PARTS OF SPEECH

*TASK 1. It’s impossible to speak about grammar without knowing special terms. In order to
learn them do this task.
Step 1. Read the poem.
Parts of Speech Poem
The noun is the name of anything as school, garden or king;
Adjectives tell the kind of noun as great, small, pretty, white or brown;
Instead of the noun, the pronoun is as mine, yours, ours or his;
Verbs tell of something being done – to read, to count, to carry or to run;
How things are done the adverbs tell as slowly, quickly, ill or well;
Conjunctions join the words together as man and woman, wind or weather;
The preposition stands before a noun as in, or through the door;
The interjection shows surprise as !Oh! How pretty!” “Ah! How wise!”
Three little words you often see are articles – “a, an and the”. morpheme
The whole are called Parts of Speech which
Reading, Writing, Speaking and Listening teach.

Step 2. Sort out all parts of speech mentioned in the poem into notional and structural ones.
Notional Structural
(denote extralinguistic phenomena such as (denote linguistic phenomena either expressing
things, actions, qualities, emotions, etc) relations between words or sentences or
emphasizing their meaning)

Step 3. The rhyme you have read doesn’t give the whole list of parts of speech. Here are some
more in the box. Place them in the right column of the table above.

particles numerals adlinks modal words

Note:
1. The particle is a part of speech, which can emphasise, limit or intensify the meaning of the
word,
e.g. She is a student too. He is only a schoolboy. He is just the person I need.
2. The adlink denotes a temporary state of a person or thing,
e.g. When I looked into the room, the child was still awake.
I am afraid to stay at home alone.
3. Modal words express the speaker’s evaluation of the relation between the statement made in
the sentence and reality, e.g. certainly, of course, perhaps, unfortunately, etc.
e.g. I will certainly come tomorrow. Perhaps, she is ill.
4. The numeral denotes an abstract number or the order of things in succession.
e.g. There were twenty students in her group. I was the third to answer at the exam.

*TASK 2. Sort out the words below into the corresponding columns.

own compliment to draw Wow! the seven

asleep between yet an Ouch! also
they lovely burning can maybe dream

Notional Structural

**TASK 3. Fill in the following grid with the missing parts of speech.
Noun Verb Adjective Adverb
care to care careful carefully
to agree
differently
friend
difficulty
rich
poor
to prefer
ridiculously
delight
simple
to know
quickly
prison
fear

*TASK 4. Define what parts of speech the given words are.

1. over 6. theirs 11. Phew!

2. mushroom 7. smiling 12. positively
3. then 8. good 13. through
4. whether 9. said 14. just
5. billion 10. well 15. evidently

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE SENTENCE

SENTENCE
 SIMPLE COMPOSITE

one –member two-member complex compound

nominal verbal complete incomplete

1. The sentence is a minimal unit of communication. The simple sentence consists only of one
subject-predicate unit while the composite sentence can have more than one. =clause
e.g. Fortune favours the brave. (one subject-predicate unit)
As Philip was drinking his coffee, he opened his morning newspaper. (two subject-
predicate units= two clauses)
2. Simple sentences can be
a) unextended with only one subject and one predicate,
e.g. Mary smiled.
b) extended with secondary members of the sentence,
e.g. Mary smiled at him happily.
3. One-member sentences can be
a) nominal,
e.g. Silence. Midnight. (unextended)
English spring flowers! (extended)
b) verbal, (beginning either with an infinitive or with a gerund)
e.g. To behave like this at his age! Just to look at him!
Speaking to me in this tone!
4. Two-member sentences can be
a) complete, with both principal members of the sentence being present,
e.g. It looks like rain. It is nice to see you.
b) incomplete, when one or more words in the principal positions are omitted,
e.g. Looks like rain.(= It looks like rain.)
Nice to see you. (= It’s nice to see you.)
5. The compound sentence consists of two or more main clauses connected with each other. A
clause is a part of a sentence, which has a subject and a predicate of its own. Clauses may be
connected - COORDINATION
a) syndetically (with conjunctions or connectives)
for, and, nor, FAN
but, or, yet, so BOYS
e.g. John was doing well at school and his mother was proud of him.
b) asyndetically, (without any conjunctions or connectives),
e.g. The days became longer, the nights grew shorter.
6. The complex sentence consists of a main (principal) clause and one or more subordinate
clauses, which can be joined either syndetically or asyndetically, SUBORDINATION
e.g. Call me (main clause) when you come (subordinate clause).
I see (main clause) you have lost your key. (subordinate clause)

*TASK 5. Match the given sentences with their descriptions a-i.

1. She lived in London last year. a) complex incomplete;
2. He is lonely. b) simple unextended;
3. A sultry night. c) simple incomplete;
 4. To think of that! d) simple extended;
5. Dave came home and Della gave him his dinner. e) verbal extended;
6. Happy? f) composite compound;
7. See what I mean? g) composite complex joined
asyndetically;
8. Jack was sure Lily would understand him. h) composite complex joined
syndetically;
9. Hard words break no bones but they break hearts. i) simple nominal extended;
10. The more we get together, the happier we’ll be. j) composite, complex, joined
syndetically, the main clause is
incomplete
11. There is many a slip between the cup and the lip.
12. Take care of the pence and the pounds will take
care of themselves.
13. If you cannot have the best, make the best of what
you have.
14. There isn’t a single cloud in the sky.
15. Is it cold?

*TASK 6. Define the structure of the given sentences.

1. We found Chris in the garden.
2. Agreed? – Yes, all settled.
3. An old park.
4. You never know what you can do till you try.
5. The bell has gone and the lesson is beginning.
6. Hardly had he come home when the telephone rang.
7. I don’t know who he is.
8. This is the man I told you about.
9. To laugh at me like that!
10. When the cat is away, the mice will play.
11. That evening we all enjoyed ourselves.
12. You call me or I’ll call you?
13. Snow. Stars. Wilderness.
14. Everything has beauty but not everyone sees it.
15. All people smile in the same language.
COMMUNICATIVE TYPES OF SENTENCES
In terms of their role in communication all sentences can be divided into 4 communicative types:
Declarative:
affirmative, e.g. Jane enjoys swimming
negative e.g. Ted isn’t interested in computers.
 Interrogative:
general, e.g. Has he really done this job?
negative-interrogative, e.g. Haven’t you heard about her success?
special, e.g. When did he finish doing this job?
disjunctive, e.g. He has finished this job, hasn’t he? Tag questions, question tags Swan –
305-309
alternative, e.g. Shall we meet on Thursday or on Friday?

Imperative (requests and commands):

affirmative, e.g. Do it now. Let her do this work tomorrow.
negative, e.g. Don’t put off till tomorrow what you can do today. Don’t let him cheat at the exams.

Exclamatory/ exclamations:
e.g. What a surprise! How nice to see you again!
Notes:
1. General questions opening with “Will you …?/Would….?» may be considered as commands
or requests according to their communicative role,
e.g. Will you help me? Would you do it for me?
2. Negative-interrogative sentences can sometimes be regarded as exclamations,
e.g. Isn’t he clever! = Хіба він не розумний??
3. Disjunctive questions may have different patterns:
a) positive statement + negative tag + positive answer
e.g. You knew that before, didn’t you? - Yes, I did.
Ted can do it without our help, can’t he? – Yes, he can
b) negative statement + positive tag + negative answer
e.g. You didn’t know that before, did you? - No, I didn’t.
Ted can’t do it without our help, can he? – No, he can’t.
c) if the person who asks the question, does not expect any answer, the tag agrees with the
statement,
e.g. You knew it before, did you?
You didn’t know it before, didn’t you?
4. Note the difference in Ukrainian translations of replies to disjunctive questions:
а) Пітер любить читати, чи не так? – Так, любить. = Peter likes reading, doesn’t he?
– Yes, he does.
b) Пітер любить читати, чи не так? – Ні, не любить. = Peter likes reading, doesn’t he?
– No, he doesn’t.
c) Пітер не любить читати, чи не так? - Так, не любить = Peter doesn’t like reading,
does he? – No, he doesn’t.
d) Пітер не любить читати, чи не так? - Ні, любить = Peter doesn’t like reading, does
he? – But he does./ Yes, he does.
5. Disjunctive questions with the modal verb ‘to have to’ and with set expressions with the
verb ‘to have’ are formed with auxiliary verbs ‘do, does, did’, e.g.
You have to get up very early, don’t you? (modal verb)
She has to cook for the family, doesn’t she? (modal verb)
He usually has a shower in the evening, doesn’t he? (set expression with the verb
‘to have’)
6. Exclamatory sentences can be formed in the following ways:
a) how + adjective or adverb + direct order of words, e.g.
 How intelligent this professor is! How interesting his lectures are!
How carefully he chooses words when he speaks!
b) what + a/an + (adjective) + singular countable noun + direct order of words, e.g.
What a beautiful rose! What a talented student she is!
What an amazing story he is telling to the children!
c) what + (adjective) + uncountable or plural noun + direct order of words, e.g.
What nasty weather we are having today!
What beautiful flowers your mother grows in her garden!
What tender love they show to each other!
d) so + adjective or adverb, e.g.
The child is so clever!
He skated so artistically!
e) such + a /an + (adjective) + noun, e.g.
That was such a hot day! It’s so hot!
He is such a hard-working student!
f) such + (adjective) + uncountable or plural noun, e.g.
Della always has such great plans!
Uncle Delbert gave me such helpful advice!
*TASK 7. Match the given sentences with the communicative types.
1. What a pretty dress! a) declarative affirmative
2. Where did you get this book? b) declarative negative
3. Are you coming with me? c) interrogative general
4. Jane was glad to see him. d) interrogative special
5. Aren’t you happy? e) interrogative alternative
6. It’s not right. f) interrogative disjunctive
7. Stop quarrelling! g) negative-interrogative
8. Will it be lunch or dinner? h) imperative affirmative
9. Let him go there alone. i) imperative negative
10. Don’t let her see it. j) exclamatory
11. He didn’t do it, did he?
12. Will you do it for me?
13. Have you seen Jane yet?
14. Let’s cook dinner together.
15. Isn’t he a smart boy?

