1 MODULE I

Module I

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

Civil Engineering deals with construction activities of buildings, roads, bridges,

tunnels, etc. and also with engineered constructions, their planning, design,
construction and management. Enjoying spacious and comfortable living in a building,
or an underground enclave; driving from a given location to virtually any region in the
continent; and having plenty of clean water available for any domestic use are some of
the examples that the civil engineering profession offer today.

The main scope of Civil Engineering is planning, designing, estimating, supervising

and management of different construction activities.

 Various Disciplines of Civil Engineering

According to scope, type of structures and activities carried out, following are the
main branches of civil engineering:

i. Building Construction
ii. Advanced Building Construction
iii. Building Planning and Management
iv. Environmental Engineering or Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering
v. Geotechnical Engineering (Soil Mechanics)
vi. Surveying and Levelling
vii. Structural Engineering
viii. Transportation Engineering
ix. Town Planning
x. Water Resource Engineering
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 Building Construction
o Construction of various structures and different types of buildings
o Construction of building components like brick work, Reinforced Cement
Concrete (RCC) works, foundations, doors and windows, floor, roof, etc.
o Study of engineering materials like cement, steel, timber, glass, etc.

 Advanced Building Construction

o Study of construction of deep foundations
o Underwater construction
o Construction of dams, bridges, tunnels, off‐shore oil rig, etc.
o Study of equipment like power shovel, rollers, cranes etc. for large scale
projects

 Building Planning and Management

o Fundamental principles of planning
o Building bye‐laws
o Planning of public, residential and industrial buildings
o Construction management of whole project
o Management of construction materials, labour and equipment

 Environmental Engineering
o Design, construction and maintenance of water treatment plant, water
distribution system and sewage system
o Waste water treatment and solid waste management
o Air, water and land pollution

 Geotechnical Engineering
o Soil investigation
o Design of foundations
o Measurement of soil parameters and safe bearing capacity of soil
o Study of geology
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 Surveying and Levelling

o For setting out of works
o For preparing maps of land
o Measurement of levels of land and prepare contour maps
o Carried out using chains, compass, plane table, levels, theodolites, EDM
instruments, etc.

 Structural Engineering
o Design of RCC structures (Retaining walls, water tanks, bridges, residential
buildings, etc.)
o Design of steel structures (railway platform, factory sheds, steel bridges,
etc.)
o Design of earth quake resistant structures
o Concrete technology

 Transportation Engineering
o Airport engineering
o Bridge engineering
o Harbour and Docks engineering
o Highway engineering
o Railway engineering
o Tunnel engineering
o Traffic engineering

 Town Planning
o Arrangement of various components of a town in such a way that the town
attains significance of a living organism
o Towns are divided into different zones like residential zone, commercial
zone, industrial zone, etc.
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 Water Resources Engineering

o Fluid Mechanics – deals with behaviour of all, more or less incompressible,
liquids and gases
o Hydrology – deals with study of sources of water, measurement and study of
rainfall, flood, etc.
o Irrigation Engineering – deals with designing of hydraulic structures like
dams, canals, etc.

 Relevance of Civil Engineering in Overall Infrastructural Development

The importance of infrastructure for sustained economic development is well
recognised. The visible signs of current shortfalls include increasingly congested roads,
power failures, shortage of drinking water, etc. These illustrate the widening gap
between demand and supply of infrastructure.

There is a potential for public‐private partnerships to contribute more and help to

bridge the infrastructure gap in India. There is a need of holistic approach to look into
infrastructure from the industrial perspective to enhance the quality of inputs to the
operations of the company.

Buildings are designed by civil engineers by conveying an array of structural

elements that support the architectural spatial distribution. Highway is designed by
creating a plane that adequately supports weight and stresses of vehicles in motion. The
water resource system is designed by a civil engineer that arranges for water intake at
an appropriate source, a water conveyance set and a water distribution network. The
civil engineer designs waste water disposal and waste water treatment plants.

Operations management for infrastructural development has three major aspects:

i. Quality
ii. Cost and
iii. Time
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Infrastructure Development involves fundamental structures that are required for

the functioning of a community & society. This is usually referred to structures like
roads, water supply, sewers, electrical grids, telecommunications, renewable energy,
water sources identification & boring (wells), purification systems for clean water,
hazard waste management and so on. Governments cannot manage to do it without
skilled/trained manpower (which includes engineers from all the departments).

Civil engineers can manage to do these projects related to infrastructural

development as the fundamental idea of less space and more efficiency is embedded in
all civil engineers which is a crucial factor in development of infrastructure.

So civil engineers have a very crucial role to play in the development of

infrastructure. The role of Civil Engineering activities in the infrastructural development
can be summarised as follows:

 A proper planning of towns and extension areas in the cities.

 Fast rate of urbanisation and increase in the cost of land has forced civil
engineers to go for vertical growth in cities. This has resulted in new
building technologies and sophisticated analysis methods. Civil engineers
have to solve problems of rural areas as well. Low cost housing is the need
of the hour to make poor people afford their own houses.
 Water is an important need for all living beings. Civil engineers have to
explore into various water resources and ensure water supply to urban
areas throughout the year. Water is required for agriculture also.
 Good roadways and transportation facilities include another important
amenity of the public which civil engineers deliver.
 Other important infrastructural activities of civil engineers are controlling
pollution of air, water and land.
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 The impact of infrastructural development of a country

 Provide protection from drought, famine, flood, etc.

