PROPOSED TOPIC: Effect of Different

Protein Sources on
Rumen Microbial
Population of Growing
Goats

NAME OF CANDIDATE: Safiya Mustapha ADAM

REGISTRATION NUMBER: 18/02/ 01/005

DEGREE IN VIEW: B.AGRIC.(HONS) Animal

Science

SUPERVISOR: Dr. Z. M. Chana

DEPARTMENT: Animal Science

1
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Background of the Study
According to (FAO,2022), the global goat population has shown a steady increase to the current
estimate of over 1269 million goats in 2022 from 907 million in 2000. The overall goat
population for the African region has also shown an increasing trend, which reached its highest
point in 2022. Africa accounts for approximately 34% (440 million) of the global goat
population, while East Africa accounts for 36.6% (161 million) of the total goat population in
Africa. Goats play an important socioeconomic role in many West African local populations.
African goat population represents 30% of Africa’s ruminant livestock and produce about 17 and
12% of its meat and milk, respectively. According to the data of (FAO, 2014), the West African
population of goats was approximately 150 million heads accounting for 14.82% of goat
population in the world.

The advantage that goats have over sheep and cattle is that they have a preference for a varied
diet and a habit of browsing and selecting roughage in their diet. It is apparent that goats are able
to do well on what appears to be low quality forage because of their grazing habit, not through
any advantage in digestion. Consequently, there is little doubt that, like sheep and cattle, goats
will perform poorly if they are fed exclusively on low quality feed. High animal performance
will only occur when goats achieve high intakes of high-quality forage (Capricorn publications,
2004).

Goats have the ability to reproduce quickly - twice per year - with some having the potential of
reproducing twins or triplets (Ndossi, 2003). This is because goats are seasonally polyestrous
with oestrous cycles every 20-21 days. Tropical breeds of goats may cycle year-round. Goats
reach maturity at five to nine months, but are not recommended to breed until they have reached
60% of their adult weight or one year of age. The presence of a Buck causes Does to come into
standing heat which lasts about 24-36 hours and is recognized by tail shaking, flagging,
nervousness, frequent urinating, bleating, and swollen vulva discharge. With proper nutrition and
management, goats can have multiple births, twice a year kidding (Hamilton, 2002).

2
Ruminants have the ability to convert the low-quality fibrous materials in to products such as
meat, milk and fibers, which are useful to humans. The ability of ruminal microorganisms to
produce the enzymes necessary for fermentation processes allows ruminants to efficiently obtain
the energy contained in forages (Burns 2008). However, the ruminal fermentation process is not
completely efficient because it produces some final products such as methane gas (Kingston-
Smith et al, 2012) and excess ammonia (Russell and Mantovani 2002). Ruminants such as cattle,
sheep, and goats have evolved to use fibrous feed efficiently (Oltjen and Beckett 1996). The
anatomical adaptation of their digestive system allows them to use cellulose as an energy source
without requiring external sources of vitamin B complex (Russell and Mantovani 2002) or
essential amino acids because ruminal microorganisms are able to produce such products (Cole
et al, 1982). Thus, a symbiotic relationship exists within the rumen providing the necessary
environment for the establishment of microorganisms and substrates required for their
maintenance. In turn, the microorganisms provide nutrients to the host ruminant to generate
energy (Russell and Rychlik 2001). A healthy rumen microbial population contributes to more
sustainable livestock production practices. The rumen microbial population is integral to the
health, productivity, and environmental impact of goat. By understanding and managing this
complex ecosystem, farmers can optimize feed efficiency, enhance animal performance, and
contribute to more sustainable and profitable goat farming practices.

1.1 Objective of The Study

 The objectives of the study are to assess the effect of different protein sources on rumen
microbial population of growing goats.
 To assess the impact of different protein sources on growth performance of growing goat.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Domestication of Goat

The domestication of goats in the mountains of Asia minor and the middle east occurred between
6,000 and 7,000 BC, primarily from stocks of indigenous Bezoar goat (Naderi et al, 2008). Goats
(Capra hircus) are recognized as one of the most ancient domesticated animal species in the
world, with significant historical and cultural importance to human beings (Madal et al, 2021,
Peng et al, 2022 and Tian et al, 2021). The wild goat (Capra aegagrus), commonly referred to as
the bezoar, went through significant changes due to the process of domestication. Goat
domestication began in the Fertile Crescent of Southeast Asia approximately 10,000 to 11,000
years ago, during the initial phase of human civilization (Bar-gal et al, 2022, Selvaggi et al,
2014, and Zeder et al, 2019). However, recent archaeological and genetic studies argue that goat
domestication started earlier than 10,000 years ago. For instance, (Daly et al, 2018) indicates that
there is genetic evidence that goat domestication occurred earlier than the said 10,000 years ago,
in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran, which shows that goats were among the first species to
be domesticated after dogs. In addition, a study based on the large-scale mitochondrial DNA
analysis of wild and domestic goats argues that the earliest domestication centers for the modern
goat breeds were Eastern Anatolia and the Northern and Central Zagros Mountains (Naderi et al,
2008).