*TASK 8. Fill in the gaps below with what (a/an) or how.

1. _______ expensive bracelet her husband gave her for her birthday!
2. _______clever of Derek to pass all his exams!
3. _______ brilliant speaker James is!
 4. _______warm it is tonight!
5. _______ wonderful taste in painting your sister has!
6. _______outstanding ballet they have staged!
7. _______kind of you to congratulate me on my birthday!
8. _______thoughtful of you was to bring these books!
9. _______ terrible mistake it was to take Sally to the mountains with us!
10. _______strange people we saw at the Stewarts’ yesterday!
11. _______sad news!
12. _______impolite of Jim to forget his father’s jubilee!
13. _______ busy day I’ve had today!
14. _______efficient Doctor Blacksmith is!
15. _______happy Sam was to win the race!
**TASK 9. Paraphrase the sentences given below using the prompts. Follow the example.
Example. How lazy your younger brother is! (such) - Your younger brother is such a lazy boy!
1. What a melodious song! (so)
2. Look How clumsy the puppy is! (such)
3. What a funny joke Jim has just told! (so)
4. I was so silly to forget to buy some bread! (How)
5. What an awful bully this boy is! (such)
6. How long the meeting was! (What)
7. I feel so lonely! (How)
8. How hungry I am! (so)
9. What an affectionate mother Mrs. Gold is! (such)
10. Their maths lessons are so boring! (How)
11. How tasteless this dish is! (What)
12. How exciting yesterday’s football match was! (such)
13. The atmosphere at Jane’s party was so fantastic! (How)
14. Ferrari is such a fast car! (What)
15. How pretty your new umbrella is! (such)
***TASK 10. Translate into English.
1. Батько дуже голодний після роботи, чи не так? - Ні, він поїв в їдальні тільки о третій
годині.
2. Ваша сестра не розмовляє французькою, чи не так? - Так. Але вона знає німецьку і
голландську.
3. Кітті не знала відповіді на запитання вчителя, так? - Ні знала, вона просто не почула
питання.
4. Ми не повинні спізнюватися на заняття, чи не так? - Так, не повинні.
5. Ви збираєтеся на пікнік в неділю, да? - Ні, не збираємося, ми обидва будемо зайняті всі
вихідні.
6. У понеділок дві пари англійської та лекція з історії України, чи не так? - Ні, у нас лекція із
зарубіжної літератури.
7. Тобі доведеться працювати всю ніч, щоб підготуватися до завтрашніх занять, так? - Ні, не
доведеться, я зробив вже половину домашнього завдання.
8. Твої батьки не поїдуть до Греції цього літа, так? - Так, не поїдуть, в цьому році у них буде
відпустку взимку.
9. Мері така егоїстка, чи не так? - Ні, вона завжди допомагає своїм друзям.
10. Ти повинен був повернути книги вчора, чи не так? - Так, але я забув.
11. Не всі студенти нашої групи можуть перевести цей текст без словника, чи не так? – Так,
не всі.
12. Ти не можеш мені допомогти зараз, чи не так? – Так, не можу, почекай хвилин 10, я скоро
звільнюся.
13. Наскільки я знаю, ти не любиш пекти пироги, так? - Так, не люблю. Я вважаю за краще
купувати їх в кондитерській.
14. Твій брат не любить рано вставати, так? - Ні, любить, він, як то кажуть, жайворонок.
15. Ти читав цей роман Хемінгуея, чи не так? - Ні, не читав, дай мені його, якщо він у тебе є,
добре?
MEMBERS OF THE SENTENCE

MEMBERS OF THE SENTENCE

PRINCIPAL SECONDARY

SUBJECT PREDICATE object attribute adverbial modifier

apposition

PRINCIPAL MEMBERS OF THE SENTENCE

THE SUBJECT
The subject can be expressed by:
5. a noun
• a noun in the common case, e.g. The sea is calm tonight. Anna sings beautifully.
• a noun in the possessive case, e.g. Anna’s was the best voice of all.
• a noun group, Paul and Vera are my best friends. The blue of the sky showed that it was
morning already.
1. a substantivized adjective, e.g. The old and the young must be helped by the society.
2. a numeral, e.g.
a) Thirteen is my favourite number. (cardinal numeral)
b) The third was our bus. (ordinal numeral)
3. a pronoun
• a personal pronoun, e.g. She is my sister. We were really happy.
• a possessive pronoun in its absolute form, e.g. Theirs was a happy marriage.
• an indefinite pronoun, e.g. Anyone can do it, it’s easy.
• a demonstrative pronoun, e.g. That was not true.
• a negative pronoun, e.g. No one knew the truth.
• an interrogative pronoun, e.g. Who has been sitting on my chair and has broken it?
• a detaching pronoun, e.g. The other is better.
• a universal pronoun, e.g. All is well that ends well.
4. an infinitive or an infinitive phrase, e.g. To live is to love. To forgive that was impossible.
To be smart is cool.
5. a gerund or a gerundial phrase, e.g. Seeing is believing. Sleeping all the time is wasting
your life. Doing homework is boring.
6. dummy subjects ‘it’ and ‘there’, e.g. It is never late to learn. There is many a slip between
the cup and the lip. There are flowers grown with love in my granny’s garden this spring.
- Where is the rose Jim gave you? - The rose is in the vase.
 Oh, there is a rose in the vase.

7. a quotation, e.g. ‘Daddy’ is one of Danielle Steel’s romantic novels.

8. a subject clause, e.g. What is done cannot be undone. What he knows will be kept secret.
Who I love is you. Who is dead is not alive. What I ate was 10 pancakes. That he did it is a
lie.

**TASK 11. Find the subject of the sentence and match it with the parts of speech given below.
Part 1.
1. The fog is thinning. a) an adjective;
2. My sister’s sons are playing now. b) a possessive pronoun;
3. The unbelievable has happened. c) an interrogative pronoun;
4. Is she really very beautiful? d) a noun;
5. That was the last straw. e) a demonstrative pronoun;
6. Kate’s is not this book, it’s that. f) a negative pronoun;
7. Nothing comes from nothing. g) a subject group/ a noun group;
8. One learns by experience. h) a personal pronoun;
9. Hers was the final judgment. i) a noun in the possessive case;
10. Who told you this? j) an indefinite pronoun.
Part 2.
11. Four and four is eight. k) an infinitive phrase;
7. The third was a young man. l) a quotation;
8. To understand is to forgive. m) a cardinal numeral;
9. To deny the past is to deny the future. n) a gerundial phrase;
10. Talking mends no holes. o) an ordinal numeral;
11. Gardening after work is my father’s hobby. p) a subject clause;
12. That he will be on time is not very likely. q) a dummy subject “there”;
13. “How do you do?” is not an everyday r) an infinitive
greeting in modern English.
14. It’s no use crying over the spilt milk. s) a dummy subject “it”;
15. There was nothing to say or to do. t) a gerund

THE PREDICATE

PREDICATE
SIMPLE COMPOUND

verbal nominal verbal nominal

modal aspect
SIMPLE VERBAL PREDICATES
Predicates of this kind denote one action and may be expressed by:
16. synthetical forms of the verb (notional verbs with or without endings)
e.g. They never cook themselves
Mary cooks dinner every evening.
Mary cooked dinner yesterday.
17. analytical form of the verb (an auxiliary verb + a notional verb),
 e.g. Mary is cooking dinner tonight. (is – an auxiliary verb; cooking is a notional verb)
Mary has been going out with Jake since April. (has been –auxiliary verbs; going out is
a notional verb)
Yesterday she was invited to go out by Nick. (was – an auxiliary verb; invited – a
notional verb)
18. phrasal verbs (e.g. to get up; to cut off; put on; to take off, etc.= a verb + post position)
e.g. She is going out tonight.
Jim never takes off his shoes when he comes home.
19. set expressions denoting short actions (e.g. to have a swim; to give a laugh, to make a
move, etc.),
e.g. At the sight of the dog Sofia got frightened and gave a cry.
The expert took a look at the picture and said that it was a fake.
20. phraseological set expressions (to lose sight of, to take care of, to make fun of, to take part
in, etc),
e.g. Bertha changed her mind about the trip to Liverpool.
Look through your papers and get rid of all you don’t need.
He has already made up his mind and you cannot . . . .

SIMPLE NOMINAL PREDICATES

Predicates of this kind are expressed by a noun, an adjective, an infinitive, a gerund or a participle,
e.g.
I, a liar!
She, jealous!
They, trying to help?
Such an old man, to walk so much?

COMPOUND VERBAL MODAL PREDICATES

Predicates of this kind consist of a modal verb and an infinitive (with / without the particle “to”),
modal verb + (bare) infinitive
e.g. Dave couldn’t look into his mother’s eyes.
They are to come at noon.

COMPOUND VERBAL ASPECT PREDICATES

Predicates of this kind consist of a verb denoting the beginning, duration, repetition or the end of
the action plus an infinitive or a gerund,
aspect verb + gerund/infinitive

• beginning: to begin; to start; to take off, to commence, etc., e.g.