 Improved irrigation facilities
 Better sewage system
 Improved education facilities
 Improvement in transportation and communication
 Generation of electricity from natural resources

 Types of Buildings as per NBC

As per the National Building Code (NBC), buildings are classified into nine groups
based on their occupancy as follows:

 Group A ‐ Residential buildings

 Group B ‐ Educational buildings
 Group C ‐ Institutional buildings
 Group D ‐ Assembly buildings
 Group E ‐ Business buildings
 Group F ‐ Mercantile buildings
 Group G ‐ Industrial buildings
 Group H ‐ Storage buildings
 Group I ‐ Hazardous buildings

 Group A – Residential buildings

The buildings which are provided with sleeping accommodation for normal
residential purposes, with or without cooking/dining or both the facilities, except those
under Group C. Sub‐divisions of Group A are:

o Sub‐group A‐1 ‐ Lodging or rooming houses

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o Sub‐group A‐2 ‐ One or two family private dwellings

 Detached houses
 Semi‐detached houses
 Row of houses
 Apartments or flats
 Duplex type apartments
 Skyscrapers
o Sub‐group A‐3 ‐ Dormitories
o Sub‐group A‐4 ‐ Apartment houses (Flats)
o Sub‐group A‐5 ‐ Hotels

Sub‐group A‐1: Lodging or rooming houses

Any building or a group of buildings under the same management in which
separate sleeping accommodation for a total of not more than 15 persons on either
transient or permanent basis with or without dining facilities.

Sub‐group A‐2: One or two family private dwellings

Any private dwelling which is occupied by members of a single family and has a
total sleeping accommodation for not more than 20 persons. If rented to outsiders, it
should be for accommodating not more than 3 persons.

Different types of dwellings:

 Detached house – All walls and roofs are independent of any other building
with proper set‐back distances on all sides. Plot size: minimum 250 m2;
Frontage: 12 m.
 Semi‐detached house – Three sides are detached with proper set back
distances. Plot size: 125 to 250 m2; Frontage: 8 to 12 m.
 Row of houses – Two sides are detached with proper set‐back distances. Plot
size: 50 to 125 m2; Frontage: 4.5 to 8 m. Very common in cities like Mumbai,
Kolkata, Chennai, etc.
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 Flat/Terrace house – A group of dwelling units separated by horizontal

divisions. A single flat generally has 3 to 4 rooms with usual amenities
provided for one family.
 Duplex house – It is a type of detached or semi‐detached house provided
with an accommodation of single dwelling at two or more floors. Interesting
spaces due to differences in level.

Sub‐group A‐3: Dormitories

Any building in which group sleeping accommodation is provided with or without
dining facilities for persons who are not the members of same family in a single room or
a series of rooms, under single management.

Sub‐group A‐4: Apartment houses / Flats

Any building or structure in which living quarters are provided for 3 or more
families living independently with separate cooking facilities.

Sub‐group A‐5: Hotels

Any building or group of buildings under single management in which sleeping
accommodation with or without dining facilities is provided for more than 15 persons.

 Group B – Educational buildings

Any school, building or day‐care centre used for educational purpose for more
than 8 hours a week involving assembly for instruction, education or recreation and
which is not covered by Group D comes under this group.

 Group C – Institutional buildings

These include any building or part thereof, which is used for purposes like medical
or other treatment/care of persons suffering from physical or mental illness, diseases or
infirmity, care of infants, aged persons, etc. Sub‐divisions of Group C are:

o Sub‐group C‐1 ‐ Hospitals and Sanitaria

Hospitals, clinics, sanitaria, etc. under single management
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o Sub‐group C‐2 ‐ Custodial Institutions

Orphanages, old age homes, etc.
o Sub‐group C‐3 ‐ Penal Institutions
Jails, prisons, mental sanitaria, etc.

 Group D – Assembly buildings

Any building or part of a building like theatres, assembly halls, restaurants, places
of worship, dance halls, club house, air terminals, surface and marine public
transportation service, recreation piers, sports stadium, gymnasiums, skating rings, etc.
where group of people gather for amusement, recreation, social, religious or other
similar purposes are included in Group D. Subdivisions of this group are:

o Sub‐group D‐1
 Fixed seats over 1000 persons
 Primarily meant for theatrical or operatic performances
o Sub‐group D‐2
 Seating capacity of less than 1000 persons
o Sub‐group D‐3
 Primarily meant for assembly of more than 300 persons without
permanent seating arrangement
o Sub‐group D‐4
 Primarily meant for assembly of less than 300 persons without
permanent seating arrangement
o Sub‐group D‐5
 Any building meant for outdoor assembly of people not covered by
sub‐groups D‐1 to D‐4
10 MODULE I

 Group E – Business buildings

Any building or part of a building which is used for the transaction of business
(other than Group F), for keeping of accounts and records, barber shops, lunch
counters serving less than 100 people, is included in Group E.

 Group F – Mercantile buildings

This group includes any building or part of a building which is used as shops,
offices, stores, markets, showrooms for display and sale of merchandise either whole
sale or retail.

