REVIEW:

THE POSTULATES
OF QUANTUM
MECHANICS
ZACH HINKLE
The Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
1)Quantum states are described by unit vectors in complex,
potentially high-dimensional Hilbert spaces.

2)The probability of measuring a system in a given state is

given by the absolute-value-squared of the inner product
of the output state and the current state of the system.
Immediately after the measurement, the wavefunction
collapses into that state.

3)Valid quantum state transformations are given by

unitary operations.

4)Separate quantum systems are described by the tensor

product of the separate, individual Hilbert spaces.

5)Physical observables are represented by the eigenvalues

of Hermitian Operators on the Hilbert space.
Review Session

• The language of quantum mechanics

• Complex numbers
• Linear algebra
• The postulates of quantum mechanics
• States
• Measurements
• Transformations
The Language of
Quantum
Mechanics
Complex Numbers:
A Quick Refresh
 Complex Numbers
Complex numbers are a natural extension of the real The Complex Plane
numbers, able to handle a wide variety of problems in A 2D extension of the number line
physics and engineering.

Real unit: 1
Imaginary unit: 𝑖𝑖 = −1

A complex number has both real and imaginary parts,

where 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 are real numbers.

𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

A complex number 𝑧𝑧 can be broken into

real and imaginary parts, 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

An imaginary number has no real part

A real number has no imaginary part

The Complex Conjugate
The complex conjugate is the complex number with
the imaginary part negated,

If z = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, then 𝑧𝑧̅ = 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

We can use this to find various properties of the

complex number:

𝑧𝑧 + 𝑧𝑧̅
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧 = = 𝑎𝑎
2

𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧̅
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑧𝑧 = −𝑖𝑖 × = 𝑏𝑏
2

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧̅ == 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏2

 What is
1 ÷ (3 − 2𝑖𝑖)?

A. B.
2 − 3𝑖𝑖 2 + 3𝑖𝑖
13 13

C. D.
3 − 2𝑖𝑖 3 + 2𝑖𝑖
13 13

E.
3 − 2𝑖𝑖
25
Polar Form Allows us to use all the nice features of
exponentials in trig and wave problems

Using the complex plane, we can re-express any

complex number as:

𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑧𝑧 (cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃)

Using Euler’s equation, we write this in polar form

as

𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 (cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝜃𝜃) = |𝑧𝑧|𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜃𝜃

 What is the polar representation of
(1 − 3i) ÷ (1 + 𝑖𝑖)?

A. B.
1 𝑖𝑖𝜋𝜋 𝑖𝑖7𝜋𝜋
𝑒𝑒 6 2𝑒𝑒 − 12
2

C. D.
𝑖𝑖𝜋𝜋 𝑖𝑖5𝜋𝜋
−12
2𝑒𝑒 2𝑒𝑒 12

E.
𝑖𝑖7𝜋𝜋
− 4
𝑒𝑒
The Postulates
of Quantum
Mechanics
 The Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
1)Quantum states are described by unit vectors in complex,
States
potentially high-dimensional Hilbert spaces.

2)The probability of measuring a system in a given state is

given by the absolute-value-squared of the inner product
Measurements of the output state and the current state of the system.
Immediately after the measurement, the wavefunction
collapses into that state.

Processes 3)Valid quantum state transformations are given by

unitary operations.

Systems 4)Separate quantum systems are described by the tensor

product of the separate, individual Hilbert spaces.

Values 5)Physical observables are represented by the eigenvalues

of Hermitian Operators on the Hilbert space.
 What is a vector?

• Technically, a vector is a mathematical

object that satisfies the 8 postulates of a
vector space

• Visually, can be thought of as arrows

denoting a length and direction

• Vectors are described using base vectors, a

set of vector used as a reference
3
Ex: 𝑣𝑣⃗ = 3𝑒𝑒1̂ + 4𝑒𝑒̂2 =
• If the base vectors are understood by all 4 𝔈𝔈
parties involved, the vector’s components 1
can be compactly arranged in a column Or 𝑣𝑣⃗ = 1𝑓𝑓1 − 1𝑓𝑓2 =
vector −1 𝔉𝔉
 A Vector Glossary 𝑣𝑣1
𝑣𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑣1 𝑔𝑔�1 + 𝑣𝑣2 𝑔𝑔�2 = 𝑣𝑣
2

