Cognition

Cognition is the "mental action or process of acquiring knowledge

and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses".[2]
It encompasses all aspects of intellectual functions and processes
such as: perception, attention, thought, imagination, intelligence,
the formation of knowledge, memory and working memory,
judgment and evaluation, reasoning and computation, problem-
solving and decision-making, comprehension and production of
language. Cognitive processes use existing knowledge to discover
new knowledge.

Cognitive processes are analyzed from very different perspectives

within different contexts, notably in the fields of linguistics,
musicology, anesthesia, neuroscience, psychiatry, psychology,
education, philosophy, anthropology, biology, systemics, logic,
and computer science.[3] These and other approaches to the
analysis of cognition (such as embodied cognition) are synthesized
in the developing field of cognitive science, a progressively A cognitive model, as illustrated by
autonomous academic discipline. Robert Fludd (1619)[1]

Etymology
The word cognition dates back to the 15th century, where it meant "thinking and awareness".[4] The term
comes from the Latin noun cognitio ('examination', 'learning', or 'knowledge'), derived from the verb
cognosco, a compound of con ('with') and gnōscō ('know'). The latter half, gnōscō, itself is a cognate of a
Greek verb, gi(g)nósko (γι(γ)νώσκω, 'I know,' or 'perceive').[5][6]

Early studies
Despite the word cognitive itself dating back to the 15th century,[4] attention to cognitive processes came
about more than eighteen centuries earlier, beginning with Aristotle (384–322 BCE) and his interest in the
inner workings of the mind and how they affect the human experience. Aristotle focused on cognitive
areas pertaining to memory, perception, and mental imagery. He placed great importance on ensuring that
his studies were based on empirical evidence, that is, scientific information that is gathered through
observation and conscientious experimentation.[7] Two millennia later, the groundwork for modern
concepts of cognition was laid during the Enlightenment by thinkers such as John Locke and Dugald
Stewart who sought to develop a model of the mind in which ideas were acquired, remembered and
manipulated.[8]
During the very early nineteenth century cognitive models were developed both in philosophy—
particularly by authors writing about the philosophy of mind—and within medicine, especially by
physicians seeking to understand how to cure madness. In Britain, these models were studied in the
academy by scholars such as James Sully at University College London, and they were even used by
politicians when considering the national Elementary Education Act 1870 (33 & 34 Vict. c. 75).[9]

As psychology emerged as a burgeoning field of study in Europe, whilst also gaining a following in
America, scientists such as Wilhelm Wundt, Herman Ebbinghaus, Mary Whiton Calkins, and William
James would offer their contributions to the study of human cognition.

Early theorists
Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) emphasized the notion of what he called introspection: examining the inner
feelings of an individual. With introspection, the subject had to be careful with describing their feelings in
the most objective manner possible in order for Wundt to find the information scientific.[10][11] Though
Wundt's contributions are by no means minimal, modern psychologists find his methods to be too
subjective and choose to rely on more objective procedures of experimentation to make conclusions about
the human cognitive process.

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) conducted cognitive studies that mainly examined the function and
capacity of human memory. Ebbinghaus developed his own experiment in which he constructed over
2,000 syllables made out of nonexistent words (for instance, 'EAS'). He then examined his own personal
ability to learn these non-words. He purposely chose non-words as opposed to real words to control for
the influence of pre-existing experience on what the words might symbolize, thus enabling easier
recollection of them.[10][12] Ebbinghaus observed and hypothesized a number of variables that may have
affected his ability to learn and recall the non-words he created. One of the reasons, he concluded, was
the amount of time between the presentation of the list of stimuli and the recitation or recall of the same.
Ebbinghaus was the first to record and plot a "learning curve" and a "forgetting curve".[13] His work
heavily influenced the study of serial position and its effect on memory

Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) was an influential American pioneer in the realm of psychology. Her
work also focused on human memory capacity. A common theory, called the recency effect, can be
attributed to the studies that she conducted.[14] The recency effect, also discussed in the subsequent
experiment section, is the tendency for individuals to be able to accurately recollect the final items
presented in a sequence of stimuli. Calkin's theory is closely related to the aforementioned study and
conclusion of the memory experiments conducted by Hermann Ebbinghaus.[15]