They started to talk again.
• duration: to go on; to keep; to continue; to proceed, etc., e.g.
Len went on reading.
The cat kept smiling.
• repetition of the actions: used + to infinitive, would + infinitive - with the past reference,
e.g.
My dad used to take me fishing.
 The old lady would go to the park every day. end: to stop; to end; to give up; to finish, etc.,
e.g.
The students stopped talking. vs. The students stopped to talk.
Try to make your boyfriend give up smoking.

COMPOUND NOMINAL PREDICATES

Predicates of this kind consist of a link verb and a predicative (nominal part);

Compound nominal predicate = link verb + predicative

e.g. Pat is 25. She is single. She is a student. She looks very smart.

Note: Do not confuse! predicate # predicative

PREDICATIVES
Predicatives can be expressed by different parts of speech:
1. nouns
• in the common case, e.g. Barbara is a pilot. Steve and Lily are orphans.
• in the possessive case, e.g. This book is Helen’s.
2. different kinds of pronouns, e.g.
• That was she. (personal pronoun) This is she. This is I who did it.
• This book is hers. (possessive pronoun)
• That was nothing. (negative pronoun)
• That was all. (universal pronoun) , etc.
3. non-finite forms of verbs,
• Boris’s aim was to study in Oxford. (an infinitive)
• His hobby is painting. (a gerund)
• The day got more and more intriguing. fascinating. (participle I)
• Bella sounded amused. (participle II)
4. adjectives, e.g. The roses in Helen’s garden were always beautiful. This kitten looks cute.
5. adlinks, e.g. At midnight the boat was still afloat.
6. numerals, e.g. Derek’s number was 37.
7. predicative clauses, e.g. That was what Dad wanted me to do. His studies were what
worried her granny most of all.
8. quotations, e.g. The pirate’s answer was ‘No!’

LINK VERBS
One and the same verb can be both a link verb and a notional verb according to its function in the
sentence. While serving as link verbs, notional verbs lose or change their lexical meaning.
Compare:
N Infinitive Link Verb (=) Notional Verb
1 to be Mary is a student. She is in London now.
2 to look She looked happy. She looked at her friend.
 3 to feel The sweater felt soft. She felt the sweater and
remembered…
Mary felt good/well He felt her hand on his shoulder.

4 to get He got tired of sitting. He got a letter from home.

5 to grow He is growing old. She is growing vegetables.
6 to turn She turned pale. He turned round the corner.
7 to come His dream has come true. We come home late.
8 to become She became nervous. He became a doctor.
9 to keep She kept silent. She kept her letters in a drawer.
10 to make She will make a good teacher. She will make a tasty cake.
11 to appear She appeared excited. She appeared in the room.
12 to remain He remained silent. She remained at home.
13 to smell The cake smelled nice. She smelled the rose.
14 to taste The cake tasted delicious. He tasted the cake carefully.
15 to sound (giving impression) Her voice on (producing a sound) The fireman
the phone sounded strange. sounded the alarm loudly.
16 to seem She seems happy. She seems to be a nice person.
I cannot seem to find my keys.

LINK VERBS + ADJECTIVES

Link verbs are never followed by adverbs, only by adjectives. Russian and Ukrainian learners often
make mistakes in the following:
Мені холодно. (adverb) - I am cold. (adjective)
Вона подивилась на нього холодно.(adverb) - She looked at him coldly. (adverb)
Cyп пахне гарно. (adverb) - The soup smells nice. (adjective)
Дитина поводилась гарно. (adverb) - The child behaved nicely. (adverb)
BUT: to feel well (physical state) ≠ to feel good (feeling happy or confident about smth)
to feel bad (physical state) ≠ to feel badly (not to feel smth with your fingers when you
touch it)
e.g. How is your granny? - She feels well./ She feels bad.
How’s your granny’s hand after the operation? - She feels badly; her finger are still stiff.
I feel good about our visit to granny on Saturday.

MIXED KINDS OF PREDICATES

There exist some mixed kinds of predicates whose types are determined by the first type of
predicate,
e.g. You really ought to stop smoking. = compound modal aspect predicate
The boy continued to be happy the whole week. = compound aspect nominal predicate
 John just had to be the first in that competition. = compound modal nominal predicate

*TASK 12. Choose the correct part of speech after the verb.
1. Lilies smell (sweet/sweetly).
2. This sauce tastes (odd/oddly).
3. These diamond earrings feel very (well/good) on my ears.
4. The dog smelled the flower (cautiously/cautious).
5. The boys felt (happy/happily) when the teacher forgot to give them their homework.
6. This mushroom pizza tastes (terrifically/ terrific).
7. The piano sounds (well/good) tonight.
8. I felt my way (cautiously/cautious) through the darkened room.
9. Pat looked most ( beautiful/beautifully) at the party yesterday.
10. The old man tasted the hot tea (careful/carefully).

**TASK 13. Find the predicatives in the sentence given below and match them with the parts of
speech in the right-hand column.
1. Jane’s mother was a widow. a) a participle I
2. The book on the table was Victor’s. b) a gerund
3. Lily’s dress looked very smart. c) an infinitive
4. Dan felt delighted. d) a numeral
5. Is this book his? e) a noun
6. Who is he? f) a personal pronoun
7. My grandpa will be 70 next year. g) a predicative clause
8. To live is to love. h) an adlink
9. His passion is fishing; mine is doing nothing. i) a quotation
10. The news sounded distressing. j) an adjective
11. Kate was very much afraid. k) a participle II
12. That’s what she told me. l) a noun in the possessive case
13. The title of the book was “The Black Arrow”. m) a possessive pronoun

**TASK 14. Find the predicates in the sentences below and decide if they are defined in the
right or wrong way. Tick the corresponding column. Correct the wrong definitions.
No Sentence Type of the Right Wrong
predicate
1 She will be able to do this work only tomorrow. simple verbal
2. The frog leapt off and disappeared in the grass. simple verbal
3 Mary kept doing her work without looking at us. compound aspect

4 The fault was not mine, it was hers. simple verbal

5 Sally, a governess! simple nominal
6 She was taught German in her childhood. compound
nominal
7 He had to bite his lip, not to laugh. compound modal
 8 The house looked sweet and cheerful. compound aspect
9 He will be a good painter. simple verbal
10 Grace was 65 and still beautiful. compound
nominal
11 Should you report to your boss immediately? compound aspect
12 The theatre was being reconstructed when we compound
came to the city. nominal
13 Anna’s eyes grew moist. compound
nominal
14. How long has she been speaking on the phone? simple verbal
15 She doesn’t like to give her books to other compound aspect
people.

*TASK 16. Give English equivalents to the grammar terms given below.
1. частка
2. загальне питання
3. стверджувальне розповідне речення
4. прикметник
5. розділове питання
6. спонукальне негативне речення
7. присвійний займенник
8. складно-сурядне речення
9. вигук
10. прислівник
11. прохання
12. сполучник
13. питальне речення
14. окличне речення
15. спеціальне питання
16. складно-підрядне речення із сполучниковим зв’язком
17. другорядні члени речення
18. простий дієслівний присудок
19. іменна частина складного іменного присудка
20. дієслівна зв’язка
21. вказівний займенник
22. цитата
23. порядковий числівник
24. іменник у присвійному відміноку
25. заперечний займенник
26. герундій
27. питальний займенник
28. інфінітив
29. кількісний числівник
30. альтернативне питання
31. группа підмета
32. особовий займенник

SUBJECT-PREDICATE AGREEMENT
9. The subject and the predicate must always agree in number. e.g.
The smallest kitten is in the basket, while the others are on the floor.
10. Numerical expressions usually have a singular verb, though the plural form is possible, e.g.
Two and three is five.
Twice two is/are four.
11. Formal (dummy) subjects “here» and “there” always agree with the first member of the
enumeration, e.g.
Here is Tom and Jack. Here are the Johnsons and Mary.
There is a giraffe and 3 zebras in our Zoo.
There are 3 zebras and a giraffe in our Zoo.
12. Compound subjects connected by the conjunction “and” have a plural verb, e.g.
Sun and air are necessary for life.
Both the bread and the butter are fresh.
13. *When the parts of the subject connected by the conjunction “and” form a single unit or
when they refer to the same person or thing, they take a singular verb, e.g.
5a Bread and jam was usually served for the five o’clock tea.
5b Sue’s friend and adviser was surprised by her decision.
14. Most indefinite, negative and universal pronouns take a singular verb, e.g

Somebody, someone, something

Anybody, anyone, anything
Everybody, everyone, everything
Nobody, no one, nothing
Either, neither, each, none

6.
e.g. Somebody is asking for you.
Nobody has come yet.
Each of them is present.
Neither of the students has made a mistake.
Everybody is here.
None of these trades requires a college education. (though plural verb is also possible
in Modern English - None of these trades require …)
7. In the sentences with compound subjects connected by the conjunctions
• either … or • nor
• neither … nor • not only … but also

the verb agrees with the subject which is nearer to it,

e.g. Not only my sisters but also my brother dislikes ice-cream.
Not only my brother but also my sisters dislike ice cream.
Neither you nor I am right.
 Either my parents or my sister is at home.
Either my sister or my parents are at home.
8. The verb agrees with the first subject when compound subjects are connected by the
following conjunctions:

• as well as
• along with
• in addition to
• together with
• more than
• as much as
• including
• rather than
• accompanied by
 e.g. My parents as well as my sister are teachers.
My sister as well as my parents is a teacher.
My mother together with her colleagues was invited to the President.
Heavy rain together with high winds damages the crops.
High winds together with heavy rain damage the crops.
All students in your group including Mary are very good at thinking of creative
example.
Learning new vocabulary rather than just classes promotes your learning of the
language.
9. Collective nouns may have either singular or plural verbs depending on whether they denote
a group of persons or things as a unit as individuals, e.g.
To some people the Royal Family symbolizes Great Britain. (The family is regarded
as a unit)
The Royal Family have different feelings about Lady Diana’s death. (The family is
regarded as individuals)
The class respects the teacher.
The class have been debating this question for an hour.
10. When units of measurements are used collectively, they are followed by a singular verb,
e.g.
Three-fourths of the pie has been eaten.
When they refer to individual persons or things, they are followed by a plural verb, e.g.
One fourth of the drivers have been tested.
11. Always agree the predicate with the main word in the subject group, e.g.
A good set of golf clubs costs about $ 8,000.
Three hundred pounds (taken as a unit) is a big sum of money.
A four-weeks’ holiday was more than I had expected.

