ASSIGNEMENT 2.

Part 1: Conduction Heat Transfer

Conduction: is the transfer of energy due to either random molecular motion (in gases, liquids) or
due to the motion of free electrons(solids). It is governed by Fourier’s law of heat conduction.

Q=−kA
[ ⅆⅆ ]
t
x
A. General Differential Equation in Cartesian, Cylindrical, and Spherical Coordinates.

i. Cartesian coordinates:
2t 2t 2t
∂¿ ∂¿ ∂¿ q g p .c ∂ y 1 ∂ T
2
+ 2 + 2+ = . = ¿¿¿
∂ x ∂ y ∂z k k ∂τ α ∂τ
ii. Cylindrical coordinates:
2t 2t
2
∂ ¿ 1 ∂ t 1 ∂¿ ∂ t qg p . c ∂ t 1 ∂ T
2
+ . + 2
. 2
+ 2
+ = . = ¿¿
∂ r r ∂r r ∂ ∅ ∂ z k k ∂τ α ∂τ
iii. Spherical coordinates:
2t

2
1
.
∂¿
2
+ 2
1
.
r ( sin θ ) ∂ ∅ r sinθ ∂ θ
∂
sin θ . + .(
∂θ r ∂r
r . + =
∂r k )
∂ t 1 ∂ 2 ∂ t qg p . c ∂ t 1 ∂ T
. =
k ∂τ α ∂ τ
¿( )
B. One-Dimensional Steady-State Heat Conduction in Plane and Composite Systems.

The steady heat flow solution obtained from integrating general equation for cartesian,
spherical, cylindrical coordinates or using either Fourier’s law is:

ΔT
Q= , wherei . R eq=∑ R i+ ∑ Rci ∈series
Σ R eq

1
ii . R eq = ∈¿ .
∑ R i+∑ R ci
i. Steady heat conduction through composite walls
Li 1
Ri= and RC =
ki A hi A i

ii. Steady heat conduction through hallow cylinder

ln ( r 2 ∕ r 1 ) 1
R 1= ∧R c 1=
2 πkL h1 .2 π r 1 l
iii. Steady heat conduction through hallow sphere

R 1=
1
[
1 1
]
− a nd Rc 1=
4 π k 1 L r1 r2
1
h1 .4 π r
2

iv. Determination of mean area for three shapes

i. For flat surface
A am=A
ii. For cylindrical surface
 2 πHΔx
ALm=
ln ( b ∕ a )
iii. For spherical surface
Agm=4 πab
v. Steady heat conduction-critical radius/thickness of insulation

The addition of insulation to cylindrical piece or spherical shell increase

conduction resistance of the insulation layer and decrease convection resistance
of the surface.

{
k
r oc = h , for cylinder and sphere.
2k
h

C. Conduction with Internal Heat Generation.

i. Plane wall
Case I. Both the surfaces have the same temperature
qg
t= ( 2 L−x ) x +t w
2k
qg 2
tm = L + tw
ax
2k
Case II. Both the surfaces of the wall have different temperatures

t= [ qg
2k
( L−x ) +
t w −t w1
L
2

]
x+t w 1

Case III. Current carrying electrical conductor

( )
2 2
pL 2 I J
R= , Qg=I R , q g= p=
A A kⅇ
ii. Solid cylinder
qg qg 2 2
t=t a + R+ ( R −r )
2h 4k
qg qg 2
t m =t a+ R+ R
ax
2h 4K
D. Extended Surface

i. Heat transfer from extended surfaces(fins)

Case I. Heat dissipation from an infinitely long fin ( L →∞ ):

Qfin =√ PhK ACs ( t 0 −t a )

Case II. Heat dissipation from a fin insulated at the tip:

Qfin =√ PhK ACs ( t 0 −t a ) tan h ( mL )

 m=
√ Ph
kAcs

Case III. Heat dissipation from a fin losing heat at the tip:

h
tanh ( mL )+
km
Qfin =√ PhK ACs ( t 0 −t a )
h
1+ tanh ( m L )
km

ii. Efficiency and Effectiveness of fin:

Efficiency of fin is defined as the ratio of the actual heat transferred by the fin to
the maximum heat transferable by fin.
For a fin which is infinitely long:
1
η=
mL
For a fin which is insulated at the tip:
tanh ( mL )
η=
mL
Effectiveness of fin is the ratio of the fin heat transfer rate to the heat transfer
rate that would exist without a fin.