2.2 Importance of Goat

The importance of small ruminants for meat production in the tropics is well recognized
(Williamson and Payne, 1978; de Haas and Horst, 1979). Adu and Ngere (1979) found that 11%
of the meat supplied from slaughter-houses in Nigeria comes from sheep, and they state that the
importance of sheep is greater if rural unregistered slaughters are taken into account. Brinkmann
and Adu (1977) estimate that goats contribute about 20% of Nigerian meat supply. This means
that about 35% of total meat supply comes from small ruminants. Goats are a source of income
for many rural and peri-urban household in Nigeria. smallholder farmers rear goats because they
are relatively easy to maintain, adapt well to Nigeria diverse climatic condition, and can

4
reproduce quickly. According to (FAO 2019) goats contribute substantially to the livestock sub-
sector of agriculture, which itself constitutes a significant part of Nigeria’s GDP

2.3 Indigenous Breeds of Goats

According to classification by Adu and Ngere(1979), There are three breeds of goats in Nigeria;
West Africa Dwarf, West Sahelian Goat, Red Sokoto(Maradi).

2.3.1 West African Dwarf breed of goat

The geographical distribution of the different breeds in West Africa is almost exclusively
determined by the presence or absence of the tsetse fly in the region. The vast majority of sheep
and goats in the areas of high tsetse challenge are the West African dwarf trypanotolerant breeds.
In the savannah and the semi-arid zone, the larger sized, long-legged Sahelian breeds thrive well
(V.M Timon et al, 1989, B.A Opasina and K.B David, 2007). West African Dwarf goat is small
size animals with a low meat yield and very low lactogenic productive potential (A.B
Gbangbonche et al 2002, R.K.E Monkotan,2011).

2.3.2 West Sahelian breed of goat

The West African Sahelian goat is a long leg breed mainly raised mainly for meat, skin and milk
production. The Sahelian is large, long-legged goats mainly found in the semi-arid and arid of
the Saharan and sub-Saharan region in distribution. It is a very rustic and butcher animal. In
Liberia, there are considerable numbers of the Red Sokoto breed and crosses between the WAD
and the Red Sokoto goat breeds (L. Asamoah,2021).

2.3.3 Red Sokoto (Maradi) breed of goat

Red Sokoto is also known as Maradi goat is used for the good quality skin production in Nigeria
and Niger. Found mainly in the northwestern part of Nigeria, particularly Sokoto, kebbi and
Zamfara states. It’s a medium sized breed with a characteristic reddish-brown coat, known for its
excellent skin quality

2.4 Nutrient Requirement for Goat

The nutrients requirement of goats is determined by age, sex, breed, production system (dairy or
meat), body size, climate and physiological stage. Feeding strategies should be able to meet
energy, protein, mineral and vitamin needs depending on the condition of the goats. Goats do not
depend on intensive feeding system except some supplemental feeding during growth, lactation
5
and pregnancy. The daily feed intake of goats' ranges from 3-4% of body weight as expressed in
kilograms (dry matter/ head/day). The daily feed intake is influenced by body weight, percentage
(%) of dry matter in the feeds eaten (12-35%) in forages, (86-92%) in hays and concentrate,
palatability, and physiological stage of the goats (growth, pregnancy, and lactation). Goats are
efficient browsers and prefer eating brushy plants along with some other woody and weedy
plants found on the ranges. Goats are able to digest a large variety of fiber and roughage
(Mamoon, 2008)

2.4.1 Energy requirement of goat

The best sources of energy for small ruminants are the most plentiful feeds available. These are
usually pastures and browses, hay, and grains. Sheep and goats often lack nutrients, however, due
to poor-quality pastures and roughage or inadequate amounts of feed. Because of this, energy is
the most common limiting factor in small ruminant nutrition. Deficiency will result in decreased
production, reproductive failure, increased mortality, and increased susceptibility to diseases and
parasites. It is essential to evaluate the efficiency and overall performance of a feed or ration—
referred to as the total digestible nutrients (TDN). TDN is a broad term used to express the
energy value of a feed or ration. The percentage of TDN is the most widely used method of
evaluating feed for energy. As a rule, the greater the TDN is in a ration, the greater the rate of
gain will be in the animal (NRC 2007).Energy requirement for different physiological stage
maintenance, pregnancy, lactation and growth vary, the maintenance requirement for energy
remain the same for most for most goats dairy kids ,they require 21% energy higher than the
average .It is important to feed high energy ration at the time of breeding, late gestation and
lactation, lactating, lactating does have the highest energy demand (Mamoon,2008).