Three weeks is not enough to cover this topic.

These three weeks have been the most challenging ones in my life.

Two years is not that long!

The two years she spent in Paris were very intense.

12. Singular subjects that have plural forms take a singular verb, e.g.
No news is good news.
Aerobics is very popular nowadays.
Mathematics is a difficult subject for some students.
Measles is a dangerous disease.
Mumps
Checkers
Drafts is a very simple game.
Series
13. “The number” is always singular and has the meaning of “quantity”, while “a number” is
always plural and has the meaning of “several”,
the number # a number
e.g. The number of dangerous diseases has increased.
A number of dangerous diseases are spread by air.
 A number of students have missed the lecture.
The number of students who have missed the lecture is not high

14. Quotations usually agree with a singular verb, e.g.

‘Say No to Death’ is a tragic novel.
‘Pickwick Papers’ is one of the most humorous novels in English literature.
‘Life is not a bed of roses’ was Pam’s favourite proverb that she repeated all the
time.

**TASK 17. Choose and underline the correct form of the verbs in brackets.
1. John along with his twenty friends (is, are) planning a party on Friday.
2. The picture of the soldiers (bring, brings) back many memories.
3. The effect of the cigarette smoking (have, has) been proven to be extremely harmful.
4. The use of credit cards instead of cash (has, have) increased rapidly in recent years.
5. Living expenses in this country as well as in many others (is, are) very high.
6. Neither Bill nor Mary (is, are) going to the theatre today.
7. A number of reporters (was, were) invited to the conference yesterday.
8. Everybody who (have, has) a fever must go home immediately.
9. Each student (have, has) answered the first three questions.
10. Either John or his wife (make, makes) breakfast each morning.
11. A pack of wild dogs (has, have) frightened all the ducks.
12. The number of students who (have, has) passed their exam this term (is, are) bigger than
last term.
13. There (has, have) been too many interruptions in this class.
14. Neither Jill nor her parents (have, has) seen the picture before.
15. “Star Wars” (was, were) directed by George Lucas.
16. Do you understand the saying “The army (march, marches) on its stomach.
17. The boy scout troop (meet, meets) in this house on Tuesdays.
18. Statistics (is, are) the most difficult subject in his course.
19. Billiards (is, are) an exciting game.
20. “Fathers and Sons” (is, are) the most popular Turgenev’s novel.

***TASK 19. Translate the following sentences into English observing the Subject-Predicate
agreement.
1. Подивись, наша кішка і сусідський собака біжать за півнем. Як ти думаєш, хто з них
наздожене його першим?
2. Боже мій! Ми запізнилися! Оркестр вже налаштовує свої інструменти.
3. Ні Сьюзан, ні її брати не грають в теніс. Боюся, мені буде нічого робити в їхньому будинку.
4. Мері, одне з яблук на цьому дереві вже стигле. Давай зірвемо його, гаразд?.
5. У першому романі А. Дюма про мушкетерів Д'Aртаньян разом зі своїми вірними друзями
рятує честь королеви Франції. У другому романі Д'Aртаньян і три його друзі намагаються
врятувати життя короля Англії, але зазнають поразки.
6. Статистика стверджує, що 10% всіх дітей в світі не в змозі навчитися читати.
7. Дві третини всіх дітей в класі мого брата ніколи не були в літніх дитячих таборах.
8. Ось здорово! Одна третина цієї важкої роботи вже зроблена.
9. Едді тільки що повернувся з Азії. Два роки, які він там прожив, абсолютно змінили його.
Хоча я б не сказав, що два роки – це такий довгий термін.
10. Мої брати і я готові були розважати нашу милу гостю з ранку до вечора. Але ні вона, ні
наші батьки не могли дозволити нам забути про школу і домашні завдання.
11. «Віндзорські пустунки» ( "The Merry Wives of Windsor") – одна з найвеселіших комедій
Шекспіра.
12. Всі знають, що лекція з історії України переноситься на вівторок?
13. Жоден з ваших прикладів не підходить до цього правила. Або вам, або вашому друг маєте
знайти інші приклади.
14. Вся сім'я мого друга – художники і архітектори.
15. Знаменитий артист запізнювався, і аудиторія ставала все нетерплячішою.
16. Три з половиною долара в день абсолютно недостатньо, щоб жити та вчитися в Чикаго

SECONDARY MEMBERS OF THE SENTENCE

THE OBJECT

OBJECT

Direct Object Indirect Object Complex Object

I read many books. I gave him a book. I saw him read this book.

Prepositional Object
We spoke about the book.

WAYS OF EXPRESSING THE OBJECT

The object can be expressed by:
14. a noun in the common case, e.g. Peter wrote three letters yesterday.
15. a substativized adjective, e.g. It is difficult to believe in the supernatural.
16. a pronoun, e.g.
• Sarah gave him a book. (personal pronoun in the objective case)
• Ask somebody about the way to the station. (indefinite pronoun)
• I can see my bag, but I don’t see yours. (absolute form of the possessive pronoun)
• I didn’t know that. (demonstrative pronoun)
• David told nothing. (negative pronoun)
3. a numeral, e.g.
Where are my textbooks? - I saw two of them in the wardrobe. (cardinal numeral) And I
found the third under the bed. (ordinal numeral) Who could have put them there?
4. a gerund or a gerundial phrase, e.g. I love laughing. But I hate being laughed at.
5. an infinitive or infinitive phrase, e.g. What would you like to do in the evening? – I prefer
to go to the theatre. Len refused to go with us.
6. an object clause, e.g. I don’t know when she will come from Spain.

**TASK 20. In the sentences given below

a)find the objects, define their types and write the numbers of the sentences in the
corresponding column of the chart;
b) match the objects of the sentences with the parts of speech they are expressed by.

Direct Object Indirect Object Prepositional Object Complex Object

 1. I bought this hat two years ago. a) an infinitive
2. Boris said nothing special in his speech. b) an infinitive phrase
3. At last he found three in the hall. c) a pronoun
4. John insists on coming alone. d) a gerund
5. We decided to stop at that stage. e) a noun
6. Mary didn’t tell him the truth. f) an object clause
7. I don’t know what it was. g) a numeral
8. We didn’t make her leave. h) a gerundial phrase
9. Don’t show Mrs. Green this photo. i) a complex object
10. Ally is afraid of dogs.
11. Mrs. Green is always glad to see us.
12. I don’t like cooking.
13. We saw her walking in the garden.

THE ATTRIBUTE
The attribute can be expressed by different parts of speech,
21. adjectives, e.g. Sandra was a beautiful girl.
22. pronouns, e.g.
• Dan showed me his photos. (possessive pronoun)
• Give me some apples, please. (indefinite pronoun)
• There was another piece of cake on her plate. (detaching pronoun)
2. numerals, e.g.
• I’ll come back in three weeks.(cardinal)
• Wednesday is the third day of the week. (ordinal)
3. nouns,
• in common case, e.g. It was a nice spring day.
• in possessive case, e.g. Ann’s new flat is great!
4. participles,
• Do you happen to know that laughing girl? (participle I)
• Can you see those lighted windows on the third floor? (participle II)
5. gerunds and gerundial phrases, e.g. Is there any chance of seeing you again?
6. infinitives or infinitive phrases, e.g. Jack was the first to come. I have no time to waste.
7. adverbs, e.g. The voice was heard from the room upstairs.
8. quotations, e.g. Tina had a good-for-nothing cousin.
9. attributive clauses, e.g. That was the man I had never seen before.

**TASK 21. Find attributes in the sentences given below and match them with the parts of
speech they are expressed by.
9. We sat down on the pine-needled sand. a) a pronoun
10. Here’s some money for you. b) an adjective
11. Can you see those girls? c) an attributive clause
12. There is nobody in the downstairs room. d) a numeral
13. There is a problem for you to solve. e) a participle I
14. They listened to the singing girl. f) a participle II
15. Give me three roses. g) a quotation
16. The though of being caught terrified her. h) an infinitive phrase
17. James has a carrot of a nose. i) a gerund
 18. It’s not Dr. Philip’s decision. j) a gerundial phrase
19. There is nothing of interest this morning. k) a noun
20. It happened on a cold December evening. l) an adverb
21. This is the man I saw yesterday’s son. m) a noun in the possessive case
22. This is the house that Jack built.
23. John had a you-take-us-as-you-find-us attitude.

THE APPOSITION
The apposition is a kind of an attribute that explains or gives another name or definition to the noun
it modifies. It can be of two kinds:
Apposition
Close Loose (detached)
(titles, military ranks, professions, e.g. Her father, the local doctor,
geographical names, relations, etc) knows everybody around.
e.g. Uncle Tom, The River Thames,
Professor Foster, Sir Percival, etc.