ε=
√ pk
hAcs
E. Unsteady Heat Conduction - Lumped Analysis, Semi-Infinite, and Infinite Solids.

I. Lumped analysis
Lumped analysis is used in determining the transient response of the body which is
suddenly placed in ambient air.
 Characteristic length:
L
o flat plate LC =
2
R
o cylinder long Lc =
2
R
o spherel c =
3
L
o cube LC =
6
h LC
 Biot number Bi=
k
στ
 Fourier number F o= 2
Lc
If Bi <1 we use the lumped analysis method otherwise we use Heisler charts.
 Instantaneous rate of heat flow: Q i=−h A s ( t i −t a ) exp
[ h As
PvC ]
τ or

− Bi fo
Qi=−h A s ( t i −t a ) e

'
Cumulative heat transfer: Q = p vC ( t i−t a ) exp
{ { −h A s
PvC
τ −1 } }
II. Semi-infinite solids
To consider a solid as semi-infinite the solid must be much thicker than the
penetration of heat in that direction.
Case I. constant surface temperature T (0, t) = Ts

T ( x , t )=T o +(T s−T o )erfc

( 2 √xαt )
'' ''
Case II. Constant heat flux on the surface q s =q0
T ''
2 q0
s=¿T 0+ √ αt ¿
√π k

Case III. convection

T ( x , t )−T 0
( ) [ ( )] [ ( h √ αt
)]
2 t
x hx h α x
=erfc − exp + 2 erfc +
T ∞−T 0 2 √ xt k k 2 √ αt k

Part 2: Convection Heat Transfer

Convention is the transfer of heat within in a fluid by mixing of one portion of the fluid with another.
It is governed by Newton’s law of cooling.Q=hA ( Ts−T ∞ )

A. Conservation Equations.

∂ ( Pu ) ∂ ( Pv ) ∂ p
I. Conservation of Mass + =
∂x ∂y ∂τ
II. Newton’s second law: two significant conclusions are arrived at from the Blasius
solution.
5
δ x= boundary layer thickness
√ℜx
T S=0.332⋅ μ u √ ℜ x wall shear stress
∞
x
0.664
c fx = coefficient of friction
√ℜ x
c f =[ 2 C f ] x=l average coefficient of friction
III. First law of thermodynamics
Used if the property values are used at film temperature( T S +T ∞ ) ∕ 2
δx
δ th x =
1 thermal boundary layer
pr
3
 ( P r ) Nusselt number
1 1
2 3
N ux =0.332 ℜ x
N ux k
h x= , hL =2 h L hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness and average convective
x
heat transfer coefficients

B. Boundary Layer Concept.

Boundary layer is a thin region of fluid near a solid surface where the effects of viscosity are
significant.

I. Velocity boundary layer

τ s=μ
σu
|
∂ y y=0
the wall shear

τs
cf = the friction coefficient
( p u2∞ ∕ 2 )
II. Thermal boundary layer
T s−T ( x , y )
dimensionless temperature profile.
Ts−T ∞
C. Forced Convection:

I. Dimensional analysis applied to forced convection heat transfer

the analysis yield to the following non-dimensional groups:

PvD
i. Re= , Reynold’s number
μ
μc P
ii. Pr= , Prandtl number
k
h
iii. St= , Nusselt number
pvCp
II. External forced convection
m
It is represented by the power-law relation of the form: N u=CR e L p r n
i. Parallel flow over flat plates
1 . 328 5
Cf = , ℜ L<5 ×10
Laminar: 1
2
Re L
0.5 1 /3
N u=0⋅ 664 R el Pr , p r >0.60

0.074 5 7
Cf = , 5∗10 ≤ ℜ L ≤10
Turbulent: 1
5
Re L
0.8 1∕3
N u=0.037 R el Pr , 0.6 ≤ , p r ≤60

( )
−2 ⋅5
ε
Rough surface, turbulent:C f = 1.89−1⋅ 62 log
L
ii. Flat plate with unheated starting length
Laminar:
 1
0 ⋅5 3
0.332 ℜ x Pr
 Constant temperature: Nux= 1