2.4.2 Protein requirement of goat

Protein is used to repair old tissues and to build new tissues. In small ruminants, the quantity of
protein is more important than the quality. Protein deficiency is particularly detrimental to the
young animal, so an adequate amount must be supplied if rapid growth and high production are
to be obtained. On the other hand, excessive feeding is expensive. When protein supplementation
is the primary objective, the cost per pound of protein is the most important consideration. (NRC
2007). goat typically needs around 7-9% crude protein (CP) in their diet for maintenance

6
growing kid may need diet with 12-16 CP, lactating does require around 12-14%CP to support
milk production (Ranjhan, S.K,2001).

2.4.3 Mineral requirement of goat

In comparison to energy and protein, minerals are necessary in smaller quantities (macro and
micro). Essential macro minerals (required at 0.1% or more in diet) for sheep and goats are
calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, chloride, sulfur, and magnesium. Essential
microminerals (required in parts per million) include manganese, iron, copper, cobalt, zinc,
iodine, selenium, and molybdenum. The primary sources of these minerals are: diet, mineral
supplements (loose and block), and, in some areas, the water supply (NRC 2007).

2.4.4 Vitamin requirement of goat

Vitamins are compounds necessary for normal growth, health, and reproduction. Small ruminants
require many vitamins, but their dietary requirements in this area are relatively simple. This is
due to the nature of the feeds they ordinarily consume and the synthesis of vitamins in the rumen
(NRC 2007).

2.4.5 Water requirement of goat

Water is the most important nutrient for goats. The average water intake for goat is around 3-5
litter/day, but it can vary depending on the climate, lactation, and the water content of their feed
(Devendra,C and McLeroy,G.B,1982)

2.4.6 Fiber requirement of goat

Fiber is crucial for rumen function and overall gut health. Goats typically require 15-20% fiber in
their diet to maintain healthy rumen activity (Van Soest,1994)

2.5 Protein Sources in Goat Nutrition

Protein is essential for growth, tissue repair, and overall health. The choice of protein source can
impact the efficiency of nutrient utilization in goats. The protein source studied include cotton
seed cake, poultry litter, soyabean waste and rumen content,

2.5.1 Poultry litter

Animal waste such as poultry litter and poultry droppings have been found valuable and
efficiently used for production functions of small ruminants. Poultry droppings, urea activates
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sludge and urea has been used as replacements or supplements for groundnut cake in sheep,
goats and cattle diets (Maigandi and Owanikin, 2002). Poultry litter has been used as a feed
source for cattle, sheep and goats due to its high crude protein, mineral and energy content
(Barnes et al., 1997, Rossi et al., 1999, Van Ryssen and Mavimbela, 1999). In addition to
nutritional benefits, poultry litter reduces production costs. For example, feed costs were lower
for cows fed diets supplemented with poultry manure than for those fed diets supplemented with
soybean meal (Rossi et al., 1999). Muwalla et al (1995) reported that a 30% poultry litter-based
diet was comparable to a traditional soybean meal-based diet for feeding ewes. Similarly, Gihad
(1976) reported that sheep fed a diet supplemented with poultry litter had similar weight gains as
sheep supplemented with urea-molasses or fed traditional soybean meal-based diets. Goats fed
broiler litter as a supplement to low-quality forage were found to have greater weight gains than
those fed forage alone (Mekasha et al., 2004). however, little is known about the use of poultry
litter in diets used as the primary feed source for goats. Therefore, the objective of this study was
to assess the effectiveness of poultry litter as a feed component in meat goat feedlot-type diets.
Chemical composition of poultry litter is variable, it is rich in crude protein (CP), which could be
as high as 31% (Banerjee,1996).

2.5.2 Rumen content

Rumen content is feed digested in the rumen of ruminant animals and include the contents of the
rumen feed non digestible, these nutritional value as feed. Rumen contents is from ruminant
animals that are being slaughtered. It’s abundantly available as slaughter house byproduct and
mainly considered as a waste material creating environmental pollution (Elfaki and Abdelatti,
2016). Rumen content is fairly rich in crude protein and other micro-flora such as fungi, protozoa
and bacteria, where they are dried and crushed remixing within the diets of animal and poultry
(Esonu et al., 2006).

