Ant colony optimization

- A method based on the real way ants find the shortest/best routes between two points
(i.e. from their colony to a food source)
- It mimics how ants use phermones to mark paths to optimize the routes
Bee bread
- Fed to eggs by worker bees
- Made in cells; layers of pollen, mixed with honey, bee digestive enzymes, and microbes
-Cell is sealed with beeswax; keeps oxygen out, allows for fermentation (increases
digestibility and releases nutrients)
Bioink
- Silk from Silkmoth B. mori and two different species mixed with gelatin as a bioink (3D
printing scaffolds for live cells)
Boll weevil
- Order: coleopetra
- Largest pest in north america
- Females lay 100-300 eggs in cotton buds
- Larva live in cotton destroying value and seeds. Pesticides are ineffective as they live
inside the cotton buds.
Bombyx mori
- Domesticated silk moth; mulberry silkworm
Caste
- Individuals are a part of groups, known as this. Different shapes, sizes, and roles
-All related to the queen, but epigenetic factors create differences (i.e. nutrition)
-Queens, nurses, foragers, farmers, cleaners, builders, soldiers, drone

Chinese tongue amulet

- Popular in the Han period (206 BCE-220 CE)

- Placed on the tongue of the deceased
- Carved from jade – in Taoism jade is associated with immortality
- Taoist idea of the emergence of an immortal personality after death
 - Metaphor of the cicada emerging its final moult
Cicadas
- Order: hemiptera/homoptera
- Two common types; dog-day cicadas and periodic cicadas
- Dog-day cicada adults emerge annually (july-august), Their life cycle involves 4 – 7
years in the ground as a nymph (larva), but generations overlap so you see
adults each year
- Adults live approximately 1 month and in that time they must mate and the females lay
eggs
- Female inserts eggs into live or dead tree/shrub, twigs or grasses
- Eggs typically hatch after 1 month (some species over winter as eggs)

- Nymphs (larva) drop to the ground and enter the soil and feed on roots.

- Depending on the species they remain in the ground for 4 to 17 years

- Moult to an adult form occurs above ground. The nymph emerges from the ground and
climbs up on something and fastens itself with its claws
Cotton boll
- Fruit – splits open to release seeds, which are covered in fibres that are separated
through “ginning” and then spun and woven
Cultural entomology
- The study of the influence of insects in literature, languages, music, arts, interpretive
history, religion, and recreation
- Recognises that insects have played a role in aspects of human civilization, including the
arts and religion
Degumming
- When sericin is washed away through the process of soaking the silk in boiling water
Diabolical Ironclad Beetle
- Native to the SW United States desert
- Elytra are permanently fused – this is therefore a ground-dwelling beetle
 Requires protection from predators as cannot fly away from them
Ecdysis
- Moulting of a cicada
Entomophagy
- The practice of eating insects
- Cultural delicacy
- An alternative and readily available protein source
- Climate change, environmental destruction due to land animal agriculture (14.5% of
greenhouse gas emissions due to cow, pig and chicken agriculture)
- Unethical treatment of animals due to land animal agriculture
Eusocial
- An advanced level of social organisation
- Division of labour, most individuals do not reproduce/are sterile
- Generations overlap; older care for younger
- Communication systems; recognition, alarms, information
- Some types of bees (honeybees), termites, wasps, ants
Fibroin
- A protein that creates the centre of the silk fibre
- A solution primarily of fibroin is moved through the silk gland and coated with sericin
Fire ants
- Invasive
- Produces large mounds in open areas
- Feeds on young plants, insects, and seeds

Forensic entomology
- Study of the application of insects and other arthropods in criminal investigations
Fruit fly
- Drosophila melanogaster
- a model organism in genetics research
- ~2 week life cycle
 - indiscriminant mating
- prolific breeding
- easy to grow in lab
- Can be temporarily sedated for examination of traits and selection for breeding -
small enough so you can keep 1000s per bottle
- Food - bananas (cost effective)
- four pairs of chromosomes per nucleus – cell-level studies
- striking heritable traits
- Can distinguish male and female, and sex chromosomes
- Sex-linked: “white eye” mutation – found in males only, therefore on the Y
chromosome
- Many identifible mutations; can be seen by eye or with a low-power microscope -
Brown eyes and black cuticle
- Wild type eyes and yellow cuticle
- Cinnabar eyes and wild type cuticle
- Sepia eyes and ebony cuticle
Glassworms
- Phantom midges; diptera
Honeypot ants
- Store there food in their bodies, rather than in a hive (like bees)
- have workers that store food in their abdomens, and regurgitate it when needed by
other workers, who signal by stroking their antennae