**TASK 22. Sort out the sentences below according to the type of the apposition.

Close Apposition Loose Apposition

1. Maria, the mother, didn’t take off her coat during the whole conversation.
2. Mother Teresa’s deeds are known and valued all over the world.
3. Mount Everest is the highest peak in the world.
4. On Tuesday morning, after breakfast, Mr. Murray loaded Julie into the back of his truck and
drove her to the weekly sale.
5. Philippa, the youngest child, was so tired after the journey that she slept for three days.
6. John, at that time a university student, wrote several articles on architecture.
7. Todd, a strong, muscular boy, was much taller than his father.
8. Sophia Loren, the famous actress, was born in Italy.
9. In spite of his anger, Dr. Watson carefully listened to Sherlock Holmes.
10. Once on a dark winter day an odd-looking girl, the main character of our story, was
dreaming and thinking of odd things.

THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER

***TASK 23. There are many types of adverbial modifiers which present difficulty for those who
study grammar. This task will help you to sort this material out.
Step 1. Study the information about the adverbial modifier given in the table and use it in the
tasks given below.
Type of Adverbial Questions/ Prompts The number of
Modifier the sentence
1. Place (direction, Where? Where to? How far? Where from? 1;
destination, distance)
2. Time (frequency, When? How often? How long?
duration, time)
3. Manner How? In what way? By what means?
Often introduced by the prepositions and
conjunctions “with; without; by; by means of;
with the help of; so; like this/that; thus ”
4. Cause/ reason Why? For what reason? 1;
Often introduced by the prepositions ‘thanks to;
due to; owing to; on account of; for the reason
of’
5. Purpose What for? For what purpose?
Often introduced by the prepositions ‘in order to;
so as; for’
6. Result/ consequence No identifying questions. It is usually expressed
by the infinitive or an infinitive phrase. Very often
used with adverbs of degree such as “too;
enough” e.g. The apples are not ripe enough to
eat. We are too clever to believe him.
7. Condition In what case? On what condition?
Often introduced by the prepositions ‘but for;
except for; without’ and conjunctions ‘if; unless’
8. Concession In spite of what?
Often introduced by the prepositions ‘in spite of;
despite; for all; with all’ and the conjunction
‘thought’
9. Attendant No identifying questions. It expresses some fact
circumstances and that accompanies the event presented by the
subsequent events modified part of the sentence.
e.g. He sat quietly in his armchair smoking his
pipe. (attendant circumstances - He sat and
smoke)
Fred said something to her, receiving no answer.
(subsequent events – He said something to her but
after that did not receive any answer.)
10. Comparison Introduced by the conjunctions “than; as … a;
as if; as though; like”
11. Degree and measure How much? How long? To what extent? To
what degree?
12. Exception Except what?
Often introduced by the prepositions “but, but
for, except for, apart from, etc’
Step 2. Put the numbers of the sentences into the grid according to the type of the adverbial
modifier. One sentence can have more than one adverbial modifier.The first one is done
for you.
1. Jack hurried to the class in order not to be late. (place + reason)
2. Jessica is very much upset, she sang badly at the concert yesterday.
3. Did you fail your exam because of me?
4. Pat was happy just being with her old grandmother.
5. Without faith there can be no cure.
6. The children helped the mother to set the table for dinner.
7. When I came out it was still raining.
8. Tessa walked with quick short steps.
9. Thanks to his parents James got an education.
10. It was too cold to go out, so we stayed inside.
11. Though he was a bad painter, he had a delicate feeling for art.
12. But for you I would have been late for the meeting.
13. The travellers had walked thirty miles without meeting a single living soul.
14. Jason is much taller than his father.
15. I’ll do it if necessary.
16. Julia’s nurse uniform is always as white as snow.
17. Debby looks very much like her mother.
18. Patrick was fool enough to believe them.
19. It was 5 degrees below zero yesterday.
20. Our cat eats nothing but fish.
PLURAL OF NOUNS
7. REGULAR FORMATION

NOUN

NOUN + S NOUN + ES

a jacket – jackets; a book – books if the noun

ends in a sibilant
a watch – watches; a box – boxes

ENDING -S is pronounced as:

• [s] after voiceless consonants a desk-desks;
• [z] after voiced consonants and vowels – a dog – dogs, a boy-boys;
• [iz] after sibilants in nouns ending in --s,-ss,-xx, -z,-sh, -ch,-tch, e.g. a bus –
busses, a match-matches.

1. NOUNS ENDING IN “–Y”

NOUN
 NOUN + Y NOUN + IES

if preceded by a vowel - y changes into -i + es, if it

a toy – toys; a day –- days is preceded by a consonant
a lady – ladies, a city - cities

3. NOUNS ENDING IN “–TH” = Noun + th + s, e.g.

a bath – baths; a moth – moths; a mouth – mouths; cloth – cloths
NOTES:
• Do not confuse clothes (одяг) and cloths (тряпки)
• In standard English –th before the ending –s is pronounced as [ðz] after
long vowels and diphthongs and [θs] after short vowels, e.g.
a youth – youths [ju:θ] – [ju:ðz]; a smith – smiths [smiθ] – [smiθs]

4. NOUNS ENDING IN “- O”

NOUN

NOUN + O + S NOUN + O + ES

pianos potatoes
If a noun ends in -o, it is necessary to decide whether it is a foreign word, abbreviated
word like piano or neither of these.
a) Noun + o + s = If it is a foreign word or an abbreviated word, the ending –s is
added to –o. It is true for:
• musical terms of Italian origin, e.g.
a solo – solos; a soprano – sopranos; a concerto-concertos; a
piano - pianos
• proper names, e.g.
an Eskimo – Eskimos; a Philippino - Philippinos
• words of Greek origin, e.g.
a photo – photos; a radio - radios
• abbreviations, e.g.
a kilo (from kilogram) – kilos;
a memo (from memorandum) – memos;
• when the final letter –o is preceded by a vowel letter or sound, e.g.
a kangaroo– kangaroos; a cuckoo – cuckoos; a zoo – zoos
b) Noun + o + es = If it is supposed to be of British origin, the ending –es is added,
e.g.
a potato - potatoes; a cargo – cargoes;
an echo- echoes; a hero- heroes;
a tomato- tomatoes; a torpedo – torpedoes;
a motto – mottoes; a veto – vetoes
c) The letter “e” is optional in the following words:
 commandoes; grottoes; haloes; mosquitoes; tornadoes; volcanoes.
5. NOUNS ENDING IN “–F”
Some nouns change –f into – ves, while others don’t. To be on the safe side just
remember 13 nouns that have these changes and don’t bother about the rest – treat
them as regular nouns. The fact that some of these words rhyme may help you.
a wife – wives a life – lives a knife – knives
a shelf – shelves an elf – elves a self – selves
a leaf – leaves a thief – thieves a sheaf – sheaves
a loaf – loaves a wolf – wolves a half – halves
a calf – calves

6. TRADITIONAL EXCEPTIONS
These are old plural forms that have survived in Modern English. They should be
learnt by heart!
a man – men a woman– women a child – children
a tooth – teeth a foot – feet a goose – geese
an ox – oxen a mouse – mice a louse – lice

7. NOUNS THAT HAVE NO SEPARATE PLURAL FORMS

They include:
a) Names of certain animals, fish and birds that are traditionally used for
food, e.g.
deer, sheep, swine, grouse, partridge, pheasant, salmon, cod, plaice, trout,
carp, pike, etc. +moose, reindeer, elk
The hunters brought home two wild deer and several partridge.
b) Nouns meaning nationality, e.g.
a Japanese - Japanese, a Swiss - Swiss, a Portuguese – Portuguese,
The Japanese is a very wise nation. (The definite article is used to indicate the
whole nation)
The three Japanese we met were very friendly.
There were Swiss, Germans and a Portuguese in that group of students.
BUT:
an Englishman – Englishmen/ Englishwoman – Englishwomen; the
English (the whole nation)
a Frenchman – Frenchmen/ a Frenchwoman – Frenchwomen; the French
(the whole nation)
a Dutchman – Dutchmen, the Dutch (the whole nation)
a Bulgarian – Bulgarians; a German – Germans
c) Nouns meaning some special technical terms, e.g.
aircraft – We saw two aircraft in the distance.
 8. NOUNS OF GREEK AND LATIN ORIGIN
Some of them have regular plural forms while others still keep old ones that
need to be remembered. There are some regular patterns in their formation that can
help you remember them,
1. -us changes into –i, e.g. a nucleus – nuclei; a focus – foci;
2. -a changes into –ae, e.g. a formula – formulae;
3. -um changes into –a, e.g. a datum – data; a curriculum – curricula;
4. -is changes into –es, e.g. a crisis - crises; a diagnosis –diagnoses;
an analysis – analyses; a parenthesis – parentheses;
5. –on changes into – a, e.g. a phenomenon – phenomena; criterion - criteria

9. NOUNS USED ONLY IN THE SINGULAR FORM (SINGULARIA TANTUM)

OR AGREEING WITH SINGULAR VERBS
a) Mass nouns, e.g.
iron, glass, butter, sand, etc.
Glass was invented in Ancient China.
Do not confuse mass and common nouns. Compare:
We need a new iron. This bridge is made of iron.
b) Names of diseases - they always agree with a singular verb, e.g.
mumps, measles, plague, flu, pneumonia, etc.
Mumps isn’t as dangerous now as it used to be.
c) Names of some games - they always agree with a singular verb, e.g.
billiards, drafts (draughts (British English) - (North American English checkers), bowls,
dominoes, cards, etc.
Dominoes is a very useful game in teaching foreign languages to children.
d)Names of sciences and other fields of people’s activity that end in “-ics”, e.g.
physics, linguistics, mathematics, gymnastics, politics, etc.
Physics is a difficult subject.
BUT: Statistics IS very important in every research. (science) ≠ These
statistics ARE misleading. (facts)
d) Abstract notions (uncountable nouns), e.g.
money, knowledge, information, advice, progress, success, news, means,
weather, furniture, help, etc.
Little knowledge is a dangerous thing.
It is easier to give advice than to follow it.
No news is good news.
Bad news travels fast.
What is the news?
Where is the money? It is on the table.
Money is the root of all evil.
It was really nasty weather. (The indefinite article can never be used with
this noun!)
The weather today is so nice that it is difficult to stay indoors.
NOTES:
 • To make some of these nouns countable, use the words PIECE or BIT,
e.g.
That was a very interesting piece/ bit of news.
My uncle gave me three pieces of advice of which I found only one
reasonable enough.
• Some abstract uncountable nouns can be used with indefinite articles in
some set expressions,
to be a great help to smb
Her children were a great help to her during her illness.
to have a good knowledge of smth
He had a good knowledge of mathematics.
a love of smth/a dislike of smth/a hatred of smth
Greta’s chief asset was a love of music.