The dimensionality of a vector is the number of elements it has

The absolute value or norm of a vector is it’s length

A unit vector is a vector with a norm of 1

The conjugate transpose of a vector switches rows and columns and

takes the complex conjugate of all elements

The dot or inner product measures the projection of one vector onto
another, and measures how alike two vectors are

Two perpendicular vectors have an inner product of zero, and are called
orthogonal. If they are also unit vectors, they form an orthonormal
pair
 Which of the following are valid quantum states?
There may be more than one

A. B.

C. D.

E.
Bra-Ket Notation

A “bra” is it’s conjugate transpose

A “ket” is a column vector
(row vector)

A bra and a ket together

provides the inner product
or overlap of the two states

Just like the inner product

tells us how alike two vectors are,
it will tell us how alike two quantum states are
 Bra-Ket Notation
Why do we bother?

Extends to systems with more We can easily distinguish vectors,

than two dimensions matrices, and numbers
Column Vector

Row Vector

Scalar number

Matrix

e.g. Electron with two possible spins and two possible energies
Photon with many possible positions When the brakets are closed, we get a number out
 What kind of mathematical object is this?

A. A number B. A matrix

C. A row vector D. A column vector

E. None of the above

 What kind of mathematical object is this?

A. A number B. A matrix

C. A row vector D. A column vector

E. None of the above

 Bases
A basis is an alphabet to make other vectors with

Any orthonormal pair forms an orthonormal basis in 2D, and any

vector can be broken down into components in that basis

More generally, for d dimensions, any set of d linearly independent

vectors form a basis
Change of Basis
• Vectors are invariant of basis
• Can see this easily from a diagram: drawing a new coordinate system
does not change anything about the vector
• Suppose we have two orthonormal bases 𝑥𝑥,
� 𝑦𝑦� and 𝚤𝚤,̂ 𝚥𝚥̂
• Suppose also we know that in the 𝑥𝑥, � 𝑦𝑦� basis: 𝑦𝑦�
• 𝑣𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑣x 𝑥𝑥� + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦� = 3𝑥𝑥� + 2𝑦𝑦� 𝑣𝑣�
• 𝚤𝚤̂ = (𝑥𝑥� + 𝑦𝑦)/
� 2 𝚥𝚥̂ = (𝑥𝑥� − 𝑦𝑦)/
� 2
𝚤𝚤̂
• We know 𝑣𝑣� could also be expressed in the 𝚤𝚤,̂ 𝚥𝚥̂ basis as
• 𝑣𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑣i 𝚤𝚤̂ + 𝑣𝑣𝑗𝑗 𝚥𝚥̂
• But we don’t know 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 & 𝑣𝑣𝑗𝑗 . However, from above equation can see that 𝑥𝑥�

• 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 = 𝑣𝑣⃗ ⋅ 𝚤𝚤̂ & 𝑣𝑣𝑗𝑗 = 𝑣𝑣⃗ ⋅ 𝚥𝚥̂

• Therefore,
• 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 = 𝑣𝑣⃗ ⋅ 𝚤𝚤̂i = 𝑣𝑣x (𝑥𝑥� ⋅ 𝚤𝚤)̂ + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦� ⋅ 𝚤𝚤̂ And similarly for 𝑣𝑣𝑗𝑗 . 𝚥𝚥̂

• Can always find components in new frame by taking dot product of the
vector (expressed in the old frame) with the new frame’s basis vectors
Common Qubit Bases
Superposition Computational Superposition
basis basis basis
(X) (Z) (Y)

Generally, for qubits,

we can form a basis with:
 1
What is 3|0⟩ − 4|1⟩ in the +/- basis?
5

A. B.
4 3 7 1
|+⟩ + |−⟩ |+⟩ + |−⟩
5 5 5 2 5 2

C. D.
1 7 −1 7
|+⟩ + |−⟩ |+⟩ + |−⟩
5 2 5 2 5 2 5 2

E. None of the above

 What is |+𝑖𝑖 ⟩ in the
+/- basis?