William James (1842–1910) is another pivotal figure in the history of cognitive science. James was quite
discontent with Wundt's emphasis on introspection and Ebbinghaus' use of nonsense stimuli. He instead
chose to focus on the human learning experience in everyday life and its importance to the study of
cognition. James' most significant contribution to the study and theory of cognition was his textbook
Principles of Psychology which preliminarily examines aspects of cognition such as perception, memory,
reasoning, and attention.[15]
René Descartes (1596–1650) was a seventeenth-century philosopher who came up with the phrase
"Cogito, ergo sum", which means "I think, therefore I am." He took a philosophical approach to the study
of cognition and the mind, with his Meditations he wanted people to meditate along with him to come to
the same conclusions as he did but in their own free cognition.[16]

Psychology
In psychology, the term "cognition" is usually used within an
information processing view of an individual's psychological
functions,[17] and such is the same in cognitive engineering.[18] In
the study of social cognition, a branch of social psychology, the
term is used to explain attitudes, attribution, and group
dynamics.[17] However, psychological research within the field of
cognitive science has also suggested an embodied approach to
understanding cognition. Contrary to the traditional
computationalist approach, embodied cognition emphasizes the
body's significant role in the acquisition and development of
cognitive capabilities.[19][20]

Human cognition is conscious and unconscious, concrete or

abstract, as well as intuitive (like knowledge of a language) and
conceptual (like a model of a language). It encompasses processes
such as memory, association, concept formation, pattern When the mind makes a
generalization such as the concept
recognition, language, attention, perception, action, problem
of tree, it extracts similarities from
solving, and mental imagery.[21][22] Traditionally, emotion was not numerous examples; the
thought of as a cognitive process, but now much research is being simplification enables higher-level
undertaken to examine the cognitive psychology of emotion; thinking (abstract thinking).
research is also focused on one's awareness of one's own strategies
and methods of cognition, which is called metacognition. The
concept of cognition has gone through several revisions through the development of disciplines within
psychology.

Psychologists initially understood cognition governing human action as information processing. This was
a movement known as cognitivism in the 1950s, emerging after the Behaviorist movement viewed
cognition as a form of behavior.[23] Cognitivism approached cognition as a form of computation, viewing
the mind as a machine and consciousness as an executive function.[19] However; post cognitivism began
to emerge in the 1990s as the development of cognitive science presented theories that highlighted the
necessity of cognitive action as embodied, extended, and producing dynamic processes in the mind.[24]
The development of Cognitive psychology arose as psychology from different theories, and so began
exploring these dynamics concerning mind and environment, starting a movement from these prior
dualist paradigms that prioritized cognition as systematic computation or exclusively behavior.[19]

Piaget's theory of cognitive development

For years, sociologists and psychologists have conducted studies on cognitive development, i.e. the
construction of human thought or mental processes.
Jean Piaget was one of the most important and influential people in the field of developmental
psychology. He believed that humans are unique in comparison to animals because we have the capacity
to do "abstract symbolic reasoning". His work can be compared to Lev Vygotsky, Sigmund Freud, and
Erik Erikson who were also great contributors in the field of developmental psychology. Piaget is known
for studying the cognitive development in children, having studied his own three children and their
intellectual development, from which he would come to a theory of cognitive development that describes
the developmental stages of childhood.[25]

Stage Age or Period Description[26]

Intelligence is present; motor activity but no symbols; knowledge is
developing yet limited; knowledge is based on experiences/
Sensorimotor Infancy (0–2 interactions; mobility allows the child to learn new things; some
stage years) language skills are developed at the end of this stage. The goal is to
develop object permanence, achieving a basic understanding of
causality, time, and space.