 Group G – Industrial buildings

This group includes any building or part of a building in which products or materials
of all kinds and properties are fabricated, assembled or processed. These include
assembly plants, smoke houses, gas plants, refineries, diaries, textile mills and saw mills.

 Group H – Storage buildings

This group includes any building or part of a building which is primarily used for
storage or sheltering of goods, wares or merchandise except those which are highly
combustible/explosive products, vehicles or animals. These include warehouses, cold
storages, freight depots, transit sheds, store houses, truck and marine terminals,
garages, etc.

 Group I – Hazardous buildings

This group includes any building or part of a building which is used as storage,
handling, manufacture or processing of highly combustible or explosive materials or
products which may produce poisonous fumes or which are highly corrosive or toxic, or
acids and other chemicals producing flames/fumes, irritant gases, or which require any
material producing explosive mixtures. This group includes:
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i. Storage under pressure of 0.1 N/mm2 and in quantities exceeding 70 m3 of

acetylene, hydrogen, illuminating and natural gases, ammonia, chlorine, SO2,
CO2, methyl oxide and all gases subject to explosion, fume or toxic hazard
ii. Storage and handling of hazardous and highly inflammable liquids and other
materials
iii. Manufacture of artificial flowers, synthetic leather, explosives and fireworks

 Selection of Site for Buildings

For good planning and designing of buildings, the site selection is the one of the
most important factor. The following general principles should be kept in mind while
selecting a site for a building:

 The purpose of building and extend of privacy is desired

 The site should be located in fully developed or fast developing locality
 The site should be located in such a way that community services like police
and fire protection, clearing of waste and street cleaning, utility services like
water‐supply, electricity, etc., amenities like school, hospital, market, etc.
and means of transport are also available
 Before selecting a site, one should study the bye‐laws of the local authority,
which put before restrictions regarding proportions of plots to be built up,
open spaces and margins to be left around, heights, etc.
 Area of plot should be such that the building constructed on it meets the
requirement of the owner, after following certain restrictions of local
authority
 Shape of the plot should not be irregular, and should not be having any
sharp corners
 The site should be situated on an elevated place and also levelled with
uniform slopes from one end to the other to provide good drainage of rain
water
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 The soil of the site should be good enough with high Safe Bearing Capacity
to provide economical foundations
 The site should be situated in a naturally beautiful environment which
creates healthy living and working conditions
 The site should be away from quarries, kilns, factories, industries, rivers with
heavy flood, etc., if possible
 The legal and financial aspects should also be given due consideration

Components of a Residential Building

Figure 1. Components of a residential building

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Usually a building is divided into three parts:

i. Foundation
ii. Plinth
iii. Superstructure

Foundation is the part of a building constructed below ground level and which is in
direct contact with sub‐strata and transmits all the loads to the sub‐soil.

Plinth is the building above the ground level and up to the floor level immediately
above the ground.

Superstructure is the part of the building constructed above the plinth level.

The Table 1.1 gives the functions of different structural components of a building.

Table 1. Important building components and their functions

Building Component Function(s)

Transmits the loads; supports the superstructure; provides stability.
Foundation Provides safety against scouring
Helps in transmitting loads from superstructure to substructure;
Plinth Protects the building from moisture rainwater, dust, insects, termite, etc.
Supports beam and slab; transmits the loads.

Wall Provides partition, privacy and safety;

Protects building against heat, cold, rain, noise, fire, etc.
Supports beam and slab
Column Transmit the loads
Gives a plane and levelled surface for the occupants, furniture, the equipment,
Floor etc.
Covers the top of the building
Roof Gives protection against rain, heat, snow. Sound, wind, etc.
Permits entry, exit, light and ventilation to the building
Door Imparts safety and privacy to the building
Gives nice scenic view to the building
Window Permits light and ventilation

Step For access in building from GL to upper floors

Stair For vertical circulation among the floors in the building

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Lintel, Arch Gives support to the wall above the openings in wall

Sill It gives support to the bottom of window openings

Supports the slab
Beam Transmits loads coming from slab to column or wall

Weather shed Protects the walls of the buildings from sun, heat and rain
(Sun shade)
Parapet Provides boundary to the terrace and encloses it

Industrial buildings

Any building structure used by the industry to store raw materials or for
manufacturing products of the industry is known as an industrial building. It provides
facility in such a way that the space is used primarily for research, development,
service, production, storage or distribution of goods which may also include some
office space.

Industrial buildings may be classified as:

 Normal Type Industrial buildings

 Special Type Industrial buildings

Normally industrial buildings are shed type buildings, with simple roof structures
on open frames. These buildings are used for workshops, warehouses, etc. These
buildings require large and clear areas unobstructed by the columns. The large floor
area provides sufficient flexibility and facility for a later change in the production layout
without major alterations to the building.