A. B.
1 𝑖𝑖 1 + 𝑖𝑖 −1 − 𝑖𝑖
|+⟩ + |−⟩ |+⟩ + |−⟩
2 2 2 2

C. D.
1 + 𝑖𝑖 1 − 𝑖𝑖 1 − 𝑖𝑖 1 + 𝑖𝑖
|+⟩ + |−⟩ |+⟩ + |−⟩
2 2 2 2

E.
Up to a global phase,
None of the
1 above−𝑖𝑖
equivalent to |+⟩ + |−⟩
2 2
 The Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
1)Quantum states are described by unit vectors in complex,
States
potentially high-dimensional Hilbert spaces.

2)The probability of measuring a system in a given state is

given by the absolute-value-squared of the inner product
Measurements of the output state and the current state of the system.
Immediately after the measurement, the wavefunction
collapses into that state.

Processes 3)Valid quantum state transformations are given by

unitary operations.

Systems 4)Separate quantum systems are described by the tensor

product of the separate, individual Hilbert spaces.

Values 5)Physical observables are represented by the eigenvalues

of Hermitian Operators on the Hilbert space.
Quantum Measurement (aka Born’s Rule)
The probability of measuring a system in a given state is given
by the absolute-value-squared of the inner product of the output
state and the current state of the system.

This is why a quantum state

Is it “0” or “1”? must be a unit vector,
or else the probabilities would
not add up to one.
 Quantum Measurement
The probability of measuring a system in a given state is given
by the absolute-value-squared of the inner product of the output
state and the current state of the system.

Is it “0” or “1”? Is it “0” or “1”? Is it “+” or “-”?

 Quantum Superposition

Measurement Basis
Defines which “question”
I ask the particle
The particle has both The particle has both
“0” AND “1” “+” AND “-”
components components

BUT BUT

When measured in the 0/1 basis, When measured in the +/- basis,
it will be found as it will be found as
“0” OR “1” “+” OR “-”
randomly randomly
Collapse

Immediately after the measurement,

the wavefunction collapses into that state

What’s the probability of What’s the state after

finding |+⟩ in the state |𝟎𝟎⟩? finding |+⟩ in the state |𝟎𝟎⟩?
 |0⟩+𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜙𝜙 |1⟩
What’s the probability of finding |𝜓𝜓⟩ =
2
1 1
in the state |−⟩ = |0⟩ − |1⟩?
2 2

A. B.

C. D.

E.
 What’s the probability of finding
|𝜓𝜓⟩ = cos 𝜃𝜃 |0⟩ + sin 𝜃𝜃 |1⟩
1 𝑖𝑖
in the state |−𝑖𝑖 ⟩ = |0⟩ − |1⟩?
2 2

A. cos 2 𝜃𝜃 B. sin2 𝜃𝜃

C. 0% D. 50%

E. 100%
 The Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
1)Quantum states are described by unit vectors in complex,
States
potentially high-dimensional Hilbert spaces.

2)The probability of measuring a system in a given state is

given by the absolute-value-squared of the inner product
Measurements of the output state and the current state of the system.
Immediately after the measurement, the wavefunction
collapses into that state.

Processes 3)Valid quantum state transformations are given by

unitary operations.

Systems 4)Separate quantum systems are described by the tensor

product of the separate, individual Hilbert spaces.

Values 5)Physical observables are represented by the eigenvalues

of Hermitian Operators on the Hilbert space.
 Matrices
A matrix is a recipe for manipulating vectors

For example, the rotation matrix R rotates a vector

Transformations
Valid quantum state transformations are
given by unitary operations.

These are the operations which make sure that

quantum states remain valid quantum states.

Maintains normalization Maintains the inner product

Transformations

• Can be considered as rotations

in the Bloch sphere
• Any two orthogonal states
remain orthogonal
• Any non-orthogonal states
remain non-orthogonal
 Which of the following is not unitary?

A. B.

C. D.

E. All of the above are unitary

 Matrices in Bra-Ket Notation

In bra-ket notation,
we can see that it takes
The identity matrix each state back to itself,
a.k.a. the do-nothing transformation thus doing *nothing* effectively.

