NLS, UNIT-III, KARTHIK THIRUMALA

Networks and Linear Systems

Unit – III
Differential equation of translational and rotational systems -
transfer function modeling for simple electrical and mechanical
systems - open loop and closed loop systems –
block diagram representation - Block diagram algebra –
signal flow graph - Mason's gain formula.

Dr. Karthik Thirumala

Email: [email protected]

Reference textbooks:
1) D. Roy Choudhury, ‘Networks and Systems’, New Age International Publications, 1st Edition,
2013.
2) I. J. Nagrath, M. Gopal, ‘Control Systems Engineering’, New Age International Publisher, 6th
edition, 2017.
3) A. Nagoor kani, ‘Control Sytems’, RBA Publications, 3rd Edition, 2017.

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Lecture - 1
Introduction
System is an interconnection or group of elements or components are connected in a sequence to
perform a specific function. The control system is that means by which any quantity of interest or the
output in a system is maintained or controlled in accordance with the desired manner. Control system
theory evolved as an engineering discipline and due to universality of the principle involved, it is
extended to various fields like economy, sociology, medicine, etc. The output quantity is called
controlled variable or response and the input quantity is called command signal or excitation.

The diagrammatic representation of a control system is known as block diagram representation

wherein each block represents an element, a plant, mechanism, device, etc. Each block has an input
and output signal which are linked by a relationship characterizing the block. The signal flow through
the block is unidirectional. Parameters change can be a disturbance. Disturbance is beyond our control
as the characteristics of the signal are unknown to us.

Open Loop System

Any physical system which does not automatically correct for variation in output is called an open
loop system. In these systems, the output remains constant for a constant input signal provided the
external conditions remain unaltered.

The example for an open loop system is the driving system of an automobile. The input signal is force
and the controlled variable is speed. Another example is traffic light control system where red and
green lights are put on by a timer mechanism set for predetermined fixed intervals of time.

Closed Loop System

Control systems in which the output has an effect upon the input quantity in order to maintain the
desired output are called closed loop systems. The information about the instantaneous state of the
output is feedback to the input and is used to modify it in such a manner as to achieve the desired
output. Control systems involving continuous manual control by a human operator are classified as
manually controlled systems. In many complex and fast-acting systems, the presence of human
element in the control loop is undesirable because the system response may be too rapid for an
operator to follow or the demand on the operator’s skill may be unreasonably high.

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Example is automobile driving system with human eye’s and brain is the input. The closed-loop
system where human visual and tactile measurements constitute the feedback loop. Another example
is traffic control system considering varying rate of traffic in a direction.
If the provision of feedback automatically corrects the change in output due to disturbances, such
control system is called automatic control system. The general block diagram of an automatic control
system is shown below. The reference signal corresponds to desired output.

The first automatic control system, the fly-ball governor, to control the speed of steam engines, was
invented by James Watt in 1770. This device is usually prone to hunting.

Note: Unfortunately, the feedback which is the underlying principle of most control systems,
introduces the possibility of undesirable system oscillations.

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Lecture - 2
Mathematical Models of Physical Systems
A physical system is a collection of physical objects connected together to serve an objective.
Example are governing mechanism, satellite orbiting around earth, electronic amplifiers,
power system. Examples for non-physical system are economic system, biological system or
management system. An idealized physical system is called as physical model. Once the
physical system is obtained, the next step is to obtain a mathematical model using physical
laws like Newton’s laws, Kirchoff’s law, etc. Depending upon the choice of variables and the
coordinate system, a given physical model may lead to different mathematical models. The
mathematical models for most of the physical systems are characterized by differential
equations. After obtaining the mathematical models, transfer function representation, Fourier
transform, Laplace transforms can then be used for linear time-invariant systems. When the
mathematical model is solved for various input conditions, the result represents the dynamic
response of the system.
Consider ideal element have a single port or two-terminal representation and so have two
variables associated with it are
a) Through variable, which passes through the element and so has the same value at in
and out ports. For example, current through an electrical resistance.
b) Across variable, which appears across the element. Example is voltage across an
electrical resistance.
c) Input variable
d) Output variable

Mathematical Models of Mechanical Systems

Mechanical systems and devices can be modeled by means of three ideal translatory elements (mass,
spring and dash-pot) and three ideal rotatory elements (mass, spring and dashpot). The input-output
relations of various physical components of a system are governed by differential equations. The
mathematical model of a control system constitutes a set of differential equations.

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Mechanical translational Systems

Force balance equations of idealized elements

1) Mass Element

2) The Spring Element

3)

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The Damper Element

A mechanical translation system which is modeled using the three ideal elements presented above
would yield a mathematical model which is an ordinary differential equation. Take Laplace
Transform of the differential equations to find the transfer function of the system.
Guidelines to write the differential equations and determine the transfer function

Note: The gravitational effect is eliminated at zero position. The zero position is taken to be at the
point where the spring and mass are in static equilibrium.

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Example 1: Write the differential equations governing the mechanical translational system and
determine the transfer function.

Solution: The system has two nodes and they are mass M1 and M2. The differential equations
governing the system are given by force balance equations at these nodes.

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Lecture - 3
Mechanical Rotational Systems

Torque Balance equations of idealized elements

1) Ideal Inertia element

2) Ideal torsional spring element

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3) Ideal frictional element (Viscous friction)

Example:

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Special Case: Gravity is considered

So far we have always defined our displacements to be zero when springs are relaxed, neither
compressed nor elongated. There are many situations when other definitions of zero position are
easier to work with. For example, when gravity acts to extend (or compress) a spring, the
gravitational force can be omitted from the analysis of system motion if the zero positions are taken
when the system is at equilibrium with gravity. This is best demonstrated with an example.