2.5.3 Soya beans waste

As the feed intake of goats is affected by soya waste supplementation. Farmers are also
interested in using soya waste as goat feed for long-term feeding, as its nutritive value is superior
to that of other feeds. There is little information on the benefits of soya waste supplementation in
goat production, and the eating behaviors of goats are more selective than those of other
ruminants (Rahman et al., 2014). farmers have an interest in long-term feeding of soy waste for

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low cost because of its high nutritive value containing 11.2 MJ kg-1 metabolizable energy,
23.8% crude protein, and 1.16% calcium (Dong et al., 2005). However, there are limited data on
soy waste utilization and on its long-term feeding impact on the responses in goats, as this
species shows a more selective eating behavior than other ruminants. Li et al (2013) suggested
that there are still several gaps to be filled as for the use of soy waste.

2.5.4 Cotton seed cake

Cottonseed meal is another commonly used protein source in goat diets, especially in regions
where cotton production is prevalent. It contains around 36% to 41% crude protein and provides
a good balance of amino acids. However, cottonseed meal has a higher fiber content compared to
soybean meal, which can reduce its digestibility (NRC, 2007). Despite this, it is often included in
TMR due to its cost-effectiveness and local availability. One of the concerns with cottonseed
meal is the presence of gossypol, a naturally occurring toxin that can be harmful to goats if
consumed in large quantities. Therefore, its inclusion in TMR to often carefully managed to
avoid negative health effects. Smith et al. (2000).

2.6 Rumen Microbes

The rumen is a complex ecosystem where nutrients consumed by the microorganisms such as
bacteria, protozoa, and fungi are digested anaerobically. The main end products of fermentation
are volatile fatty acids (VFAs) and microbial biomass, which are used by the host ruminant. The
interaction between microorganisms and the host animal results in a symbiotic relationship that
allows ruminants to digest diets rich in fiber and low in protein. In the rumen the environment
favors the microorganisms to provide the enzymes necessary to digest the nutrients. Ruminants
have the ability to convert the low-quality fibrous materials in to products such as meat, milk and
fibers, which are useful to humans. The ability of ruminal microorganisms to produce the
enzymes necessary for fermentation processes allows ruminants to efficiently obtain the energy
contained in forages (Burns,2008). However, the ruminal fermentation process is not completely
efficient because it produces some final products such as methane gas (Kingston-Smith et al,
2012) and excess ammonia (Russell and Mantovani 2002). Ruminants such as cattle, sheep, and
goats have evolved to use fibrous food efficiently (Oltjen and Beckett 1996). The anatomical
adaptation of their digestive system allows them to use cellulose as an energy source without
requiring external sources of vitamin B complex (Russell and Mantovani 2002) or essential

9
amino acids because ruminal microorganisms are able to produce such products (Cole et al,
1982). Thus, a symbiotic relationship exists within the rumen providing the necessary
environment for the establishment of microorganisms and substrates required for their
maintenance. In turn, the microorganisms provide nutrients to the host ruminant to generate
energy (Russell and Rychlik 2001). The ruminal ecosystem consists of a wide diversity of
microorganisms that are in a symbiotic relationship in a strict anaerobic environment (Ozutsumi
et al,2005). The microbiota is formed by ruminal bacteria, protozoa, and fungi, at concentrations
of 1010, 106, and 104 cells/ml, respectively. Bacterial populations are most vulnerable to the
physicochemical properties of the rumen (McAllister et al,1990).

Dietary protein for ruminants includes nitrogen (N) occurring in true protein and non-protein. In
the rumen, the true protein is degraded into amino acid (AA) and ammonia and then utilized by
ruminal microorganisms to synthesize microbial protein (MCP). In the small intestine, more than
80% of rumen MCP is digested, accounting for 50–80% of the total absorbable protein contained
there (Tas et al., 1981and Storm et al., 1983). Microbial protein constitutes the major part of the
protein used by ruminants (Hungate,1966) therefore, microbial protein quality, as determined by
amino acid composition, is important. Quantitative amino acid analyses of rumen bacteria and
protozoa are limited (Hoeller and Harmeyer ,1964; Purser et al 1966 and Weller 1957). Also,
little is known about amino acid content of bacteria and protozoa in the rumen of cattle as
influenced by different feeds or animal variation, or both.

2.6.1 Rumen bacteria

The rumen contains a variety of bacterial genera, which constitute the majority of the
microorganisms that live in anaerobic environment (Pitta et al., 2010). The competition between
bacteria in the rumen is determined by several factors, among which are the preference for
certain substrates, energy requirements for maintenance, and resistance to certain metabolism
products that can be toxic (Russell et al, 1979).