Industrial floors shall have sufficient resistance to abrasion, impact, acid action
and temperature depending on the type of activity carried out in the building.
15 MODULE I

Various components of Building-

1. Foundation-
It is a very important part of a building. All the loads of superstructure are transmitted to
the foundation.
2. Plinth-
The plinth is a dividing line between the substructure and superstructure. Thus, the
projecting part of the wall above the ground level to the floor level is the plinth.
3. Plinth Beam.
It is capped by a beam called plinth beam. The provision of a plinth beam and damp-proof
course at plinth level are very important in building construction.
4. Damp Proof Course (D.P.C).
The damp proof course is a layer provided in building to prevent the entering of dampness
from the ground to the building components.
5. Walls and Columns.
Walls are mostly made of masonry. It may be of brick, block-work, stonework, etc.
Buildings may also be constructed as a framed structure with columns and footings and
then Walled.
6. Floors.
Floor is an important part of a building. It is the place where the inhabitants perform their
most activities. It is constructed on the filling and laid over the plinth level. Floors are
usually made from different types of materials, such as, timber, brick, R.C.C. Top floors
are nowadays usually made of reinforced concrete.
7. Roof.
A roof is an important part of all buildings. The most important item in housing is to have a
“roof over one’s head.” A roof is a layer which covers the structure from the top. It also
prevents the building and inhabitants from the ill effects of the environment. Depending on
the finances available and also the climatic conditions, we can have different kinds of
roofs. Roofs can be sloped or flat.
8. Stairs and Lifts.
Nowadays most buildings are made more than one storey high. Which means there should
be a way to go from one storey of the building to another.
9.Building Finishes.
The final appearance of a building depends very much on its finishing.
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17 MODULE I

Brick masonry
Brick masonry is built with bricks bonded together with mortar. For temporary sheds mud
mortar may be used but for all permanent buildings lime or cement mortars are used.
The various types of bonds generally used in brick masonry are
1. Stretcher bond
2. Header bond
3. English bond and
4. Flemish bond.

1. Stretcher Bond:
A stretcher is the longer face of the brick as seen in the elevation. In the brick of size 190 mm
× 90 mm × 90 mm, 190 mm × 90 mm face is the stretcher. In stretcher bond masonry all the
bricks are arranged in stretcher courses as shown in Fig. 2.6.1 However care should be taken
to break vertical joints. This type of construction is useful for the construction half brick thick
partition wall.
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Header Bond:
A header is the shorter face of the brick as seen in the elevation. In a standard brick it is 90
mm × 90 mm face. In header bond brick masonry all the bricks are arranged in the header
courses as shown in Fig. 2.6.2. This type of bond is useful for the construction of one brick
thick wall.

English Bond:
In this alternate courses consist of headers and stretchers. This is considered to be the
strongest bond. Hence it is commonly used bond for the walls of all thicknesses. To break
continuity of vertical joints a brick is cut lengthwise into two halves and used in the
beginning and end of a wall after first header. This is called queen closer. Figure 2.6.3 shows
typical one brick and one and half brick thick wall with English bond.
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Flemish Bond:
In this type of bond each course comprises of alternate header and stretcher fig 2.6.4
Alternate courses start with stretcher and header. To break the vertical joints queen closers
are required, if a course starts with header. Every header is centrally supported on the
stretcher below it.
Flemish bonds may be further classified as
(a) Double Flemish Bond
(b) Single Flemish Bond.
In case of double flemish bond, both faces of the wall have flemish look, i.e. each course
consist of alternate header and stretcher, whereas single flemish bond outer faces of walls
have flemish look whereas inner faces have look of English bond Construction of flemish
bond needs greater skill. It gives more pleasing appearance. But it is not as strong as
English bond. If only pointing is to be used for finished wall, flemish bond may be used to
get good aesthetic view. If plastering is going to be used, it is better to use English bond.

The Points should be observed in the construction of brick masonry:

