom here, eternal judgment. 40. the giants here a reference to the Frisians.
21. Eadgils and Eanmund Ohthere's sons, Swedes. They 41. gift from the sea a reference to Grendel's head, which
had a feud with their uncle, Onela, and were temporarily Beowulf brings back from the mere.

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42. Gifthas eastern Germanic tribe. 67. high battle flames a funeral pyre suitable for a great
43. girdle: (v) to go around the body like a belt warrior.
44. God's opponent Grendel. 68. his heirloom sword Beowulf's sword in the dragon fight
45. gold-laced hall Heorot is called "Naegling."
46. graith: (n) equipment needed for battle 69. Hoc father of Hildeburh and Hnaef.
47. gray-bearded elders Hrothgar's senior advisors. 70. Hondscio literally, "hand-shoe" or glove. A Geat warrior,
48. guest-house Heorot. he was Grendel's first target the night that Beowulf killed
49. Guthlaf and Oslaf Half-Dane thanes. the ogre.
50. Haereth Hygd's father. 71. howe: (n) synonym for barrow; a mound of rocks or dirt
51. Haethcyn killed in battle at Ravenswood (in Sweden) by placed on top of a burial chamber
Ongentheow while avenging battle of Sorrow Hill. 72. Hrethel father of Geats' King Hygelac; maternal
Hygelac immediately took over leadership of the Geats. grandfather of Beowulf.
52. Hama, Brosing, and Eormanric For a thorough 73. Hrethric Hrothgar and Wealhtheow's elder son.
discussion of the necklace and the Goths, see 74. Hrothulf son of Halga, nephew of Hrothgar.
Chickering, pp. 331-333. 75. Hugas a Frisian subgroup or family.
53. hand-spike a kenning referring to the nail on Grendel's 76. Hugas a Frisian subgroup or family.
claw. 77. Hunlaf's son a Half-Dane warrior who presents the
54. harrow: (v) to distress or torment; in wartime, to pillage sword to Hengest.
or plunder 78. Ingeld a prince of the Heathobards. He will later lead a
55. hasp: (n) device used to fasten a door or lid raid on Heorot and burn it before being routed.
56. Healfdene father of Hrothgar. 79. Ingwines another name for the Danes, literally "friends
57. heath: (n) an area of land that is left natural, usually not of Ing."
suitable for farming or cultivation, covered in vegetation 80. Ingwines another name for the Scyldings.
58. Heaven's hall-ruler God is metaphorically spoken of as 81. killer-guest Grendel. The poet ironically plays with the
a Germanic king. theme of hospitality.
59. Helmings Wealhtheow's original tribe. 82. King of Glory God, not Hrothgar.
60. Heorogar brother of Hrothgar. 83. kingdom of waters here, simply a reference to the mere
61. Heoroweard son of Heorogar. and the ogres' hideaway.
62. Herebeald, Haethcyn, and Hygelac sons of Hrethel, in 84. kinsman of Hemming here, a reference to Offa.
order of seniority. 85. Lapps inhabitants of northern Scandinavia and Finland.
63. Heremod Danish king who ruled disgracefully before The Anglo-Saxon is "Finna land" (580).
Scyld rose to power. 86. Life-lord God.
64. Hereric Queen Hygd's brother. 87. lineage ancestry, background, heritage.
65. Hetware joined with the Franks against Hygelac. 88. the lord of those rings Beowulf, with a reference to the
66. Hetware technically, the Chattuarii; here rings that form his mail-shirt.
indistinguishable from Frisians; joined with Franks 89. the lord who had killed their own ring-giver an
against Hygelac. apparent reference to Finn, although it is not clear