2.6.2 Rumen archaea or methanogens

They depend on the growth, maintenance, and activity of a diverse population of
microorganisms. However, microbial activity is the main source of greenhouse gases in
agriculture (Mosoni et al ,2011), such as methane gas. Methane is an end product of ruminal
fermentation and is considered as a loss of total energy consumed by ruminants, representing 6-

10
10% of total energy (Mohammed et al ,2004), which contributes to the greenhouse effect
(Garnsworthy et al,2012). In ruminants, 80% of methane is generated during fiber fermentation,
mainly cellulose, and 20% of methane is generated by the decomposition of manure (Vergé et al,
2007)

2.6.3 Rumen protozoa

Protozoa constitute 40-80% of the biomass, most abundant of which are the orders
Entodiniomorphida and Holotricha (Firkins et al, 2007 and Yáñez-Ruiz et al, 2004). The flow of
ruminal protozoa to the ruminant abomasum is less than that of bacteria, since they are retained
in the feed particles (Hook et al, 2012). Holotrichs can assimilate soluble sugars and keep some
of them in reserve polysaccharides; thus, the protozoa can decrease the risk of acidosis after
consuming foods with high concentrations of easily digestible sugars (van Zwieten et al, 2008).

2.6.4 Rumen fungi

Fungi represent a small proportion, approximately 8%, of the biomass in the ruminal ecosystem
(Jenkins et al, 2008), but they do have a role in the digestion of food consumed by the ruminant
(Nam and Garnsworthy,2007). Some fungi are microaerotolerants and are attached to feed
particles through a system of rhizoids (Denman et al, 2008). Ruminal fungal populations are
favored by the consumption of fibrous forage that is mainly highly lignified. Ruminal fungi are
present in the duodenum, cecum, and feces and are removed when ruminants are fed high
concentrations of rapidly fermentable sugars; however, the fungi quickly proliferate once the
feed concentration is increased (Grenet et al, 1989).

2.7 Rumen Morphology

The rumen mucosa structure, including size and shape of papilla, has a significant role in nutrient
digestion or absorption (Graham et al,2005). The main factors affecting rumen epithelial
development are diets and age (Jiao et al,2015; Suarez et al,2006 and Khan et al,2011). At birth,
the rumen papillae growth is minimal in goat kids (Jiao et al,2015) and calves (Tamate et
al,1962). The rumen is not engaged in the digestion of plant material or milk during the suckling
stage (Huws et al,2018; Baldwin et al,2004 and Khan et al, 2011). This is because a reflex
mechanism closes the esophageal groove directing the colostrum and milk flow to the abomasum
for enzymatic digestion (Dill-Mcfarland et al, 2017; Braun et al,2015 and Arshad et al,2021).
The transition period starts from 3 to 8 weeks of age when the rumen gradually develops (Jiao et

11
al,2015) and adapts to the consumption of solid feed (Zhang et al,2021). Several studies reported
the beneficial effects of solid feed in stimulating rumen development through the early stage of
life in ruminants (Khan et al,2011 and Castells et al,2013). As a result of the introduction of a
solid diet, the length and size of the rumen papillae in goat kids rose gradually during the
transition period (Jiao et al,2015 and Kotresh et al,2019). This is supported by Chai et al (2021),
who observed that the most important factor that altered rumen microbiota and epithelial gene
expression in pre-weaning ruminants was the amount of neutral detergent fiber. It may be due to
the solid feed providing butyrate as well as a physical stimulus favoring rumen anatomical
development (Suarez et al,2006 and Khan et al,2011). Htoo et al. (2018) showed that the large
particle size of roughage and the content of fiber increased the rumen wall by physical
stimulation, and consequently enhanced rumen motility, muscularization, and rumen volume in
goat kids with free access to creep feed with roughage. In addition, Malhi et al. (2013) reported
that intraruminal infusion of sodium butyrate at 0.3 g/kg of body weight for 28 days in goats
improved the rumen papillae size, density, and surface area. Ruminal infusion of butyrate at 0.3
g/kg of body weight in goats increased the full weight of rumen as percent of total stomach
weight (Moolchand et al,2013). In addition, infusion of sodium butyrate at 0.3 g/kg of body
weight can improve ruminal epithelial growth by modulating both proliferative and apoptotic
genes (Soomro et al,2018). Moreover, sodium butyrate supplementation at 3.2% of diet
increased rumen epithelium thickness in growing rams (Samanta et al,2023). Accordingly, the
transition period should be considered by a goat nutritionist for the adaptation of rumen papillae
to the dietary changes. After sequential dynamic changes of development (Jiao et al,2015), the
rumen development of a mature animal accounts for 60 to 80% of the complex stomach volume
(Arshad et al,2021 and Lane et al,1997). It has been reported that the microbial colonization in
the rumen of goats occurred earlier and is achieved at 1 month of age, functional achievement is
at 2 months, and anatomic development is achieved after 2 months (Jiao et al,2015). Meanwhile,
the rumen transforms to a fully functional fermenter with capabilities of utilizing fibrous diets
(Arshad et al,2021). At this stage, goats are able to break down and extract nutrients from tough
fibrous plants through a process of microbial fermentation and regurgitation. The mature rumen
serves as a fermentation chamber, where bacteria and protozoa break down cellulose and
hemicellulose into simple sugars, organic acids, and gases, which allows goats to efficiently
extract nutrients from low-quality and less digestible forages, and adapt to grazing on a variety of