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In figure (a), the position "x" is defined to be zero when
the spring is in its relaxed position. We can draw a free
body diagram and find the equations of motion. We
draw the applied force, fa, and the force of gravity, m·g,
to be downwards. The forces k·x, b·vx and m·ax have
their directions defined to be upward, i.e., opposite to the
positive direction of x. (Just to reiterate, this is not to
say that the forces will be upward, just that we define
them to be positive in the upward direction when the
displacement is positive in the downward directions).

When the system is at equilibrium and with no

applied force, fa=0, the equation simplifies to

Let us call this distance x0.

Now consider the situation shown in figure (b). A new variable "z" is defined that is zero at the
equilibrium position, z=x-x0, or x=z+x0. If we plug this into the equations (and using the fact that the
derivatives of x0 are all zero) we get

This last equation tells us that if we define our zero position to be when the system is at equilibrium with
gravity, that we can ignore the effect of gravity. This is a consequence of superposition. We are
essentially taking the two inputs (gravity and fa) and treating them separately. Gravity gives a
displacement of x0 from the position at which the spring is relaxed, and the displacement, z, is that due to
the applied force. We could not make this separation if the system
was not linear.
In short, if we take figure (b) and define z=0 when the system is at
equilibrium with gravity (and applied forces are zero), we can
immediately draw a free body diagram and write the equations of
motion without considering gravity.

Lecture - 4
Electrical Analogous of Mechanical Systems
If the differential equations governing the system or transfer functions are in identical form, such
systems are called as analogous systems. The electrical analogous of any kind of system is of great

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importance since it is easier to construct electrical models and analyze them. The three basic elements
used in translational and rotational mechanical systems are analogous to resistance, inductance and
capacitance of electrical networks. The input force or torque in the mechanical system is analogous to
either voltage or current source in the electrical systems. The output velocity (or angular velocity) are
analogous to either current or voltage in an element in electrical system. Therefore, two types of
analogies: Force (Torque) – Voltage Analogy and Force (Torque) – Current Analogy.

Let’s see the Force – Voltage analogy

The following points serve as guidelines to obtain electrical analogous of mechanical systems based
on force – voltage analogy

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Summary of Force (or Torque) – Voltage Analogy

Summary of Force (or Torque) – Current Analogy

The following points serve as guidelines to obtain electrical analogous of mechanical systems based
on force – current analogy

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Example: Write the differential equations governing the
mechanical system shown below. Draw the force-voltage
and force-current electrical analogous circuits and verify by
writing mesh and node equations.

Solution:

Force- Voltage Analogous Circuit

It is observed that the loop equations are similar to the differential equations governing the mechanical system.

Force – Current Analogous Circuit

It is observed that the node equations are similar to the differential equations governing the mechanical system.

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Example: Write the differential equations governing the mechanical system shown below. Draw the
torque – voltage and torque – current electrical analogous circuits and
verify by writing mesh and node equations.

Solution:

Torque – Voltage Analogous Circuit

It is observed that the loop equations are similar to the differential equations governing the mechanical system.

Torque – Current Analogous Circuit

It is observed that the node equations are similar to the differential equations governing the mechanical system.

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Lecture - 5
Transfer Function of Armature Controlled DC motor

Note: here f0 is the frictional coefficient, B

Transfer Function of Field Controlled DC motor

The field controlled DC motor is shown in figure. In the field

control, armature voltage is kept constant and the speed is
varied by varying the flux of the machine, which is varied by
the field current.

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Block diagram representation

A block diagram is graphical representation of functions performed by each component and the flow
of signals. The differential equations governing the system are used to construct the block diagram.

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Construct the block diagram of armature controlled DC motor

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Construct the block diagram of field controlled DC motor

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Block Diagram Algebra

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Lecture – 6
Shortcut for doing problems

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Block diagram reduction

1) Reduce the block diagram and find the transfer function C/R

Solution:

2) Obtain the closed loop transfer function of the following system

Solution:

3) Using block diagram reduction obtain the closed loop transfer function of the following system

Answer:

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4) Using block diagram reduction rules, convert the block diagram to a simple loop and determine
the transfer function.

Solution:

5) For the block diagram of a feedback control system shown, the output is C(s) = H(s)R(S) +
Hw(s)W(s). Find the transfer functions.

Solution: Considering the input is R at Station-I alone and input W at station-II is made zero.

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Lecture – 7
Signal flow graph and Mason’s gain formula

The relation between system variables without requiring any reduction procedure or manipulation of the
signal flow graph.

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(ix) Forward path gain: It is the product of the branch gain encountered in traversing a forward path.
The two forward paths of Fig. 3.16a and 3.16b have the path gains (G12G23G34G45) and
(G12G23G35), respectively.
(x) Loop gain: It is the product of the branch gains encountered in traversing a loop. The five
individual loops have gains (G23G32), (G23G34G42), (G23G34G45G52), and (G23G35G52),
respectively.

Masons gain formula

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Lecture – 8
Example: Using Mason gain rule, find the transfer function of given signal flow graph

Answer:

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Example:

Example:

Solution:

Example:

Answer:

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Example: Eliminate node 5 of the given signal flow graph

Example:

Answer:

Example:

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