Insect cognition

- Refers to the processes by which animals perceive, process, and store information -
Little research done on this
Insect sentience
- Refers to the capacity of an animal to feel and experience both positive and negative
emotions and states
- Little research done on this
Kunga cake
- Food dish made of densely compressed glassworms/phantom midges
Leaf-cutting ants
- Atta colombica
- fungus-growing ants that share the behaviour of cutting leaves which they carry back to
their nests to farm fungus
- Ants break down the leaves and farm the fungus, which is their food
Model organism
- Usually, organisms that are easy to maintain
Mutation
- A change in the DNA sequence of a cell
- Can be harmful, beneficial, or have no effect at all
- The fruit fly has many identifiable mutations; typically sex-linked, but not having any
effect
Necrophage
- Flies and beetles; first species to arrive on scene and feed on the remains - Calliphoridae
(Blow flies), Muscidae (House flies), Sarcophagidae (Flesh flies), Piophilidae (Skipper flies),
Silphidae – (Carrion beetles), Staphylinidae (Rove beetles), Histeridae (Clown beetles)
Periodic cicadas
- Native to Eastern USA
- Adults emerge May-June but only every 13 -17 years (depending on species) -
Spend 13-17 years as a nymph (larva) in the ground
Phantom midges
- Diptera
- 2 winged, small mouth parts
- Aquatic larva
- Antennas modified into grasping organs
Pheromones
- chemical signals produced by insects that trigger specific behavioral responses in others of
the same species. Used for communication purposes, such as mating, foraging, and
defense
Rostrum
- Chewing mouthparts on a boll weevil that are located at the end of a long snout
Royal jelly
- Affects DNA expression
- Only fed to the queen her entire life
Scarab
- The dung beetle as a depiction of Khepri - the scarab-faced ancient Egyptian god that
moves the sun across the heavens, and is the god of rebirth
Sericin
- protein that allows the filaments in the cocoon to stick together and results in different
colours of natural silk – fibres are white after the sericin is washed away
- Added to creams; naturally resistant to infections; naturally hydrophyllic
Sex chromosome
- Chromosome that determines the sex of an organism
Silk duct
- Spinneret; silk-producing organ
Silk gland
- A gland which produces fluid released in strands, and later hardens into silk
Spermatheca
- Queens mate during swarming
- Stores semen in here
- A small portion of their abdomen
Spinneret
- Silk-producing organ, in the silk moths head
Stages of decomposition
- 5 stages
 - <3 days; fresh
- 3-5 days; bloat
- 8-10 days; active decay
- 2-3 weeks; advanced decay
- Weeks-years; dry remains
Sternal gland
- On abdomen; releases trail-following pheromone when food sources are found
Stridulation
- Sound production in certain species of orthoptera; plays an important role in
reproduction
Swarm intelligence
- Simple steps repeated by individuals
Trophallaxis
- workers feed nymphs their partly digested cellulose
Tropical deforestation
- Occurs in tropical and subtropical countries due to animal agriculture, mainly beef -
Shows that eating more plants and insects harms the environment less

Tymbals
- Sound-producing organs and musculature
- When rib-like bands associated with a pair of tymbals bend, it creates a sound which is
amplified through large air sacs in the animal
Varroa destructor
- Mite
- Life cycle takes place inside a bee colony
- Weakens bees (feeds off of their fat tissue), carries viruses
Waggle dance
- Done by social bees
- Direction of dance: direction of food source
- Duration: how far away
- Repetition: how good the source is
 - Vertical orientation: Direction relative to the sun or Earth’s magnetic field
1. What are the main parts of the insect body structure, including the appendages?
● Head
- Mandibles: a pair of appendages near the mouth. It is used to grasp, crush, or cut
the insects’ food. Also used for defense
- Ommatidia: what makes up compound eyes (retinal units).
- Mouthparts:
a. Proboscis: sucking food into the body, tube-like
b. Chewing mouthparts: Found in beetles, grasshoppers
c. Siphoning mouthparts: Found in butterflies and moths for feeding on nectar.
d. Piercing-sucking mouthparts: Found in mosquitoes, fleas
e. Lapping mouthparts: Found in flies, which are adapted for feeding on liquids.
● Thorax
- Prothorax: front part of the thorax (no wings)
- Mesothorax: middle segment (with wings)
- Metathorax: end, hindlegs and sometimes wings
- Notum: hard dorsal exterior
- Pronotum: front part of thorax
● Abdomen
- Ovipositor: specialized structure, often found at the back of the abdomen, used for
laying eggs.
- Cerci: paired appendages on the abdomen. Used as a sensory and/or defense
functions.