12
vegetations (NRC,2007). In addition, the development of rumen absorption function in goat kids
after birth is a crucial process that enables animals to adapt to solid diets. Initially, the rumen is a
small pouch-like structure with a thin lining and lacks the necessary capacity to perform efficient
absorption of nutrients. However, the rumen gradually expands due to the induced cell
proliferation and differentiation as the kid starts to consume solid feed (Zhuang et al,2023 and
Abdelsattar et al,2022). Papillae can greatly enhance the absorptive capacity of the rumen by
increasing its surface area (Malhi et al,2013 and Gabel et al,1991). High-fiber diets induce the
expression of genes related to short-chain fatty acid absorption in the rumen epithelium of goats
(Yan et al,2014). A similar improvement in absorption capacity of the rumen epithelium was
observed in sheep (Gabel et al,1991) and cows (Sehested et al,2000), even with unchanged
absorptive surface area of the rumen papillae (Sehested et al,2000). On the other hand, low-fiber
diets can cause insufficient rumen development and impede proper nutrient digestion and
absorption (Baldwin et al,2004). Therefore, it is important to carefully evaluate the impact of age
and diets in further studies to determine their effectiveness in enhancing the absorptive capacity
of the rumen.

2.8 Physiochemical Properties of the Rumen

The ruminant digestive system is composed of reticulum, rumen, omasum, and abomasum. The
rumen is mainly where the major fermentation processes are held (Tharwat et al, 2012).
Enzymes present in the rumen are produced by microorganisms. These enzymes are used to
digest and ferment food eaten by ruminants; thus, the rumen is considered as a fermentation vat
(Aschenbach et al, 2011). The main factors influencing the growth and activity of ruminal
microbial populations are temperature, pH, buffering capacity, osmotic pressure and redox
potential. These factors are determined by environmental conditions. The rumen temperature is
maintained in the range of 39 to 39.5 °C (Wahrmund et al, 2012) and may increase up to 41 °C
immediately after the animal eats because the fermentation process generates heat (Brod et al,
1982). The pH depends on the production of saliva, the generation and absorption of short-chain
fatty acids (SCFA), the type and level of feed intake, and the exchange of bicarbonates and
phosphates through the ruminal epithelium (Aschenbach et al, 2011). Thus, these factors
determine both pH and buffering capacity in the reticule ruminal environment. The pH
constantly changes (Russell and Strobel 1989), but it usually remains in the range of 5.5 to 7.0
(Krause and Oetzel 2006), depending on the diet and buffering capacity of saliva, because saliva

13
production is a constant process that provides bicarbonates and phosphates into the rumen.
Furthermore, reticuloruminal secretions also possess buffering capabilities, so this environment
does not only depend of the buffering capacity of saliva, which has a pH of 8.2 (Krause and
Oetzel 2006). Generally, the bacterial intracellular pH remains near 7.0, which decreases
considerably when the cell is under acidic environment. Likewise, microbial enzymes are
sensitive to changes in pH, for example, inhibition of bacterial growth under acidic pH. This may
be due to the imbalance of intracellular hydrogen ions (Russell and Wilson 1996). The osmotic
pressure in the rumen depends on the presence of ions and molecules, which generate a gas
tension (Lodemann and Martens 2006). The ruminal fluid osmolality is approximately 250
mOsm/kg. Ruminal fermentation processes may depend on the environmental conditions and the
type of diet, so these factors may influence the osmotic pressure of the rumen. Immediately after
feed intake, the osmotic pressure increases from 350 to 400 mOsm and then decreases gradually
over a period of 8 to 10 hours. The osmotic pressure increases with the presence of VFAs
produced by fermentation processes and has a direct relationship with the pH in diets rich in
carbohydrates (Lodemann and Martens 2006).

2.9 Factors Influencing Rumen Microbial Population

Several factors can impact the composition and functionality of rumen microbiota;

 Diet;
The type of feed significantly influences microbial population. High fiber diet encourages
the growth of cellulolytic bacteria, while high-starch diets promote lactic acid bacteria
(Guan et al,2008). Supplementation with probiotics and prebiotics has been shown to
enhances microbial diversity and improve fermentation efficiency (Zhang et al,2021).
 Age and Development;
Younger goat tends to have a less diverse microbial population, which increases as they
mature and are exposed to different feeds (Chen et al,2016)
 Health Status;
Rumen microbial population can be altered during disease or stress, leading to digestive
issues. Maintaining a balanced microbiota is crucial for preventing such problems
(Kumar et al,2018)

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Experimental Location

The experiment will be carried out at the university of Maiduguri Teaching and Research Farm
(Department of Animal Science) Maiduguri is located in latitude 110, 150 North longitude 30,050
east and at an altitude of 354 meters above the sea level (Alaku, 1983). It falls within the semi-
arid zone of west Africa, which is characterized by short duration of rainfall and long dry season.
Ambient temperature is high in April and low in December and January, while relative humidity
ranges 5-45% (Alaku, 1983).