1. Use bricks of good quality with uniform colour, well burnt, with exact shape and size.
2. Before using the bricks in masonry, they should be soaked in water for 2 hours so that
bricks do not absorb water from the mortar.
3. Bricks should be laid with the frog pointing upward.
4. Construction of brick wall should start from the end or corner.
5. Brick courses should be perfectly horizontal.
6. Verticality of the wall should be ensured by frequently checking with plumb-bob.
7. Mortar used should be as per specification.
8. Whenever work is stopped brick masonry should be left with toothed end.
9. Use of brick bats should be avoided.
10.Brick masonry should be regularly cured for 2 weeks.
11.For carrying out brick work at higher levels, only single scaffolding should be used.
Advantages:
1. Since shape and size of bricks are uniform, it do not need skilled labour for the
construction.
2. Bricks are light in weight and hence handling them is easy.
3.Bricks are easily available around cities and their transportation cost is less because their
weight is less. Stones are to be brought from quarries which are located only at few places.
4.It is possible to use all types of mortar in brick masonry. For unimportant buildings even
mud mortar can be used.
5. Thinner walls can be constructed with bricks but it is not so with stones.
6. It is easy to form openings for doors and windows.
7. Dead load of brick masonry is less.
8. In brick masonry mortar joints are thin and hence construction cost is reduced
considerably.
9. Brick masonry has better fire and weather resistance compared to stone masonry.
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Disadvantages:
1. Strength of brick masonry is less than that of stone masonry.
2. Durability of brick masonry is less.
3. Brick masonry needs plastering and plastered surface needs colour washing. Stone
masonry don’t need them and hence maintenance cost is more in brick masonry.
4. Brick masonry absorbs water and there are possibility of dampness. There is no such
problem in stone masonry.
5. More architectural effects can be given in stone masonry compared to that in brick
masonry.
6. Stone masonry gives massive appearance and hence monumental buildings are built in
stone masonry.
STONE MASONRY
The construction of stones bonded together with mortar is termed as stone masonry. It can
provide an economical material for the construction of various building components such as
walls, columns, footing, lintels, beams etc.
Uses-
Building foundations, walls, architectural works, monuments etc.
Selection of Stone for Stone Masonry-
Availability of the Material
Ease of Working
Appearance
Strength & stability
Polishing Characteristics
Economy & durability
Principle –
It should hard, hard & durable.
The pressure acting on the wall should be vertical.
It should be perfectly dressed as per requirements.
The mortar to be used should be good quality.
The construction work on the stone masonry should be raised uniformly.
It should be properly cured after completion of work for a period of 1-2 weeks.
Types of Stone Masonry
There are 2 types of stone masonry
Rubble masonry- stones are used either undressed or roughly dressed having wider joints.
It canbe divided into various types- coursed, uncoursed, random, dry, polygonal.
Ashlar masonry- It is built from accurately dressed stone with uniform and fine joints of
about 3mm in thickness. It can be divided into following types Fine, rough and quarry.
ROOF –
Roof is the upper most portion of the building which protects the building from rain, wind
and sun. Various types of roofs used may be divided broadly into three types:
1. Flat roofs 2. Pitched roofs 3. Shells and folded plates.
Flat roofs are used in plains where rainfall is less and climate is moderate. Pitched roofs are
preferred wherever rainfall is more. Shells and folded plate roofs are used to cover large
column free areas required for auditoriums, factories etc. Brief description of these roofs is
presented below
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Flat Roofs:
These roofs are nearly flat. However slight slope (not more than 10°) is given to drain out
the rain water. All types of upper storey floors can serve as flat roofs. Many times top of
these roofs are treated with water proofing materials-like mixing water proofing chemicals in
concrete.
The advantages of flat roofs are:
(a)The roof can be used as a terrace for playing and celebrating functions.
(b) At any latter stage the roof can be converted as a floor by adding another storey.
(c) They can suit to any shape of the building.
(d) Over-head water tanks and other services can be located easily.
(e) They can be made fire proof easily compared to pitched roof.
The disadvantages of flat roofs are:
(a) They cannot cover large column free areas.
(b) Leakage problem may occur at latter date also due to development of cracks. Once
leakage problem starts, it needs costly treatments.
(c) The initial cost of construction is more.
(d) Speed of construction of flat roofs is less.

Pitched Roofs:
In the areas of heavy rain falls and snow fall sloping roof are used. The slope of roof shall be
more than 10°. They may have slopes as much as 45° to 60° also. The sloped roofs are
known as pitched roofs. The sloping roofs are preferred in large spanned structures like
workshops, factory buildings and ware houses. In all these roofs covering sheets like A.C.
sheet, G.I. sheets, tiles, slates etc. are supported on suitable structures. The pitched roofs are
classified into
(a) Single roofs (b) Double or purlin roofs (c) Trussed roofs.

Shells and Folded Plate Roofs:

Shell roof may be defined as a curved surface, the thickness of which is small compared to
the other dimensions.
Advantages of shell roofs are:
(a) Good from aesthetic point of view
(b) Material consumption is quite less
(c) Form work can be removed early
(d) Large column free areas can be covered.
Disadvantages are:

(a) Top surface is curved and hence advantage of terrace is lost.

(b) Form work is costly.

 MODULE -I- BUILDING MATERIALS
BRICKS

Bricks are prepared by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then drying and burning
these blocks. In order to get a good quality brick, the brick earth should contain following constituents.
Constituents of Good brick earth
Silica
 Brick earth should contain about 50 to 60 % of silica.
 It prevents cracking, shrinking and warping of bricks.
Alumina
 Good brick earth should contain about 20% to 30% of alumina.
 It imparts plasticity to earth, for moulding operation.
 If present in excess, then the raw brick shrink and warp during drying.
Lime
 The percentage of lime should be in the range of 5% to 10% in a good brick earth.
 It causes silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it.
Iron oxide
 A good brick earth should contain about 5% to 7% of iron oxide.
 It imparts red color to the bricks.
 It improves impermeability & gives hardness.

Size of brick
Conventional / Traditional bricks: Size 23 cm x 11.4 cm x 7.6 cm. Standard / Modular: Size: 19 cm x 9
cm x 9 cm. With mortar joints the size of these bricks will be 20cmx 10cmx 10cm...
Qualities/characteristics of bricks- refer answer key
1. Hardness 2 Soundness 3) Fire resistance 4) Strength. 5) Water absorption. 6) Efflorescence.
7)Texture 8) Thermal Conductivity-
Classification of Bricks as per common practice:
Bricks, which are used in construction works, are burnt bricks. Unburnt bricks (dried in sunlight) used
for filling works. Classified into four categories on the basis of its manufacturing and preparation,
First Class Bricks:
These bricks are table moulded and of standard shape and they are burnt in kilns. The surface and edges
of the bricks are sharp, square, smooth and straight.
Second Class Bricks:
These bricks are ground moulded & they are burnt in kilns. The surface of these bricks is rough and
shape is slightly irregular. May have hair cracks and their edges may not be sharp & uniform.
Third Class Bricks:
These bricks are ground moulded & they are burnt in clamps. They have rough surfaces with irregular
& distorted edges. They are used for temporary structures & at places where rainfall is not heavy.
Fourth Class Bricks:
These are over burnt bricks with irregular shape and dark color. These bricks are used as aggregate for
concrete in foundations, floors, roads due to the fact that the over burnt bricks have compact structure
Uses of bricks:
 A fire brick is used for lining the interiors of ovens, chimneys and furnaces.
 Broken brick are used as ballast material for railway tracks, and also as a road metal.
 Extensively used for construction of load-bearing walls and partition walls.
 Used for face-work when artistic effect is required.
CEMENT
Cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other materials together. The cement is
obtained by burning a mixture of calcareous (calcium) & argillaceous (clay) material at a very high
temperature and then grinding the clinker so produced to a fine powder
Ordinary Portland cement- It consists of dry powder of very fine particles & forms a paste when mixed
with water. This paste coats all the aggregates together as well as hardens & forms a solid mass. It holds
Adhesion & cohesion properties. Chemical reaction like heat of Hydration occurs when mixed with water