[1−( ξ ∕ x ) ]
3
3
4

2 [ 1−( ξ ∕ x ) ]
3
4
h= h =L x
1−ξ ∕ L

 Uniform temperature: N ux =0.453 ℜ x

0.5
( p 13 )
r

Turbulent:
1
0 ⋅8 3
0.0296 ℜ x Pr
 Constant temperature: Nux= 1

[1− ( ξ ∕ x) ]
9
9
10

5 [ 1−( ξ ∕ x ) ]
9
10
h= h =L
x
4 (1−ξ / L)

 Uniform temperature: N ux =0. 0308 ℜ x

0.8
( p 13 )
r

iii. Flow across cylinders and spheres

The characteristic length for circular cylinder or sphere is the external
diameter D.
vD
ℜ= Reynold number
γ
5 0
laminar flow ℜ ≤2∗10 ,θ ≈ 80 flow separation angle
5 0
turbulent flow ℜ≥ 2∗10 , θ ≈ 80 flow separation angle

cylinder :

sphere :

iv. Flow across tube banks:

√
Diagonal pitch: S B= S 2 L+ ( s T ∕ 2 )
2

V max D
ℜ D=
v
NuD=
hD
k
m n
=c R ⅇd P r ( P r ∕ P r 5 )
0.25
{
0.7< Pr <500
0< ℜ D<2 ×10
6
 ΔTⅇ −ΔTⅈ
Δ T ln =
ln ( ΔTⅇ ∕ Δ T i )

sT
 In case of in-line tubes: v max= v
sT −D
sT
 In case of staggered tubes: S D < ( ST + D ) ∕ 2 :v max = v
2 ( SD−D )

III. Internal forced convection

i. Entrance effects
Hydrodynamic Entrance region is the region from the tube inlet to the
point at which the boundary layer merges at the centerline.

Hydraulic length:
1
4
Lh ,t b Ient =1.359 ( ℜ)
ur U

Type equation here .

Nusselt number:
ii. Laminar flow in tubes
4 Ac
Hydraulic diameter: D h=
p
V ( r )=2 v =2 vm
Velocity profile:
( )
2
r
m 1− 2
, v max
R
μ
32 L v m
Pressure drops along the tube: Δ p= 2
D
f
Fanning friction factor:C f =
4
64
Friction factor: f =
ℜ

iii. Turbulent flow in tubes:

Turbulent flow is used because of the highest heat transfer coefficients

 Smooth tubes:

 Liquid metals:

 Rough surfaces:
 D. Free Convectionor natural convection flow.

I. Dimensional analysis applied to natural or free convection

The analysis yield to the following non-dimensional groups:
hL
v. Nu¿
k
μc
vi. Pr= P

k
( β g Δt ) L3
vii. Gr=
v2
n m
The relationship between them will be Nu=C ( Pr ) ( Gr )

II. Equation of motion and Grashof number

GrL
Ri = , Richardson Number.
ℜ2 L

Where Ral is the Rayleigh number,

III. Natural convection from finned surfaces and printed circuit board (PCB):

IV. Natural convection cooling of Vertical PCB (qs=constant):

V. Natural convection inside Enclosures:

 Effective thermal conductivity

 Horizontal Rectangular Enclosure

 Inclined rectangular Enclosure

  Vertical Rectangular Enclosure

VI. Combined natural and forced convection

 Assisting flow: natural convection assists forced convection and enhances

heat transfer.
 Opposing flow: natural convection resists forced convection and decreases
heat transfer
 Transverse flow: enhances fluid mixing and thus enhances heat transfer.

Part 3: Phase Change Heat Transfer and Heat Exchangers

I. Phase change heat transfer

We learned 3 phase changes:
1. Boiling which occurs at the solid liquid interface
2. Evaporation occurs at the liquid-vapor interface
3. Condensation occurs when a vapor strikes a surface that is at a temperature below its
corresponding saturation temperature.
II. Boiling heat transfer
Boiling is the transition from liquid to vapor it is classified into pool boiling (in the
absence of the bulk fluid flow) and flow boiling (in the presence of bulk fluid flow).
A. Pool boiling:
i. Pool boiling regimes and curves:

 Natural convection boiling: occurs when the liquid is slightly

superheated, forming bubbles at the heating surface.
 Nucleate boiling: the bubbles form at an increasing rate at an
increasing number of nucleation sites.