3.2 Experimental Animal and Management

A total of sixteen (16) goat with an average body weight of 12.50kg of local breed will be used.
The goats will be obtained from the Department of Animal Science Teaching and Research Farm,
University of Maiduguri. Before the actual commencement of the experiment, the animal will be
given prophylactic treatment against internal and external parasite, which include multivitamin
and antibiotics. The animal will be kept for two (2) weeks for adaption. They will be weighed
and allocated to four (4) different dietary treatment randomly. The experimental diet will be fed
to the animal at 3% of their total body weight twice daily and water will be given ad-libitum. The
animal will be housed in pens which have wide windows for ventilation

3.3 Source of Experimental Ingredients

The experimental diet will be formulated with the following feed ingredient which will be
purchased from the Maiduguri market and will be locally processed. The treatment ingredient
includes, cotton seed cake, poultry litter, rumen content, soyabeans waste, bone meal, common
salt, sorghum husk, maize bran and groundnut haulms. The poultry litter will be sourced from
poultry unit of University of Maiduguri, the preparation involve sun drying and grinding into
fine particles, the rumen content will be obtained from Maiduguri abattoir and will be sun dried.
The cotton seed cake, soyabeans waste, bone meal, common salt will be purchase from
Maiduguri cattle market.

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3.4 Preparation of Experimental Diets
There will be four (4) treatments containing four (4) animals in completely randomized design.
Treatment one (T1) will have groundnut haulm 30%, maize bran 35.44%, sorghum husk 15%,
cotton seed cake 17.06%, bone meal 2% and common salt 0.5% in the diet. Treatment two (T2)
will contain groundnut haulm 30%, maize bran 25.20%, sorghum husk 15%, poultry litter
27.30%, bone meal 2%, and common salt 0.5%. Treatment three (T3) will have groundnut haulm
30%, maize bran18.37%, sorghum husk 15%, rumen content 34.13%, bone meal 2% and
common salt 0.5% inclusion. Treatment four (T4) will have groundnuts haulm 30%, maize bran
23.25%, sorghum husk 15%, soybean waste 29.25%, bone meal 2% and common and salt 0.5%.
Below is a Table showing the composition of each ingredient in the diet

Table1: Ingredient Composition of the Experimental Diet

Ingredient T1(CSC) T2(PL) T3(RC) T4(SBW)

Groundnut haulm 30 30 30 30
Maize bran 35.44 25.20 18.37 23.25
Sorghum husk 15 15 15 15
Cotton seed cake 17.06 - - -
Poultry litter - 27.30 - -
Rumen content - - 34.13 -
Soyabeans waste - - - 29.25
Bone meal 2 2 2 2
Common salt 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Total 100 100 100 100

NOTE:
CSC = cotton seed cake, PL = poultry litter, RC = rumen content, SBW = soyabean waste.

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Table 2: Crude Protein Contribution of each ingredient in Total Mixed Ration (14%)
Ingredients CP% T1(CSC) T2(PL) T3(RC) T4(SBW)
Groundnut 10 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00
haulm
Maize bran 12 4.25 3.02 2.20 2.78
Sorghum husk 4 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Cotton seed cake 36 6.14 - - -
Poultry litter 27 - 7.37 - -
Rumen content 24 - - 8.19 -
Soyabeans waste 26 - - - 7.60
Bone meal - - - -
Common salt - - - -
Total 14% 14% 14% 14%
NOTE:
CSC = cotton seed cake, PL = poultry litter, RC = rumen content, SBW = soyabean waste.

3.5 Experimental Design

The experiment will be conducted in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with four (4)
animals, each as replicate.

3.6 Parameters Measured

Growth performance data will be recorded which will include feed intake, live weight and feed
conversion ratio, will be calculated.

3.6.1 Feed intake

Feed intake will be determined by given a measured quantity of feed to the animals and the
leftover weighed the following morning. The leftover value is subtracted from the quantity given
previous day.

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3.6.2 Live weight change

The animal will be weighed at the beginning of the experiment and on weekly basis. The live
weight change will be determined by subtracting the previous week live weight from each weeks
weight.

3.6.3 Feed conversion ratio

Feed conversion ratio will be calculated as the total feed intake per day divide by the body
weight change for the said day as follows.

FCR= Total feed intake/weight change.