Physical & chemical Properties, Grades of cement- refer answer key & ppt
Uses of Cement- Cement is used widely for the construction of various structures. Some of them are
(i) Cement slurry is used for filling cracks, in concrete structures.
(ii) Cement mortar is used for masonry work, plastering and pointing.
(iii) Cement concrete is used for the construction of various structures like buildings, bridges.
Water tanks, tunnels, docks, harbors, Preparation of foundation, etc.
(v) For manufacturing cement pipes, railway sleepers, and precast structures

Ingredients /constituents of cement

percentage Constituents Function

Sio2 17% - 25% Silica(C2S& C3S) Imparts strength. Excess increases setting time too
Al2O3 3 to 8% Alumina imparts to set quickly
Cao 62 - 67% Lime It provides strength. Excess lime causes to expand &
disintegrate
Fe203 0.50 to 6% Iron oxide Provide color, hardness & strength
MgO 0.10 to 4 % Magnesia Provides, hardness &color. excess makes unsound
CaSo4 4 % (gypsum) Increase the initial setting time of concrete
So3 1-2.75% Sulphur trioxide Making sound cement.
Different Types of cement & their uses
Rapid hardening Portland cement
• It contains more C3 S are less C2 S than the OPC
• Its 3 days strength is same as 7 days strength of O.P.C. Used in concrete where form work is
removed at an early stage.
Low heat Portland cement
• Heat generated in OPC at 3days 80cal/gm. While in low heat cement it is 50cal/gm of cement.
 • Reduce and delay the heat of hydration. Used in massive concrete construction like gravity dams
Sulphate resisting Portland cement
• It is used in construction exposed to severe sulphate action by water and soil in places like
canals linings, culverts, retaining walls,
• Maximum % of C3A below 6% which increases power against sulphates
Blast Furnace Slag cement
• For this cement, the slag as obtained from blast furnace is used
• The clinkers of cement are ground with about 60 to 65 percent of slag.
• It proves to be economical, as slag is a Waste product, is used in its manufactures.
Pozzolanic cement
• As per Indian standard, the proportions of Pozzolana may be 10 to 25 % by weight.
• It imparts higher degree of water tightness
 used in marine structures, sewage works, & for laying concrete under water
White Portland cement
• Grey color is due to presence of Iron Oxide. Hence in White Cement FeO2 is limited to 1%. •:
• It is quick drying, possesses high strength and has superior aesthetic values
• White Cement are used in Swimming pools, painting furniture, moulding sculptures & statues

CONCRETE

Concrete is a composite material composed mainly of binding material, water, aggregate, and cement.
This can be easily moulded to desired shape and size before it loses plasticity and hardens. Often,
additives and reinforcements are included in the mixture to achieve the desired physical properties of the
finished material.
Constituents of Concrete and their Requirements
The materials that go to form concrete are:
1. Binding material, which is cement or lime. - Cement or lime binds aggregate by virtue of its inherent
properties of setting or hardening in combination with water. It helps to fill the voids and gives density to
the concrete. stone dust, als added in mortar
2. Fine aggregate, which is sand or stone dust.- dust serves to fill the voids in coarse aggregate and
reduce the quantity of cement. It prevents shrinkage & cracks when mortar sets.
3. Coarse aggregate which are broken stone or broken brick. - Forms the main hulk of concrete around
the surfaces of which the binding materials adhere in the form of a film.
4. Water- suitable for drinking. Free from harmful ingredients such as oil, alkali, acid. It activates the
hydration of cement.
A small quantity of admixtures like air entraining agents, water proofing agents, workability
agents etc. may also be added to impart special properties to the plain concrete mixture.
Grades of concrete & their uses

grades Proportion of Uses

concrete
M5 1:5:10 Strong walls &foundations
M7.5 1:4:8 Mass concretes like dam, foundation course for walls, for making concrete blocks.
M10 1:3:6 Culverts, retaining walls, Flooring, Piers, abutments
M15 1:2:4 PCC
M20 1:1.5:3 RCC works- machine foundation,stairs,beams
M25 1:1:2 Water retaining structures, pile, footings for steel columns
M30 Design mixes Heavy loaded RC columns, RCC arches
M35 Design mix Pressed concrete