Symbols or language skills are present; memory and imagination are

Toddler and Early
Preoperational developed; non-reversible and non-logical thinking; shows intuitive
Childhood (2–7
stage problem solving; begins to perceive relationships; grasps the concept
years)
of conservation of numbers; predominantly egocentric thinking.
Logical and systematic form of intelligence; manipulation of symbols
related to concrete objects; thinking is now characterized by
Concrete Elementary and
reversibility and the ability to take the role of another; grasps concepts
operational Early Adolescence
of the conservation of mass, length, weight, and volume;
stage (7–12 years)
predominantly operational thinking; nonreversible and egocentric
thinking

Logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts; Acquires flexibility

Formal Adolescence and
in thinking as well as the capacities for abstract thinking and mental
operational Adulthood (12
hypothesis testing; can consider possible alternatives in complex
stage years and on)
reasoning and problem-solving.

Beginning of cognition
Studies on cognitive development have also been conducted in children beginning from the embryonal
period to understand when cognition appears and what environmental attributes stimulate the construction
of human thought or mental processes. Research shows the intentional engagement of fetuses with the
environment, demonstrating cognitive achievements.[27] However, organisms with simple reflexes cannot
cognize the environment alone because the environment is the cacophony of stimuli (electromagnetic
waves, chemical interactions, and pressure fluctuations).[28] Their sensation is too limited by the noise to
solve the cue problem–the relevant stimulus cannot overcome the noise magnitude if it passes through the
senses (see the binding problem). Fetuses need external help to stimulate their nervous system in
choosing the relevant sensory stimulus for grasping the perception of objects.[29] The Shared
intentionality approach proposes a plausible explanation of perception development in this earlier stage.
Initially, Michael Tomasello introduced the psychological construct of Shared intentionality, highlighting
its contribution to cognitive development from birth.[30] This primary interaction provides unaware
collaboration in mother-child dyads for environmental learning. Later, Igor Val Danilov developed this
notion, expanding it to the intrauterine period and clarifying the neurophysiological processes underlying
Shared intentionality.[31] According to the Shared intentionality approach, the mother shares the essential
sensory stimulus of the actual cognitive problem with the child.[32] By sharing this stimulus, the mother
provides a template for developing the young organism's nervous system.[33]
Recent findings in research on child cognitive development [29][31][34][35][36][37][38][39][40] and advances
in inter-brain neuroscience experiments[41][42][43][44][45] have made the above proposition plausible.
Based on them, the shared intentionality hypothesis introduced the notion of pre-perceptual
communication in the mother-fetus communication model due to nonlocal neuronal coupling.[27][31][33]
This nonlocal coupling model refers to communication between two organisms through the copying of
the adequate ecological dynamics by biological systems indwelling one environmental context, where a
naive actor (Fetus) replicates information from an experienced actor (Mother) due to intrinsic processes
of these dynamic systems (embodied information) but without interacting through sensory
signals.[27][31][33] The Mother's heartbeats (a low-frequency oscillator) modulate relevant local neuronal
networks in specific subsystems of both her and the nervous system of the fetus due to the effect of the
interference of the low-frequency oscillator (Mother heartbeats) and already exhibited gamma activity in
these neuronal networks (interference in physics is the combination of two or more electromagnetic
waveforms to form a resultant wave).[27][31][33] Therefore, the subliminal perception in a fetus emerges
due to Shared intentionality with the mother that stimulates cognition in this organism even before
birth.[27][31][33]

Another crucial question in understanding the beginning of cognition is memory storage about the
relevant ecological dynamics by the naive nervous system (i.e., memorizing the ecological condition of
relevant sensory stimulus) at the molecular level – an engram. Evidence derived using optical imaging,
molecular-genetic and optogenetic techniques in conjunction with appropriate behavioural analyses
continues to offer support for the idea that changing the strength of connections between neurons is one
of the major mechanisms by which engrams are stored in the brain.[46]

Two (or more) possible mechanisms of cognition can involve both quantum effects[47] and
synchronization of brain structures due to electromagnetic interference.[48][27][31][33]