This holds for any orthonormal basis.

A. B.

C. D.

E.
 Which of the following is not
the identity operation?

A. B.

C. D.

E. All of the above are the identity

 Which of the following is not
a correct way to write 𝑌𝑌?

A. B.
Correct:

C. D.

E. All of the above are Y

Matrices in Bra-Ket Notation
We can construct
any change of basis
this way!

Be sure that the bras and kets

both contain
an entire orthonormal basis
to ensure unitarity!

A quantum coin flip

Changes basis from Z to X and back again

A perfect example of a change-of-basis operation

Eigenvectors
An eigenvector is a vector whose direction does not change after matrix multiplication.

𝑀𝑀𝑣𝑣⃑ = 𝑘𝑘𝑣𝑣⃑

Each matrix has its own set of eigenvectors.

 Which is an eigenstate
of the Hadamard?

A. B.

C. D.

E.
Maybe useful
Time Check
 The Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
1)Quantum states are described by unit vectors in complex,
States
potentially high-dimensional Hilbert spaces.

2)The probability of measuring a system in a given state is

given by the absolute-value-squared of the inner product
Measurements of the output state and the current state of the system.
Immediately after the measurement, the wavefunction
collapses into that state.

Processes 3)Valid quantum state transformations are given by

unitary operations.

Systems 4)Separate quantum systems are described by the tensor

product of the separate, individual Hilbert spaces.

Values 5)Physical observables are represented by the eigenvalues

of Hermitian Operators on the Hilbert space.
 Composite Quantum Systems
Separate quantum systems are described by the

e-
tensor product of the separate, e-
individual Hilbert spaces.

Alice & Bob’s

Two-Qubit System

Alice’s Qubit Bob’s Qubit

Composite Quantum Systems
New Computational Basis
e-
e-

Alice & Bob’s

Two-Qubit System

More details when

discussing entanglement
this Friday!
 What is the quantum state vector for
|+⟩𝐴𝐴 ⊗ |−⟩𝐵𝐵 ?

A. B.

C. D.

E. None of the above

 Which of the following states are entangled?

A. B.

C. D.

E. All of the above

 The Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
1)Quantum states are described by unit vectors in complex,
States
potentially high-dimensional Hilbert spaces.

2)The probability of measuring a system in a given state is

given by the absolute-value-squared of the inner product
Measurements of the output state and the current state of the system.
Immediately after the measurement, the wavefunction
collapses into that state.

Processes 3)Valid quantum state transformations are given by

unitary operations.

Systems 4)Separate quantum systems are described by the tensor

product of the separate, individual Hilbert spaces.

Values 5)Physical observables are represented by the eigenvalues

of Hermitian Operators on the Hilbert space.
Observables
Physical observables are represented by the eigenvalues of
Hermitian operators on the Hilbert space.

Essentially, while complex numbers and vectors are important for calculation,
when we measure something in the lab, we get a real number out

A Hermitian operator is it’s own conjugate transpose

Basically the matrix equivalent of a “real number”

Implies that all of its eigenvalues are real numbers
Observables
We observe if an electron is in the ground state or the excited state

We assign different energies E to each state

Expected (average) value of the observable for different quantum states:

?
What is the expectation value 𝐴𝐴̂
three-level system?

A. B.

C. D.

E.
 The Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
1)Quantum states are described by unit vectors in complex,
States
potentially high-dimensional Hilbert spaces.

2)The probability of measuring a system in a given state is

given by the absolute-value-squared of the inner product
Measurements of the output state and the current state of the system.
Immediately after the measurement, the wavefunction
collapses into that state.

Processes 3)Valid quantum state transformations are given by

unitary operations.

Systems 4)Separate quantum systems are described by the tensor

product of the separate, individual Hilbert spaces.

Values 5)Physical observables are represented by the eigenvalues

of Hermitian Operators on the Hilbert space.
The Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
States 1)
But remember!

Linear algebra is the

Measurements 2) rulebook
for quantum mechanics

It is only useful insofar

as it predicts what happens
Processes 3) in real experiments

Systems 4)

Values 5)