 Isolated bubbles:
 Numerous vapor columns:100 C ≤ ΔT excess ≤30 0 C
 Transition boiling: when the ΔT excess is increased and the heat
flux decreases.
 Film boiling: stable vapor film covers the heater surface,
reducing heat transfer.
ii. Burnout phenomenon and peak heat flux
Burnout occurs when heating element’s temperature exceeds its melting
point due to excessive heat flux, leading to its failure.
iii. Heat transfer correlations in pool boiling:
 Nucleate boiling:
 , the maximum or
critical heat flux

, minimum heat flux

, the heat flux

for film boiling on a horizontal cylinder or sphere of diameter D.

At high surface temperatures, heat transfer by radiation becomes

significant and needs to be considered.

Nucleate boiling is enhanced by increasing nucleation sites on the

heating surface. Techniques like surface roughness, finned surfaces and
mechanical agitation can increase heat transfer and critical heat flux,
though permanent surface modifications and finned surfaces are more
practical.

B. Flow boiling: flow boiling regimes depend on the relative amounts of liquids and
vapor in a tube.
Different regimes require different heat transfer relations:
 Liquid single-phase flow: forced convection (assuming no subcooled boiling)
 Bubbly flow, slug flow, annual flow, mist flow: specific relations for each
regime
 Vapor single-phase flow: superheated vapor, condensation heat transfer
III. Condensation heat transfer
Condensation occurs when vapor cools below its saturation temperature. It can form
either a continuous liquid film (film condensation) or discrete droplets (dropwise
condensation).
the transition between regimes is Reynold’s number defined as:

Nusselt theory of laminar film condensation: it is used to derive the expression for heat transfer
coefficient for condensation.

A. Condensation on vertical surfaces:

B. Heat transfer correlations for film condensation (vertical plates)
 i. Laminar flow on vertical plates

ii. Wavy laminar flow on vertical plates

iii. Turbulent flow on vertical plates

4. Condensation on a horizontal tube:

5. Condensation inside horizontal tube

C. Factors affecting heat transfer:

i. Vapor velocity: downward vapor flow enhances heat transfer by thinning the
liquid film, while upward flow has the opposite effect
ii. Non condensable gases in vapor impede heat transfer by hindering vapor
molecule access to the cold surface.
D. Heat transfer correlations for dropwise condensation (vertical plate):
Dropwise condensation offers significantly higher heat transfer coefficients than film
condensation due to the absence of a resistive liquid film.

dropwise condensation of steam on

copper surfaces.

Heat exchangers

A heat exchanger is a component that allows the transfer of heat from one fluid to another fluid. We
have 3 directions of fluid flow parallel flow (direction of flow of both fluids is the same), counter flow
(direction are opposite to each other), cross flow (fluid on the outside flows in a perpendicular
direction to the pipe axis).

I. Determination of heat transfer rate

II. Overall heat transfer coefficient

, overall heat transfer coefficient based on

outside area
 , overall heat transfer coefficient based on
inside area

III. Log-mean temperature difference

 Parallel flow (when the fluid temperatures are known).

 Counter flow

Correction factor for lmtd

, change in t
Difficulities with LMTD: it is difficult to use if we want to predict the performance
of a heat exchanger. So we assume the values tho, tco find Q from a heat balance
and then find q from AΔTLm using the value of Q, find new vaues of Tco,Tho till
the first and second values of T were equal. We simplify it using effectiveness-
NTDU methos.

IV. Effectiveness-NTU method

 Thermal capacity ratio

 Thermal effectiveness

 Maximum possible heat transfer

 Number of transfer units (NTU)

I. Effectiveness-NTU method for parallel heat exchanger

II. Effectiveness-NTU method for counter-flow heat exchanger

III. Limitation cases

Case i. whenc ≈ 0 …………..condensors and evaporators

Caseii. When c=1……………………typical regenerators

1. Parallel flow:

2. Counter flow: