The Outer ear

The outer ear consists , Auricle ( pinna ) & the external acoustic meatus
( auditory canal )
The auricle is the visible part of the ear. It composed fibro elastic cartilage
covered with skin.
The lobule ( earlobe ) is the soft pliable part composed of fibrous & adipose
tissue richly supplied with blood.

The auditory canal is a slightly S shaped tube about 2.5cm long , extending from
auricle to the tympanic membrane.
There are numerous ceruminous glands & hair follicles with associated sebaceous
glands. It secrete cerumen / earwax.

Movements of the temporo mandibular joint during chewing & speaking ‘massage’ the
cartilaginous meatus, moving the wax towards the exterior.
The tympanic membrane ( eardrum ) completely separates the auditory canal from the
middle ear.
Ear drum is oval shaped & formed by 3 types of tissues.

The Middle Ear

Irregular shaped air filled cavity within the petrous portion of the Temporal bone.
The lateral wall formed by – tympanic membrane The roof & floor formed by –
temporal bone
The posterior wall formed by – temporal bone
The medial wall is a thin layer of temporal bone which have 2 openings.

1. Ovalwindow–ovalwindowoccludedbystapes
2. Round window – by a fine sheet of fibrous tissue
Both windows are located in Vestibule.

The Inner Ear

The inner ear /labyrinth contains important organs of hearing & balance .
• Mainly 3 parts
1. Vestibule ( utricle &
Saccule )
2. Three semicircular
canals
3. Cochlear

It describes in 2 parts. Bony labyrinth & membranous labyrinth.

The inner ear is formed a network of channels & cavities in the temporal bone / the
bony labyrinth. It lined with periosteum. Within the bony labyrinth , the
membranous labyrinth is suspended in a watery fluid called perilymph.
The membranous labyrinth is filled with endolymph. ( liquid )

The Regions of Inner Ear

1. The Vestibule – This is the expanded part nearest the middle ear.
 The oval & round are located in its lateral wall.  It contains two membranous
sacs, the utricle &
the saccule, which are important in balance.
2. The semicircular canals - These are 3 tubes , continuous with vestibule.
Important in balance.

Audition (Hearing)

Hearing, or audition, is the transduction of sound waves into a neural signal that
is made possible by the structures of the ear (Figure 15.3.1). The large, fleshy
structure on the lateral aspect of the head is known as the auricle. Some sources
will also refer to this structure as the pinna, though that term is more
appropriate for a structure that can be moved, such as the external ear of a cat.
The C-shaped curves of the auricle direct sound waves toward the auditory canal.
The canal enters the skull through the external auditory meatus of the temporal
bone. At the end of the auditory canal is the tympanic membrane, or ear drum, which
vibrates after it is struck by sound waves. The auricle, ear canal, and tympanic
membrane are often referred to as the external ear. The middle ear consists of a
space spanned by three small bones called the ossicles. The three ossicles are the
malleus, incus, and stapes, which are Latin names that roughly translate to hammer,
anvil, and stirrup. The malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane and
articulates with the incus. The incus, in turn, articulates with the stapes. The
stapes is then attached to the inner ear, where the sound waves will be transduced
into a neural signal. The middle ear is connected to the pharynx through the
Eustachian tube, which helps equilibrate air pressure across the tympanic membrane.
The tube is normally closed but will pop open when the muscles of the pharynx
contract during swallowing or yawning.

Figure 15.3.1 – Structures of the Ear: The external ear contains the auricle, ear
canal, and tympanic membrane. The middle ear contains the ossicles and is connected
to the pharynx by the Eustachian tube. The inner ear contains the cochlea and
vestibule, which are responsible for audition and equilibrium, respectively.
The inner ear is often described as a bony labyrinth, as it is composed of a series
of canals embedded within the temporal bone. It has two separate regions, the
cochlea and the vestibule, which are responsible for hearing and balance,
respectively. The neural signals from these two regions are relayed to the brain
stem through separate fiber bundles. However, these two distinct bundles travel
together from the inner ear to the brain stem as the vestibulocochlear nerve. Sound
is transduced into neural signals within the cochlear region of the inner ear,
which contains the sensory neurons of the spiral ganglia. These ganglia are located
within the spiral-shaped cochlea of the inner ear. The cochlea is attached to the
stapes through the oval window.
The oval window is located at the beginning of a fluid-filled tube within the
cochlea called the scala vestibuli. The scala vestibuli extends from the oval
window, travelling above the cochlear duct, which is the central cavity of the
cochlea that contains the sound-transducing neurons. At the uppermost tip of the
cochlea, the scala vestibuli curves over the top of the cochlear duct. The fluid-
filled tube, now called the scala tympani, returns to the base of the cochlea, this
time travelling under the cochlear duct. The scala tympani ends at the round
window, which is covered by a membrane that contains the fluid within the scala. As
vibrations of the ossicles travel through the oval window, the fluid of the scala
vestibuli and scala tympani moves in a wave-like motion. The frequency of the fluid
waves match the frequencies of the sound waves (Figure 15.3.2). The membrane
covering the round window will bulge out or pucker in with the movement of the
fluid within the scala tympani.

Figure 15.3.2 – Transmission of Sound Waves to Cochlea: A sound wave causes the
tympanic membrane to vibrate. This vibration is amplified as it moves across the
malleus, incus, and stapes. The amplified vibration is picked up by the oval window
causing pressure waves in the fluid of the scala vestibuli and scala tympani. The
complexity of the pressure waves is determined by the changes in amplitude and
frequency of the sound waves entering the ear.
A cross-sectional view of the cochlea shows that the scala vestibuli and scala
tympani run along both sides of the cochlear duct (Figure 15.3.3). The cochlear
duct contains several organs of Corti, which tranduce the wave motion of the two
scala into neural signals. The organs of Corti lie on top of the basilar membrane,
which is the side of the cochlear duct located between the organs of Corti and the
scala tympani. As the fluid waves move through the scala vestibuli and scala
tympani, the basilar membrane moves at a specific spot, depending on the frequency
of the waves. Higher frequency waves move the region of the basilar membrane that
is close to the base of the cochlea. Lower frequency waves move the region of the
basilar membrane that is near the tip of the cochlea.

Figure 15.3.3 – Cross Section of the Cochlea: The three major spaces within the
cochlea are highlighted. The scala tympani and scala vestibuli lie on either side
of the cochlear duct. The organ of Corti, containing the mechanoreceptor hair
cells, is adjacent to the scala tympani, where it sits atop the basilar membrane.
The organs of Corti contain hair cells, which are named for the hair-like
stereocilia extending from the cell’s apical surfaces (Figure 15.3.4). The
stereocilia are an array of microvilli-like structures arranged from tallest to
shortest. Protein fibers tether adjacent hairs together within each array, such
that the array will bend in response to movements of the basilar membrane. The
stereocilia extend up from the hair cells to the overlying tectorial membrane,
which is attached medially to the organ of Corti. When the pressure waves from the
scala move the basilar membrane, the tectorial membrane slides across the
stereocilia. This bends the stereocilia either toward or away from the tallest
member of each array. When the stereocilia bend toward the tallest member of their
array, tension in the protein tethers opens ion channels in the hair cell membrane.
This will depolarize the hair cell membrane, triggering nerve impulses that travel
down the afferent nerve fibers attached to the hair cells. When the stereocilia
bend toward the shortest member of their array, the tension on the tethers slackens
and the ion channels close. When no sound is present, and the stereocilia are
standing straight, a small amount of tension still exists on the tethers, keeping
the membrane potential of the hair cell slightly depolarized.

Figure 15.3.4 – Hair Cell: The hair cell is a mechanoreceptor with an array of
stereocilia emerging from its apical surface. The stereocilia are tethered together
by proteins that open ion channels when the array is bent toward the tallest member
of their array, and closed when the array is bent toward the shortest member of
their array.

Balance & the Ear

 The semicircular canals provide information about the position of the head in
space, contributing to maintanence of posture & balance.
The semicircular canals & the vestibule ( utricle & saccule ) concerned with
balance / equibilirium.
Any change of position of the head causes movement in perilymph & endolymph which
stimulates the sensory receptors of vestibule.

As a result, nerve impulses are transmitted to the vestibular nerve, and cerebellum
through vestibulo cochlear nerve.
Cerebellum also received nerve impulses from eyes & sensory receptors in the
skeletal muscles & joints.
Impulses are transmitted to the cerebrum & skeletal muscles enabling perception of
body position & any needed adjustments.