2. What is the difference between simple and complete metamorphosis? Give examples
of species in each case.
- Complete metamorphosis: butterflies, ladybugs
- Eggs →larvae→chrysalis/cocoon→adult
- Simple metamorphosis: grasshopper, cicadas
- Eggs →nymph→adult
3. Consider the examples discussed in class showing social insect behaviour. How are castes
involved in enabling the survival of the community of insects? Consider specific examples of
behaviours described in class: for example, those seen in colonies of Leafcutter ants, aphid
farming ants, honeybees, termites.
- Castes are involved in enabling the survival of the community due to the ability to rely on each
other.
- They are all different shapes and sizes, depending on their role, enabling them to
have different abilities
 - Drones only exist to mate with Queens
- The workers look after the larvae
- Soldiers are required to fight off any predators
a. Describe examples of how we viewed ants in the 19th century, 20th century and 21st
century. How have ants been a model for human social organization and technology?
(There was a documentary film in Week 8 that will be helpful).
- 19th: One kind was industrious; worked very hard. Another kind were deemed mutual
aids; they helped and supported one other in the life of the nest. An English engineer
was interested because of their impressive ability to mine and plan tunnels they
constructed.
- 20th: The industrious view of the ants was no longer seen, ants were scary. they had
become something that humans wanted to avoid. in this period, Factory workers were
dying and that was viewed in relation to how ants work. “There is no room for
individuality."
- 21st: We've become interested in ants as technological systems— natural computers—in
the way they solve problems. From the way they find the most effective way of solving
problems to the ways they forage for food and bring it back to the nest. We view the ant
colony as a giant powerful computer that can solve complex problems.

4. How can our knowledge of insects help us determine the time of death of a body during a
forensic investigation? What are some examples of relevant species?
- Different types of insects only appear at certain points of the stages of decomposition
- For example, flies (diptera) and beetles (coleoptera)—blow flies, house flies, carrion beetles,
and rove beetles—are the first types of insects to arrive on a body. If you find these, the body is
still in early decomposition stages
a. What information do we need to know about those species during an investigation. What
environmental factors are important and why? What limitations are there for the calculation
of time of death using forensic entomology?
- The Development of fly larvae helps determine a more specific time frame. It takes
approximately 15 days for a fly to fully develop, meaning that a larva in its 1st instar, will
help the investigators determine that the body is still early in its decomposition stages
- Of course, weather and temperature also matter in this situation
- Some limitations include: dependence on accurate data, Reliance on insect abundance,
treatments (clothing, wraps freezing) can exclude insects or delay insect succession,
 patience
5. How is silk fabric obtained from silk moths? Describe the nature of the silk fibre.
- When larvae spin a cocoon, instead of allowing them to develop into an adult, cocoons
are kept in boiling water to soften and dissolve the sericin that holds the cocoon
together. Each thread is then reeled from the cocoon into long individual threads and
then is wound onto a reel.
a. Why are engineers interested in the Diabolical Ironclad Beetle?
- Can withstand pressures 39,000 times their body weight—10 times higher than biting
forces of predators
- Layered structure of chitin (material of exoskeleton) and interlocking joint between elytra
has been found to be the cause of this strength
- Engineers are considering applications—received funding at UCI from U.S. Air Force Office of
Scientific Research, the U.S. Army Research Office, the U.S. Department of Energy and the
Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology’s Institute of Global Innovation Research.

b. Why is Drosophila melanogaster a model organism for genetic experiments? Why is

their use in labs promoted in African countries?
- the fruit fly was easy to maintain due to them being easy to raise, requiring little lab space,
cost effective foods they consume, ~2 week life cycle, indiscriminant mating and prolific
breeding.
- In Africa, these studies can help address urgent public health needs, connect local
scientists with the global research community and build research capabilities across the
world's second largest continent.
6. What are some arguments for promoting the eating of insects? What are some challenges
to this position, and what is an alternative?
- Some arguments that promote eating insects include climate change, environmental
destruction due to land animal agriculture (14.5% of greenhouse gas emissions due to
cow, pig and chicken agriculture), unethical treatment of animals due to land animal
agriculture, tropical deforestation occuring in tropical and subtropical countries due to
animal agriculture (mainly beef) and they are easily available protein source.
- Some arguments that challenges this promotion are: insect sentience and cognition;
what if we’re hurting them? Plus, you could just eat more plants—they’re alive, not
sentient, and protein needs can be met with only plant products.
7. Describe some examples of how insects have inspired art and cultural practices. What
features of the insect were notable to cultural groups? What are some examples of how
sound production and other features of an insect have influenced music?
- The dung beetle is a depiction of Khepri; the scarab-faced ancient Egyptian god that
moves the sun across the heavens and is the god of rebirth. Dung beetles can move up
to 40 times their weight, which plays into their belief as a metaphor.
- Chinese tongue amulets were popular tributes to the deceased in the Han dynasty.
Carved from jade (in Taoism, it is associated with with immortality), and is placed on the
tongue of the deceased. It follows the idea that there is an emergence of an immortal
personality after death—it is a metaphor for the cicada emerging its final moult.
- Flight of the Bumblebee, Rimsky-Korsakov
- Composed to interpret a swarm of bumblebees. Very chaotic.
- Butterflies have become a symbol of freedom; emerging from a cocoon is seen as a
“rebirth” almost.
- There can also be negative interpretations: The 8th plague, and the Boll Weevil song
sung by Brook Benton.