3.7 Microbial Count

Rumen liquor will be collected randomly from three (3) animal per treatment during the last
week of feeding trail (in the morning hours before feeding). Each animal will be held by fore and
rear legs on the ground in a standing position and a suction tube will be inserted through the
mouth into the rumen where 10mls of rumen liquor will be withdrawn from each animal. It will
be poured into sterilized labelled sample bottle; rumen PH will be measured immediately after
collection using sensitive pH meter. The sample will be kept in an ice at -20c*. The rumen
microbial population will be determine using pour plate serial dilution technique with their
relevant agers, while identification of individual microorganism (bacteria, fungi, and protozoa
e.t.c) will be ascertain using method of Dehority (1984).

3.8 Chemical Analysis

The feed sample collected from the ration formulated will be analyzed for dry matter content
(DM), crude fiber (CF), crude protein (CP), crude fats/ ether extract (EE), ash and the nitrogen
free extract (NFE) is calculated by difference, according to A.O.A.C(2010) method.

3.8.1 Dry matter

10g of the sample will be weighed into a petri-dish and dried in an oven at 1050c for 24hours.
After the sample is removed and cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The process of weighing

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and cooling will be repeated several times until a constant weight is obtained. The dry matter will
be calculated using the formula;

Calculation

Moisture% = W1-W2/ W1 –W X 100

W1 =weight (gram) of petri dish with sample before drying

W2 =weight (gram) of petri dish with dried sample

W= weight (gram) of empty petri dish

Dry matter (DM) = 100- Moisture

3.8.2 Crude protein

Crude protein will be determined using kjeldahl method. The process involved three stages
namely; digestion, distillation and titration. Weighing 2g of sample into a digestion tube carried
out digestion. One kjeldahl tablet will be added as catalyst and 20ml of concentrated sulphuric
(H2 SO4) added in the sample for digestion tube. The exhaust caps will be fitted on top of each
digestion tube for maximum airflow. The digestion lasted for three hours, after which digested
sample will be diluted with 80ml of distilled water. Distillation will be carried out in the
distillation unit of the system. Saturated boric acid solution (20ml) containing bromo-cresol
green will be poured into a receiver flask. The digested sample (50ml) and 50ml of sodium
hydroxide will be distilled for 15minutes. Titration; the green distilled will be titrated against
0.1NHCL until a neutral grey end –point is obtained. The volume of the acid will be recorded.

Calculation

% crude protein = (A-B) XN X F X 14.001 X 100 /Sample used in (gram)

A= Volume of acid for titrating the sample

B=Volume of acid for titrating the blank sample

N=Normality of acid used for titration

F=Factor 6.25

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100=Conversion to %

3.8.3 Ether extract

The apparatus to be used is soxhlet extraction unit. Previously dried sample (2g) will be weighed
into the thimbles. The mouth of each thimble is plugged with fat free absorbent cotton. The
receiving flask will be weighed and then the thimble with sample introduced into the soxhlet
filled with petroleum ether by pouring it through the condenser at the top glass funnel. The
apparatus will be placed in a water bath at 60C and fixed by clamps to a retort stand. The cool
water circulation in the condenser is tuned on. The whole extraction process lasted for 6 hours.
After the extraction the thimble with materials is removed from the soxhlet. The apparatus was
then re-assembled and heated in a water bath to recover all the petroleum ether from the receiver
flask.

Calculation

Ether extract (%) = Wt of oil flask after extraction – Wt of flask / Wt of dried material
taken x 100

3.8.4 Crude fiber

The method to use is the Trichloro acetic flask method for the determination of crude fibre, one
gram of the milled sample will be weighed into 500ml conical and 100ml digestion reagent
added. The digestion reagent will be prepared by mixing 500ml glacial acetic acid, 450ml of
distilled water, and 50ml of Conc.NHO3 and 20.0g of trichloro acetic acid. The flask containing
the sample and the reagent digestion will be boiled and refluxed for exactly 40 minutes, counting
from the time heating commenced. After 40minutes, the flask will be removed from the heater
and cooled under a cold-water tap. The solution will be filtered through a 15cm filter paper. The
filter paper will be washed several times with hot water and with petroleum ether. At this stage,
the filter paper will be opened and the residue removed with a spatula. This will be transferred
into a petri dish and dried overnight at 1040 C. After drying, the residue will be ash at 600 C,
allowed to cool and weighed.

Calculation

% crude fiber = (Wt. after drying – Wt. of ash) / Wt. after oven drying x100

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3.9 Statistical Analysis

All data collected will be subjected to analysis of variance of a Completely Randomized Design
(CRD) and the means will be separated using least significant differences (LSD)

3.10 Expected outcome

To ascertain the effects of different protein sources in the microbial population of growing goats.

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