10. NOUNS USED ONLY IN THE PLURAL FORM (PLURALIA TANTUM)

a) Clothes consisting of two parts – they always agree with a plural verb, e.g.
trousers, shorts, breeches, pyjamas, knickers, pants, tights, etc.
Look at my new tights! They are torn!
b) Tools and instruments consisting of two parts – they always agree with a
plural verb, e.g. scissors, binoculars, glasses, spectacles, tongs, etc.
These scissors are not sharp. Give me another pair.
c) Nouns whose singular and plural forms have different meanings, e.g.
an arm – рука; arms – оружие.
arms clothes thanks congratulations customs species
goods looks manners belongings
earnings works
regards riches outskirts shortcomings means
premises
savings greens spirits whereabouts
contents
These nouns are used only with the plural verb, e.g.
All their savings were in the Western European Bank and when it bankrupted,
they lost everything.
Give my regards to your parents.

11. COLLECTIVE NOUNS

1. Nouns that mean a group of people united by one common characteristic can be
used either with a singular or plural verb. These nouns include:
family crowd audience public parliament team
crew government authority class company group

COLLECTIVE
 SINGULAR VERB PLURAL VERB

means that all people in this means that all people in this group
group are a unit are regarded as individuals
My family is important for me. My family are going away next
weekend. (They are all going to
different places)
a) The noun POLICE is always used with the definite article and agrees with a
plural verb, e.g.
The police were called. The police are now looking for the bank robbers.
b) The nouns FISH and FRUIT are nowadays used only in the singular even if
different types are meant. But they are substituted by a plural pronoun, e.g.
The fisherman caught several big fish. The fish is good. They are now lying
on the bottom of his boat glittering in the sun.
There are so many fish in our river. They have come for spawning.
The fruit was not ripe. They were picked up too early.
c) The nouns PEOPLE and PEOPLES mean different things:
• a people – peoples:
A very friendly people lives in this part of Africa.
Different peoples live on out planet and they speak different languages.
• people – persons:
Most people are good at heart.
This person is good at heart.
f) The nouns PENNY and PENCE are different notions.
• pence means the price, e.g. The chewing gum costs 99 pence.
• penny means coins, e.g. The shop assistant gave me two pennies. It was
wrong. She had to give me 3 pennies.
a) The nouns HAIR and HAIRS have different meaning.
• hair on one’s head always agrees with a singular verb, e.g.
Mary’s hair is red and thick.
• a hair may have both singular and plural forms, e.g.
She always has a wonderful hairdo. Not a single hair out of place.
Look there is a long red hair on your jacket. It might be Mary’s

12. COMPOUND NOUNS

These nouns consist of two or more words joined together to form a single
lexical meaning. They may be written: as one word, e.g. headache; with a hyphen
e.g. mouse-trap or separately e.g. police station.
They form the plural in different ways:
a) Normally the last word is made plural,
e.g. boy-friends, travel agents, etc.
b) But where MAN or WOMAN is found, both parts are made plural
e.g. men drivers, men servants, women students, etc.
c) The first word is made plural in nouns consisting of:
 noun + preposition
e.g. passers-by, lookers-on, etc;
noun + preposition + noun
e.g. mothers-in-law, commanders-in-chief, men-of-war, etc. in-laws
noun+ adjective
e.g. a court-martial – courts-martial; an attorney-general – attorneys-
general
d) The last word is made plural in nouns consisting of:
verb + preposition
e.g., break-ins, carry-ons, sit-ins, lay-bys, take-offs, forget-me-nots, etc.
adjective + preposition
e.g. close-ups, grown-ups, etc.

13. PROPER NOUNS

The Kelleys came in time, but both Marys were late.
(= There were two families with the same name, the Kelleys, and two separate people
with similar names, Marys)
*TASK 54. Write the words given below in the plural.
Part 1
1. a baby 13.a moth 25.a chef 37.a banana
2. a wish 14. a monkey 26. an ox 38. a stereo
3. an address 15. a video 27. a criterion 39. a bee
4. a guy 16. a guess 28. a mouth 40. a plus
5. a poppy 17. a spy 29.a stitch 41. a key
6. a knife 18. a roof 30. a bath 42. a circus
7. a reply 19. a hundred 31. a staff 43. a thesis
8. a wolf 20. a sheep 32. a berry 44. a stomach
9. a toy 21. a dozen 33. a Frenchman 45. a rebus
10. an echo 22. a loaf 34. a tooth 46. a belief
11. a worry 23. a chief 35. a business 47. a louse
12. a quiz 24. a brush 36. a proof 48. a garage

Part 2
1. a fellow-worker 7. a stewardess 13.a lady-in-waiting
2. a governor-general 8. a woman-attendant 14.a mailman
3. a forget-me-not 9. a babysitter 15. a bus driver
4. a sister-in-law 10. a grown-up 16. a bystander
5. a stand-by 11. a police dog 17. a chief of state
6. a handkerchief 12. a boy scout 18. a watchman

19.an airline 21.a court-martial 23.a milk tooth

20. a bookshelf 22. a breakdown 24. a teaspoonful

*TASK 55. Use the nouns given in brackets in their plural form. Do not change
their order.
11. A large number of ________ fled in fear when a flock of ________ suddenly
landed within a few ________ of them. (mouse, goose, foot).
12. Security________ believe that the ________climbed along the________ of
several houses before forcing open an upper window of the office building with
________and escaping with the contents of two ________ (chief, thief, roof,
knife, safe).
13.With the help of old ________, war-time Paris was recreated in the film ________
for the film "________ of War" in which all the ________ were played by
unknown actors. (photo, studio, echo, hero).
14.________were surprised when no fewer than six ________ in full uniform,
carrying ________ , arrived in ________ to attend a series of ________ (passer-
by, commander-in-chief, brief-case, auto, court-martial).
15.The ________ and the ________ in the park are sometimes alarmed by low-flying
________ (deer, sheep, aircraft).
16.The government has been faced by a number of ________ recently. (crisis)
17.Scientists are now doing ________ of different substances. (analysis).
18.Astronomers have noticed a number of strange ________ in the sky recently.
(phenomenon).
9. Different people make different judgments because of their differing ________
(criterion).
10. ___________ (grouse) are birds with a fat body and feathers on their legs that
people shoot for sport and food.

TASK 56. Choose between the singular and the plural verb in the sentences given
below.
14. "This
is where
m y
family (to
live)", he
said.
15. M y
f a m i l y,
which (to
b e )
occupied
each with
t h e i r
particular
guest, did
not notice
anything.
16. " D o
you know
what the
family (to
get) into
t h e i r
h e a d s
about this
business?
" he
asked.
17. Every
body says
the Swiss
police (to
be) great
 in finding
people.
18. There
(to be)
two fish
in his
basket. It/
They (to
be) still
alive.
19. T h e
team (to
h a v e )
baths at
t h e
moment
and then
(to be)
going to
c o m e
back here
for tea.
20. D o
you know
what the
news (to
be)?
21. Politic
s always
( t o
interest)
me.
22. You've
bought
yourself a
nice car.
Y o u r
money
(to be)
w e l l
spent.
23. H i s
advice (to
b e )
always
 useful to
me.
24.There (to be) some important information in the letter.
25. T h e
Japanese
(to be)
wonderfu
l people.