Common types of tests on human cognition

Serial position
The Serial-position effect is meant to test a theory of memory that states that when information is given in
a serial manner, we tend to remember information at the beginning of the sequence, called the primacy
effect, and information at the end of the sequence, called the recency effect. Consequently, information
given in the middle of the sequence is typically forgotten, or not recalled as easily. This study predicts
that the recency effect is stronger than the primacy effect, because the information that is most recently
learned is still in working memory when asked to be recalled. Information that is learned first still has to
go through a retrieval process. This experiment focuses on human memory processes.[49]

Word superiority
The word superiority effect experiment presents a subject with a word, or a letter by itself, for a brief
period of time, i.e. 40 ms, and they are then asked to recall the letter that was in a particular location in
the word. In theory, the subject should be better able to correctly recall the letter when it was presented in
a word than when it was presented in isolation. This experiment focuses on human speech and
language.[50]

Brown–Peterson
In the Brown–Peterson cohomology experiment, participants are briefly presented with a trigram and in
one particular version of the experiment, they are then given a distractor task, asking them to identify
whether a sequence of words is in fact words, or non-words (due to being misspelled, etc.). After the
distractor task, they are asked to recall the trigram from before the distractor task. In theory, the longer
the distractor task, the harder it will be for participants to correctly recall the trigram. This experiment
focuses on human short-term memory.[51]

Memory span
During the memory span experiment, each subject is presented with a sequence of stimuli of the same
kind; words depicting objects, numbers, letters that sound similar, and letters that sound dissimilar. After
being presented with the stimuli, the subject is asked to recall the sequence of stimuli that they were
given in the exact order in which it was given. In one particular version of the experiment, if the subject
recalled a list correctly, the list length was increased by one for that type of material, and vice versa if it
was recalled incorrectly. The theory is that people have a memory span of about seven items for numbers,
the same for letters that sound dissimilar and short words. The memory span is projected to be shorter
with letters that sound similar and with longer words.[52]

Visual search
In one version of the visual search experiment, a participant is presented with a window that displays
circles and squares scattered across it. The participant is to identify whether there is a green circle on the
window. In the featured search, the subject is presented with several trial windows that have blue squares
or circles and one green circle or no green circle in it at all. In the conjunctive search, the subject is
presented with trial windows that have blue circles or green squares and a present or absent green circle
whose presence the participant is asked to identify. What is expected is that in the feature searches,
reaction time, that is the time it takes for a participant to identify whether a green circle is present or not,
should not change as the number of distractors increases. Conjunctive searches where the target is absent
should have a longer reaction time than the conjunctive searches where the target is present. The theory is
that in feature searches, it is easy to spot the target, or if it is absent, because of the difference in color
between the target and the distractors. In conjunctive searches where the target is absent, reaction time
increases because the subject has to look at each shape to determine whether it is the target or not because
some of the distractors if not all of them, are the same color as the target stimuli. Conjunctive searches
where the target is present take less time because if the target is found, the search between each shape
stops.[53]

Knowledge representation
The semantic network of knowledge representation systems have been studied in various paradigms. One
of the oldest paradigms is the leveling and sharpening of stories as they are repeated from memory
studied by Bartlett. The semantic differential used factor analysis to determine the main meanings of
words, finding that the ethical value of words is the first factor. More controlled experiments examine the
categorical relationships of words in free recall. The hierarchical structure of words has been explicitly
mapped in George Miller's WordNet. More dynamic models of semantic networks have been created and
tested with computational systems such as neural networks, latent semantic analysis (LSA), Bayesian
analysis, and multidimensional factor analysis. The meanings of words are studied by all the disciplines
of cognitive science.[54]

Metacognition
Metacognition is an awareness of one's thought processes and an
understanding of the patterns behind them. The term comes from
the root word meta, meaning "beyond", or "on top of".[55]
Metacognition can take many forms, such as reflecting on one's
ways of thinking, and knowing when and how oneself and others
use particular strategies for problem-solving.[55][56] There are
generally two components of metacognition: (1) cognitive
conceptions and (2) cognitive regulation system.[57][58] Research
has shown that both components of metacognition play key roles
in metaconceptual knowledge and learning.[59][60][58]
Metamemory, defined as knowing about memory and mnemonic
strategies, is an important aspect of metacognition.[61]
Metacognition and self directed
Writings on metacognition date back at least as far as two works
learning
by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BC): On the Soul and
the Parva Naturalia.[62]