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whether he personally does the killing or even if 109. retainer an attendant to the king, here sometimes used
treachery is involved. interchangeably with "thane."
90. mail flexible armour made of small, overlapping rings or 110. Ring-Danes the Scyldings.
scales. 111. ring-giver ruler, king, feudal lord.
91. manacle: (v) bind at the hands or feet by some kind of 112. Ruler's favor God's preference. Sometimes God and
shackles wyrd are virtually interchangeable in the poem, possibly
92. mead (n) an alcoholic beverage created with honey and the result of Christian substitution.
water as well as other ingredients like hops, fruit, and 113. rune-counsellor an advisor especially adept at solving
spices. difficult problems.
93. mere a lake, pond, or narrow inlet of the sea. 114. runes letters of an alphabet used by ancient Germanic
94. Merovingian pertaining to the Franks. peoples, especially Scandinavians and Anglo-Saxons;
95. middle-earth a land between Heaven and Hell, sometimes cryptic.
inhabited by mankind as well as a variety of good or evil 115. scop a bard or singing (chanting) performer who often
creatures with origins in legend, mythology, or fantasy. accompanies himself on a lute or harp, presenting
96. Modthrytho an example of a disreputable ruler, historical or legendary stories of interest. He might be
possibly based on a fourth-century queen. attached to a court or travel on his own. Preferred
97. the ninth hour the "nones," the ninth hour after sunrise, pronunciation is "shop."
3 p.m. As Chickering points out (p. 338), this is "the 116. scourge: (n) a whip used to administer punishment
same hour that Christ, abandoned by all but a faithful 117. Scylfing Swede.
few, died on the cross (see Luke 23:44-46)." 118. sea-wind's cloak the ship's mast.
98. Offa king of the European (not English) Angles. 119. the shearer of life-threads the magical giant sword.
99. Ohthere and Onela Ongentheow's sons, Swedes. 120. shepherd of sins Grendel, perhaps in contrast to God as
Onela killed Geat King Heardred. shepherd of souls.
100. Ongentheow Swede king, father of Onela and Ohthere; 121. shield of the people here, a reference to King Hrothgar.
killed by Hygelac's retainers Wulf and Eofor at 122. son of Ecglaf Unferth.
Ravenswood. 123. Sorrow Hill in Geatland, site of a battle where Swedes
101. palisade a defensive fortification or fence made of ambushed the Geats after Hrethel's death.
pointed sticks (pales). 124. Spear-Danes Scyldings, the tribe of Scyld Scefing.
102. the prince's thane here, a reference to Hengest. 125. striplings adolescents, young warriors.
103. protector of nobles Beowulf. 126. swathe to wrap with bandages.
104. protector of sailors Beowulf. 127. swift roan Horses played an important role among the
105. pyre: (n) a large pile of burnable materials used in a royalty, but most of the fighting was executed on foot.
funeral ceremony to burn bodies 128. thanes warriors who serve a king or feudal lord in
106. race of giants here, some of the descendants of Cain. exchange for land or treasure.
107. rampart: (n) a wall-like barrier that provides protection 129. two seas apparently the Baltic and the Atlantic;
for a castle or fort possibly the Baltic and the North Sea.
108. Ravenswood site (in Sweden) of major battle between 130. thole: (v) to tolerate or endure
Geats and Swedes.

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131. torque: (n) a metal collar or neck chain worn in ancient 147. woven snake-blade in constructing swords, numerous
times thin iron rods were woven together and forged to form a
132. uncle and nephew (1164) apparently a reference to single blade.
Hrothgar and Hrothulf. 148. Yrmenlaf a Dane, Aeschere's younger brother.
133. unsouled The soul was believed to leave the body
shortly after death.
134. venom-twigs Some scholars suggest that Hrunting's
edge was equipped with small, sharp points to which
poison may have been applied; more likely, this is a
reference to the use of acid (poison) in the shaping of the
points during manufacture, a customary procedure of
the time.
135. Waegmunding scholars dispute whether this clan, with
which Wiglaf and Beowulf are associated, is Swede or
Geat or a mixture of the two.
136. Waelsing reference to Sigemund, son of Waels.
137. waif a forsaken or orphaned child, such as Scyld.
138. walking dead similar to zombies, cursed to roam the
earth after death.
139. warlock a male witch or demon.
140. the web's short measure the web of life — destiny,
fate, Wyrd — has spun a short life for Queen Hildeburh's
brother and son.
141. Weders Geats
142. Weland in Germanic legend, a blacksmith with magical
powers; he made Beowulf's war-shirt (455).
143. Weohstan probably part Swede (Scylfing) and part Geat
(as Chickering suggests, p. 369), father of Wiglaf.
Weohstan apparently killed the Swede Eanmund on
behalf of the victim's uncle, Onela, and was rewarded
with Eanmund's war gear, which he eventually passed
on to Wiglaf.
144. whale-road ocean or sea, from the Anglo-Saxon hron-
rade. This is one of the poem's best known kennings,
descriptive metaphors that identify a person or thing by
a chief characteristic or use.
145. Withergyld a Heathobard warrior.
146. word-hoard a kenning for vocabulary.

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23 Refences

https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/beowulf/
https://www.coursehero.com/lit/Beowulf/
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/b/beowulf/poem-
summary

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