TASK 61. Translate into English

1. Який у вас чудовий малюк! У нього таке чудові, біляве волосся! Скільки у
нього вже зубів? Тільки один! Не давайте йому ніяких гострих предметів. У
нього зараз ріжуться зубки, і він все тягне в рот.
2. Кілька перехожих зупинилися, щоб поглянути на картини молодого
художника. Картини дійсно варто було подивитися. Вони були яскравими і
оригінальними, і явно показували неабиякий талант художника.
3. Скільки буханок хліба купити? - Дві буде досить. Пам’ятай, що нам також
потрібно три кілограми картоплі і кіло помідорів. У нас до обіду будуть Брауни.
4. Статистика показує, що у Великобританії більше докторів-чоловіків, ніж
жінок. Але з іншого боку, більше жінок працює в системі освіти.
5. Які критерії ми будемо використовувати для вибору кандидатів на цю
посаду? – Наші майбутні працівники повинні мати міцні знання по своїй
спеціальності, широкий кругозір, творчі здібності і вміння знаходити спільну
мову з людьми. Але найголовніший критерій – це чесність і порядність.
6. Більшість людей знають, що у англійського короля Генріха VIII було шість
дружин, але мало хто знає, яку роль він зіграв в реформі релігії в Великої
Британії.
7. На початку 20 століття вчені навчилися розщеплювати (to split) ядра атомів. З
тих пір енергія атомного ядра використовується в багатьох сферах.
8. Доктор Грей – найгірший лікар в нашій лікарні. Подивися, жоден з цих трьох
діагнозів не виявився вірним!
9. Саймон не сказав нам нічого нового. Ці новини вже всім відомі. Я не знаю,
наскільки ці відомості важливі, але про всяк випадок, повідом їх своєму босові.
10. Поліція шукає дітей вже три дні. Якщо ви що-небудь знаєте про їхнє
місцезнаходження, зателефонуйте їм негайно.
12. Ніколи не клади окуляри в кишеню брюк. Вони можуть випасти з кишені і
розбитися, коли ти знімаєш штани. Найкраще місце для твоїх окулярів, коли ти
не носиш їх на носі, на одній з цих книжкових полиць.
13. У той похмурий дощовий день особливо добре клювали (to nibble) щуки. В
кінці дня кожен рибалка приніс додому майже по 20 кіло риби.
14. До моєї поїздки в Японію я думав, що японці замкнуті і мовчазні люди.
Зараз я знаю що це зовсім не так. Коли я дивлюся на фотографії своїх
японських друзів, я з задоволенням згадую щасливі години, проведені в їх
крихітних будинках і чудово доглянутих садах.
 THE POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS (THE GENITIVE CASE)
FORMATION OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE
33.Case indicates the relations of the noun or pronoun to the other words in the
sentence. English nouns have two cases
• the common case, e.g. a girl; Mr. Smith; a ship, etc.
• the genitive or possessive case, e.g. a girl’s dress; Mr. Smith’s car; the
ship’s sails; our neighbours’ houses; etc.
34.Nouns denoting living beings – animate nouns, and some nouns denoting
lifeless things – inanimate nouns, form the possessive case in the following
ways:
• the “apostrophe + s” is added to the noun in singular
• the “s + apostrophe” is added to the noun in plural
• the “apostrophe” is added to the noun ending in “–s”, e.g. (see the table)

Noun Singular Plural

a boy a boy’s toy these boys’ toys
a man a man’s job those men’s clothes
my parents my parents’ bedroom
the child the child’s future these children’s future
Felix Felix’s [′filiksiz] Felixes’
h t t p s : / /
dictionary.cambridge.org/
grammar/british-
grammar/possession-
john-s-car-a-friend-of-
mine
boss’s
Charles’(s)
Guy Fawkes Guy Fawkes’ night
the Johnsons (a whole the Johnsons’ house
family)
a month a month’s holiday a three months’ holiday
a month holiday a three-month holiday

a five-hour trip
five hours’ trip
a sister-in-law my sister-in-law’s house my sisters-in-law’s sons
•
35. In modern English two possessive cases in a row are also possible, e.g.
My brother’s neighbour’s sister is a nurse. = The sister of my brother’s neighbour
is a nurse
What is your husband’s sister’s name? = What is the name of your husband’s
sister?
36.The list of nouns denoting lifeless things (inanimate nouns) that can form the
possessive case with the “apostrophe + s” or the “s + apostrophe” is rather
limited. It includes:
• nouns expressing time, e.g. a minute’s delay, a five weeks’ holiday;
• nouns expressing space, distance and measure, e.g. a 5 miles’ walk, a
kilometer’s distance, 10 shillings’ worth;
• nouns expressing geographic names, e.g. Europe’s territory, London’s streets;
• nouns expressing location, e.g. the world’s population, the Earth’s climate, the
city’s suburbs;
• nouns expressing unique notions, e.g. Nature’s sleep, Venus’ orbit, the sun’s
rays;
• collective nouns, e.g. the crew’s decision; the school’s future; the hotel’s staff;
• some means of transport, e.g. a ship’s sails; the train’s speed; the car’s wheel.
5. Generally the possessive case of inanimate nouns is an of - form. This form is
called partitive as it shows a part of a whole, e.g. a leg of the table; a door of the
car; a drawer of the desk.
6. There is also noun + noun possessive case formation, which is called descriptive
because it doesn’t show a part of the whole but gives a general description of a
thing, e.g. table leg; car door; desk drawer, detective story, apple tree.
Compare:
Partitive Meaning Descriptive Meaning
the top of the table a table top
the trunk of the tree a tree trunk
the top of the mountain a mountain top
the keys of the piano piano keys

USE OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE

1. The Possessive Case can be used in the following meanings:
• possession, e.g. John’s bicycle was stolen.
• regular use, e.g. Don’t sit on this chair. It’s father’s.
• origin, e.g. William Shakespeare’s plays have been translated into many
languages.
• description, e.g. Jane goes to a women’s college.
• measurements, e.g. Bob went on a six-weeks’ vacation in Europe last year.
BUT: A five-thousand dollar award is announced for the West Union Bank
 robber.
2. Pronunciation: possessive endings in the singular are pronounced exactly like
plural endings of regular nouns; in the plural there is no change in the
pronunciation at all, e.g. my parents = my parents’ car.
3. There is zero article before the proper name if it is in the possessive case, e.g.
Peter’s new teacher; Virginia’s old house
4. Possessive case is usually used with the name of shops if the word shop is omitted:
Mary spent the whole day in the hairdresser’s before her school-leaving party.
There was no bread at the baker’s this morning.
5. If possession, origin, description or measurement refer to a whole group of words,
the “apostrophe + s” is added to the last word, e.g.
We decided to have the New Year party in Jane and David’s house.
Peter promised to be back in an hour or two’s time.
This is the man I saw yesterday’s son.
6. The “apostrophe + s” and the “s + apostrophe” can also have the meaning of
“some place”, e.g.
my uncle’s ( = my uncle’s house); at the Browns’ (= in the Browns’ house).
7. It is also possible to use two nouns in the possessive case in a row, e.g.
What is your friend’s sister’s name?
My brother’s neighbour’s sister is a nurse.
8. The double possessive = of + noun’s
• This use can be compared with “he is a friend of mine”, and “she is a friend
of his”, e.g.
Mr. Smith is a friend of my father’s. = Містер Сміт - один з друзів мого
батька.What would you like to see at the theatre? – A play of Shakespeare’s. =
Одну з п'єс Шекспіра.
• The use of a demonstrative pronoun alongside with the double possessive often
suggests criticism, e.g.
That silly uncle of Henry’s has told me the same joke five times.
9. There are also some traditional set expressions with the possessive case, which are
worth knowing. Learn them by heart:
• for heaven’s sake/ for God’s sake = Заради Бога
• to do smth to one’s heart’s delight/content/desire = досхочу
• to be at one's wit's (wits') end/ to bring /to drive/ to one's wit's (wits') end =
розгубитися/ загнати когось у глухий кут
• to be a stone’s throw away – у кроці від = дуже близько
• a child’s play = неважке завдання, завиграшки
• to be at death’s door – на порозі смерті
• to be a cat’s paw/ to make a cat's paw of smb – бути маріонеткою
• to keep someone at one’s arm’s length – тримати на відстані
• at the water’s edge – біля води
• a needle’s eye/point – вушко / кінчик голки
 • to move at a snail’s pace = повзти як черепаха
• to keep out of harm’s way – від гріха подалі

TASK 62. Fill in the table with the right possessive forms.
NOUN SINGULAR PLURAL
a teacher
a man-attendant
a mouse
a woman doctor
a deer
an ox
Mr. Grey
a lady-in-waiting
a minute (delay)
a sheep
a businessman
a boy scout
a stand-by
a private secretary
a mailman
a brother-in-law

TASK 63. Fill in the gaps with one of the set expressions with the possessive case.
1. Oh, my! There is no bread for dinner. Please, wait, I’ll go and fetch some. The
baker’s is ____________.
2. Dr. Fairfax was a rather reserved and morose person; he kept all the other
doctors and nurses at ____________.
3. Don't, ______________, start him off on one of his golfing stories. He will
never stop.
4. It is ______________ for him to multiply big numbers without using a
calculator.
5. It was Rebecca’s idea to_______________ the new girl and get her punished
instead of the real culprits.
6. My exam is two days from now and I have learnt only half of the material. I
don’t know what to do. I am______________.
7. Keep the child away from ______________ if you don’t want him to fall into
the cold river.
8. Richard’s mother always wanted to ____________________so while she was
alive the boy didn’t mix up with bad companies.
9. We will never reach the place in time if you _____________________ like
this.
 10. The mouth of the cave was as narrow as _________________ and the
explorers had to get through it very slowly and carefully.
11. If you looked at her, you might think that she is_______________, so pale and
colourless her face is, but it is only on the surface, inside she is full of life and
energy.