Properties of Concrete
Concrete has completely different properties when it is the plastic stage and when hardened.
The properties of green concrete include: Workability, Segregation, Bleeding, and Harshness.
The properties of hardened concrete are: Strength, Resistance to wear, Durability, and Impermeability.
Plain Cement Concrete
Plain concrete is a hard mixture of cement, fine, coarse aggregate & water. It is strong in compression but
very weak in tension
Reinforced Cement Concrete
Concrete is good in resisting compressive stress but very weak in resisting tensile stresses. Hence
reinforcement is provided in the concrete wherever tensile stress is expected. Since elastic modulus &
tensile strength of steel is quite high compared to concrete, the force & bond developed in steel is high. A
cage of reinforcements is prepared as per the design requirements, kept in the form work and then green
concrete is poured. After the concrete hardens, the form work is removed. The composite material of steel
and concrete, now called R.C.C. acts as a structural member
PCC RCC
Suitable for compression only Can resist tensile as well as compressive forces
Bears Less loads efficiently.
Doesn't withstand fire & weather Bear heavier loads
Low tensile strength & ductility Resistant to erosion & abrasion
Volume instability Stress can be transmitted to steel
Internal stress developed due to linear Good ductile property
expansion Impermeable to moisture so used for water
retaining structures

Uses of R.C.C.
R.C.C. is used as a structural member wherever bending of the member is expected. The Common
structural elements in a building where R.C.C. is used are: Footing & Columns
R.C.C. is used for the construction of storage structures like: Water tanks & Dams
R.C.C. is used for building tall structures like Multistorey buildings, Chimneys, towers
R.C.C. is used for paving High ways, City roads, Airports
 CEMENT MORTAR

Mortar is an intimate mixture of binding material, fine aggregate and water. When water is added to the
dry mixture of binding material (cement) and the inert material, binding material develops the property
that binds not only the inert material (sand) but also the surrounding stones and bricks. Other mortars
commonly used are lime mortar and mud mortar
Properties of Cement Mortar
Good building mortar should have following properties:
1. It should be easily workable, 2) gain sufficient strength for the work.
3. It should join the bricks or stones to give a tight joint.
4. A mix richer than 1:3 is prone to shrinkage.
5. Well-proportioned mortar provides impervious surface.
Preparation of mortar
For preparing mortar, first a mixture of cement and sand is made thoroughly mixing them in dry
condition. Water is gradually added and mixed with shovels.
The cement to sand proportion recommended for plastering concrete 1:3 & Masonry works 1:6 to 1:8
Curing- Cement gains the strength gradually with hydration. Hence it is necessary to see that mortar is
wet till hydration has taken place. The process to ensure sufficient moisture for hydration after laying
mortar/concrete is called curing. Curing is ensured by spraying water. Curing normally starts 6–24 hours
after mortar is used. It may be noted that in the initial period water requirement is more for hydration and
gradually it reduces. Curing is recommended for 28 days.

STEEL
Steel is an alloy of ferrous metal with 0.25 to 1.5 per cent of carbon. Higher the carbon content, harder is
the steel. Steel bars of circular cross sections are used as reinforcement to strengthen concrete structures.

Types of reinforcement bars

Plain steel bars- Round sections. Composed of Mild steel and medium tensile steel. Plain steel bars –
5mm to 32mm.Designated as Fe250. Used as window bars, for grills and for making steel gates
High yield strength bars /TOR Steel- provided with ribs deformation on surface so that bond between
concrete and steel improves. These bars are available in diameters 8 to 40 mm...
High tensile bars are used as reinforcement in prestressed concrete
Uses of Mild Steel:
(i) Round bars are extensively used as reinforcement in R.C.C. works.
(ii) Rolled sections like I, T, L, C, plates etc. are used to build steel columns, beams, trusses etc.
(iii) Tubular sections are used as poles and members of trusses.
(iv) Plain and corrugated mild steel are used as roofing materials.
(v) Mild steel sections are used in making parts of many machineries.

Structural Steel Sections / Market Forms of Steel

 Rolled steel bar section:
• Indian Standard Round Bars (ISRO):
 Designated as ISRO 10 (round bars having diameter 10mm)
 Available in diameter varying from 6mm to 25mm
 • Indian Standard square bars (ISSQ):
 Designated as ISSQ 10 (square bars of size 10mm)
 Used for grillwork, handrails for staircases etc.
 Rolled Steel Plate Section ( ISPL):
• Designated as ISPL 500 x 5 (500mm width and 5mm thickness)
• Used for construction of water tanks & other storage structures, base plate for foundations
 Rolled Steel Angle Sections (ISA)- Designated as ISA and width and length of legs
 Equal angle sections- i) Two legs will be equal in length
ii) Available in sizes varying from 20mm x 20mm x 3mm to 200mm x 200mm x 25mm
 Unequal angle sections- i) Two legs will be unequal in length.
ii) Available in sizes varying from 30mm x 20mm x3mm x 3mm to 200mm x 150 mm x 18mm
 Rolled steel Tee sections:
• Available in sizes varying from 20mm x 20mm x 3mm to 150mm x 150mm x 10mm.
• Widely used as members of the steel roof truss and form built – up sections
• Different types available are: Indian Standard Normal Tee (ISNT), Indian Standard Heavy
Tee (ISHT)
 Rolled Steel Channel Sections:
• Consists of a web and two equal flanges.Designated by height of web and width of flange
• Available in sizes varying from 100mm x 45mm to 400mm x 100mm.
• Widely used for beams and columns
 Rolled Steel I – Sections
• Consists of 2 flanges connected by a web.Designated of overall depth & width of flange.
• Available in sizes varying from 75mm x 50mm to 600mm x210mm
• Different types are: Indian Standard junior beam (ISJB), Indian Standard Light Beam
(ISLB), Indian Standard Medium Beam (ISMB)