Improving cognition

Physical exercise
Aerobic and anaerobic exercise have been studied concerning cognitive improvement.[63] There appear to
be short-term increases in attention span, verbal and visual memory in some studies. However, the effects
are transient and diminish over time, after cessation of the physical activity.[64] People with Parkinson's
disease has also seen improved cognition while cycling, while pairing it with other cognitive tasks.[65]

Dietary supplements
Studies evaluating phytoestrogen, blueberry supplementation and antioxidants showed minor increases in
cognitive function after supplementation but no significant effects compared to placebo.[66][67][68]
Another study on the effects of herbal and dietary supplements on cognition in menopause show that soy
and Ginkgo biloba supplementation could improve women's cognition.[69]

Pleasurable social stimulation

Exposing individuals with cognitive impairment (i.e. dementia) to daily activities designed to stimulate
thinking and memory in a social setting, seems to improve cognition. Although study materials are small,
and larger studies need to confirm the results, the effect of social cognitive stimulation seems to be larger
than the effects of some drug treatments.[70]

Other methods
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has been shown to improve cognition in individuals without
dementia 1 month after treatment session compared to before treatment. The effect was not significantly
larger compared to placebo.[71] Computerized cognitive training, utilizing a computer based training
regime for different cognitive functions has been examined in a clinical setting but no lasting effects has
been shown.[72]

See also

Philosophy portal

Psychology portal

Cognitive Abilities Screening Instrument

Cognitive biology
Cognitive computing
Cognitive holding power
Cognitive liberty
Cognitive musicology
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive science
Cognitivism
Comparative cognition
Embodied cognition
Cognitive shuffle
Information processing technology and aging
Mental chronometry – i.e., the measuring of cognitive processing speed
Nootropic
Outline of human intelligence – a list of traits, capacities, models, and research fields of
human intelligence, and more.
Outline of thought – a list that identifies many types of thoughts, types of thinking, aspects of
thought, related fields, and more.
 Shared intentionality

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Further reading
Ardila A (2018). Historical Development of Human Cognition. A Cultural-Historical
Neuropsychological Perspective. Springer. ISBN 978-9811068867.
Coren S, Ward LM, Enns JT (1999). Sensation and Perception. Harcourt Brace. p. 9.
ISBN 978-0-470-00226-1.
Lycan WG, ed. (1999). Mind and Cognition: An Anthology (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell
Publishing.
 Stanovich, Keith (2009). What Intelligence Tests Miss: The Psychology of Rational Thought
(https://archive.org/details/whatintelligence00stan). New Haven (CT): Yale University Press.
ISBN 978-0-300-12385-2.

External links
Cognition (https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/cognition) An international journal
publishing theoretical and experimental papers on the study of the mind.
Information on music cognition, University of Amsterdam (http://arquivo.pt/wayback/2016052
2150143/http%3A//cf.hum.uva.nl/mmm/)
Cognitie.NL (http://www.cognitie.nl/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2011101903592
3/http://www.cognitie.nl/) 2011-10-19 at the Wayback Machine Information on cognition
research, Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) and University of
Amsterdam (UvA)
Emotional and Decision Making Lab, Carnegie Mellon, EDM Lab (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20050405203028/http://computing.hss.cmu.edu/lernerlab/home.php)
The Limits of Human Cognition (http://news.softpedia.com/news/The-Limits-of-Human-Cogn
ition-37388.shtml) – an article describing the evolution of mammals' cognitive abilities
Half-heard phone conversations reduce cognitive performance (https://medicalxpress.com/n
ews/2010-05-half-heard-conversations-cognitive.html)
The limits of intelligence (https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-limits-of-intelligenc
e/) Douglas Fox, Scientific American, 14 June 14, 2011.

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