• for heaven’s sake/ for God’s sake = Заради Бога

• to do smth to one’s heart’s delight/content/desire = досхочу
• to be at one's wit's (wits') end/ to bring /to drive/ to one's wit's (wits') end =
розгубитися/ загнати когось у глухий кут
• to be a stone’s throw away – у кроці від = дуже близько
• a child’s play = неважке завдання, завиграшки
• to be at death’s door – на порозі смерті
• to be a cat’s paw/ to make a cat's paw of smb – бути маріонеткою
• to keep someone at one’s arm’s length – тримати на відстані
• at the water’s edge – біля води
• a needle’s eye/point – вушко / кінчик голки
• to move at a snail’s pace = повзти як черепаха
• to keep out of harm’s way – від гріха подалі

TASK 64. Translate into English paying special attention to the possessive case of
nouns.
1. Ви вже бачили нові машини моїх зятів? - Ще ні. - Обов'язково погляньте на
них. Вони обидві зараз в гаражі містера Ватсона. Машина Томаса - біла, а
Девіда - зелена. Обидві - останні моделі Ланосу.
2. Якщо ти будеш повзти як черепаха, ми встигнемо на поїзд. - Не хвилюйся, у
нас ще залишилося півгодини, а до вокзалу рукою подати.
3. Знання нової студентки були значно вище, ніж у інших студентів її групи.
Вона трималася від всіх на відстані, і тому її ніхто не любив.
4. Я знаю людину, для якого множити великі числа в розумі просто дитяча
забава. Він також може запам'ятати п'ятисторінковий текст після першого
прочитання і знає напам'ять англо-український словник на 30 тисяч слів.
5. Результати іспитів цих студентів будуть оголошені в кінці дня. Списки
студентів, які здали його погано, будуть передані в деканат.
6. Вам не дуже подобається будинок Смітів, так? - Та не дуже. У ньому занадто
багато меблів, і тому здається, що там занадто мало повітря.
7. У минулому серпні я провів тиждень в гостях у колеги моєї матері. Він живе
в центрі Лондона, і від його будинку рукою подати до кращих театрів і музеїв
столиці. Зазвичай вечорами я куди-небудь йшов, але якщо я залишався вдома,
ми розмовляли з моїм гостинним господарем про політику або грали в карти.
Політика була його улюбленим предметом, і його пізнання в ній були безмежні.
Він також вважав, що карти одна з найбільш захоплюючих і інтелектуальних
ігор, і її потрібно ввести в шкільну програму нарівні з фізикою та математикою.
9. Від будинку Джуді було всього кілька хвилин ходьби до великого торгового
центру. По неділях вона любила ходити туди і розглядати товари, виставлені на
яскраво освітлених і красиво прикрашених вітринах, намагаючись забути при
цьому про свої мізерні заробітки і крихітні заощадження.
10. Опитування громадської думки показують, що зяті частіше знаходять
спільну мову зі своїми тестями, ніж з тещами. Відомо також, що невістки рідко
прислухаються до порад своїх свекрух, навіть якщо вони корисні.

PRESENT INDEFINITE (PRESENT SIMPLE)

FORMATION:
Do you often visit your grandparents? – I visit them every week.
Does Derek watch television every day? – No, he doesn’t. His parents don’t
allow him to waste time on it.
PRESENT INDEFINITE IS USED in the following cases:
2. for permanent states, repeated actions and daily routines, e.g.
Mr. Freeman works in a bank. (permanent state)
He takes the train to work every morning. (daily routine/repeated actions)
We don’t usually watch television in the morning. (repeated action)
Do you always get up at one and the same time? (daily routine)
3. for general truths and laws of nature, e.g.
The sun sets in the west.
An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
4. for timetables (planes, trains, etc.) and programmes, e.g.
The plane from Brussels arrives 8:30.
When does this shop open?
5. for sports commentaries, reviews and narration, opera and theatre
librettos, stage directions, e.g.
Peterson overtakes Williams and wins the race. (sports commentary)
Mike Dalton plays the part of Macbeth. (review)
Then the prince gets on his horse and quickly rides away. (narration)
6. to give instructions or directions (instead of the imperative mood), e.g.
You sprinkle some cheese on the pizza and then you bake it, (instead of:
“Sprinkle some cheese on the pizza...”)
7. in adverbial clauses of time and condition after the following
conjunctions:
when if unless before till until
while after in case as long as as soon as
The children won’t go to the park unless they do all their homework.
As soon as Bertha arrives at the station, she will sent us a telegram.
 NOTE:
Don’t confuse adverbial clauses of time and condition and object clauses:
Adverbial clauses of time and condition Object clauses
(only present tenses) (any tense)
Ask Sonia to phone me (when?) when Do you know (what?) when Sonia will
she comes home. – (time) come home?
Ask Sonia to phone me (on what I wonder (what?) if Sonia will come
condition?) if she comes before 9 p.m. before 9 p.m.
(condition)

8. with stative verbs instead of Present Continuous, e.g.

I hate when it drizzles like this.
The cake smells delicious.
9. The Present Simple is used with the following time expressions
(adverbial modifiers of time:

usually rarely in the morning/

often never afternoon/ evening
always permanently at night, at the
seldom from time to time weekend,
occasionally now and then on Mondays, etc.
sometimes everyday/week/month/
ever year
Does he ever visit you nowadays?
Pat occasionally writes postcards to her distant relatives.
10. To make sentences in Present Indefinite more emphatic auxiliary verbs
“do” or “does” are added in affirmative sentences, e.g.
I do want to meet your parents. – Я дійсно хочу зустрітися з твоїми
батьками.
Fiona does insist on your going to Kiev. – Фіона все-таки наполягає на
твоїй поїздці до Києва.
11. Note should be taken about questions to the subject which are asked
without an auxiliary verb and with the direct order of words, e.g.
Who usually cooks in your family? – Our mum does.
Paula and Jack sometimes visit us at the weekends. – Sorry, I didn’t catch
you. Who visits you at the weekends? – Paula and Jack do.
A short answer to the questions of this type are formed with the auxiliary verb
“do” or “does”.
 PRESENT CONTINUOUS (PRESENT PROGRESSIVE)
FORMATION:
to be (am/ is/ are) + present participle (ING)

Why are you sighing? I am thinking about my coming exams.

Kelly is planning to take up tennis.
Fred and George are playing snowballs. Why don’t you join them?
-e Living
-l travelling
y crying / playing
lie - lYing die - dYing tie – tYing
cutting wrapping reading starting
answering developing referring
PRESENT CONTINUOUS IS USED:
1. for actions taking place now, at the moment of speaking, e.g.
What are you doing, Jack? Are you reading a book? – No, I’m getting ready
for tomorrow’s grammar test.
2. for temporary actions; that is, actions that are going on around now, but not at
the actual moment of speaking (“actions around now”).
My older sister is looking for a new job these days. (She is not looking for a
job at the moment of speaking.)
3. to express annoyance, irritation or anger for actions, which happen very
often, usually, with adverbs such as: always, constantly, continually, etc.
I'm always meeting Sara when I go shopping, (action which happens very
often and the speaker is displeased with it)
You're constantly interrupting me when I'm talking, (expressing annoyance,
irritation)
4. for already arranged future actions, especially when the time and place have
been decided (to be going to do sth).
They're moving into their new house next week. (The time has been decided.)
5. for changing or developing situations, e.g.
More and more species are becoming extinct.
More and more forest are disappearing because of fires.

6. The present continuous is used with the following time expressions (adverbial
modifiers of time:

now at the moment these days still

today nowadays tonight at present
-ING
-e : smiling
-l travelling (Br.) = traveling (Am.) stopping
-y playing \ crying cutting
Lie – lYing reading
Die – dYing resting
Tie – tYing

Present Continuous Passive

is/am/are + being + Participle II

A shop is being built near my house, isn’t it?

Is A shop being built near my house?

Is a shop or a hospital being built near my house or my office?

Why is a shop being built near my house?

WHO being asked by a teacher?

WHAT IS being built here?
WHICH OF you being invited … now?

HOW MANY cars ARE being washed now?

WHOSE CAR IS being washed now?SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF THE
VERB
Semantically the verb can be classified from different points of view. All the verbs
can fall into several groups:

GROUP 1. STATIVE AND DYNAMIC VERBS

VERB

DYNAMIC STATIVE

to run, to walk, to dress also called state or statal

to be, to see, to know
Most STATIVE VERBS DESCRIBE a state rather than an action and therefore do
not normally have continuous tenses, e.g.
Do you know our new neighbours’ name?
Listen! Do you hear anything strange?

STATIVE VERBS INCLUDE:

1. verbs which express likes and dislikes, wishes and emotions
to like to love to dislike to enjoy to detest to prefer
to adore to hate to want to wish to envy to hope
to fear to care
Don’t lie to me! I hate when people lie.
What do you feel when you look at your neighbour’s new house? – I envy them
5. verbs of the senses (verbs of sense perception)
to see to hear to smell to taste to sense to sound to feel
Jim must be at home.
I can see his car parked outside.
6. verbs of mental perception
to know to believe to understand to realize to remember
to forget to notice to recognize to think to seem
to see (= understand) to expect (= think) to imagine to suppose
2.

I expect they will be late.

Jack now realizes that a job like that was very difficult for him.
Do you believe now that I was right?
3. verbs of possession
to have to belong to own to possess
1.

Do you know who these pictures belong to?

My uncle owns a hotel.
2. some other verbs such as
to be to contain to include to fit to need to matter
to cost to mean to owe to require to weigh to keep
Martin owes me 15 dollars.
This dress fits you perfectly.
The bag costs a lot.
NOTES:
• Some verbs can be either dynamic or stative according to the context, in
which they are used, e.g.
I can’t see anything, it’s too dark here. (a stative verb)

I’m seeing Mary in the morning. (= I’m meeting her. – a dynamic verb)
• The verb “to be” used in indefinite aspect denotes a person’s character,
occupation, age, etc, or a permanent state, while used in the continuous
aspect means a person’s behaviour, a temporary situation, and is usually
used with adjectives such as careful, silly, (im)polite, lazy, etc.), e.g.
What are you doing at the moment? – I’m being lazy, just for a change.
Stop talking back to me. You are being impolite.
• The verb “to enjoy” can be used in the continuous aspect to express
specific preference, e.g.
I'm enjoying this party a lot. (specific preference)
I enjoy going to parties. (I enjoy parties in general.)
• The verbs “to look” (when we refer to a person's appearance), “to feel”
(= experience a particular emotion), “to hurt” and “to ache” can be used in
either the continuous or simple tenses with no difference in meaning, e.g.
You look/are looking great today.
How are you feeling today? = How do you feel today?