DIFFERENCE B/W MILD STEEL & HYSD BARS

MILD STEEL BARS (HYSD)/ TOR STEEL

 malleable and ductile, elastic  Cold twisted deformed bars

 Plain steel bars – 5mm to  Tor steel bars – longitudinal ribs in the form
32mm of continuous helix
 Yield strength – 250 N/mm2 &  High yield strength
Young’s modulus is 2× 105  Mean diameters – 8mm to 40mm
 Equally strong in tension & in  Can be bent 180’ without cracks
compression.  Designated as Fe415,Fe500, Fe550
 Specific gravity-7.8  Note- (No. indicates the tensile strength)
 Surveying & Levelling
Surveying is the art of determination of relative position of points on the surface, below the surface or even
above the surface.

It is the process of determining relative positions of different objects on the surface of the earth by
measuring horizontal distances between them and preparing a map to any suitable scale.

Levelling is a part of surveying which main objective is to determine the elevation of points with respect to
a datum.

Levelling is a process of determining the height of one level relative to another. It is used in surveying to
establish the elevation of a point relative to a datum.

Objective of Surveying-

The primary object of survey is the preparation of plan estate or buildings roads to determine precise
positions on the surface of the, railways, pipelines, canals, etc. Or to measure area of field, state, nation of
widely distant points.

Principle of Surveying-

According to the first principle, the whole area is first enclosed by main stations (i.e. controlling stations)
and main survey lines (i.e. controlling lines). The area is then divided into a number of parts by forming
well conditioned triangles.

According to The second principle is that; all survey work must be checked in such a way that an error will
be apparent before the survey is completed.

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Classification of Surveying

Generally, Surveying is divided into two major categories:

➢ Primary classification
➢ Secondary classification

Primary classification- It is of 2 types

➢ Plane Surveying
➢ Geodetic Surveying.

1) Plane Survey:- For small projects covering Area less than 200 sq.km. Earth curvature is not counted
for in distances. Earth surface is considered as plane. (Angular error of 1” in 200 sq. km. area by assuming
plane).
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2) Geodetic Survey:- When survey extends over a large areas more than 200 sq. km. and degree of accuracy
is also great. The curvature of earth is also taken into account. Geodetic survey is used to provide control
points to which small surveys can be connected.

Based on the instrument used

Surveys can be classified into i) Chain tape surveys ii) Compass surveys iii) Plane table surveys iv)
theodelite surveys Classification based on the surface and the area surveyed i) Land survey Land surveys
are done for objects on the surface of the earth.

On the basis of Object of survey the classification can be as engineering survey, military survey,
mines survey, geological survey and Archeological survey.
There are three types of surveying based upon the nature of field which are as follows: Land Surveying: It
can be further classified as i) Topographical survey ii) Cadastrial Survey and iii) City Survey.

Based on methods adopted Surveying can be classified into:

1) Triangulation: The tracing and measurement of a series or network of triangles in order to determine the
distances and relative positions of points spread over an area, especially by measuring the length of one side
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of each triangle and deducing its angles and the length of the other two sides by observation from this
baseline.

Triangulation
2) Traversing: The length and direction of any survey line can be measured with any direction measuring
instrument such as compass,theodolite and for measuring length chain or tape can be used.

Traversing

A traverse is a series of connected lines whose lengths and directions are to be measured and the process of
surveying to find such measurements is known as traversing.

Linear Measurement-
The determination of the distance between two points on the surface of the earth is one of the basic
operations of surveying. Measurement of horizontal distances or measuring linear measurement is required
in chain surveying,

Angular Measurement-
Its primary objective of angle measurement is to measure angles. The angle is defined as the opening
between two lines which meet at a point.

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Chain surveying

It is the branch of surveying in which only linear measurements are made in the field. This is suitable for
the survey of small areas with simple details and an area that is fairly flat. It derives its name from the fact
that the principle equipment commonly used is the chain.

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 Types of Chains used in Surveying
• Metric chains.
• Steel band or Band chain.
• Gunter's chain or surveyor's chain.
• Engineer's chain.
• Revenue chain.

1. Metric Chain:

• Metric chains are made in lengths 20m and 30m. Tallies are fixed at every five-meter length
and brass rings are provided at every meter length except where tallies are attached.

2. Gunter’s Chain

• Length = 66’ (22 yards), No of links = 100, Each link = .66’

• Used for measuring distances in miles or furlongs (220 yards), acres (Area).

3. Engineer’s Chain

• Length = 100’, No of links = 100, Each link = 1’

• Used in all Engineering Surveys.

4. Revenue Chain

• Length = 33’, No of links = 16

• Commonly used for measuring fields in cadastral Survey.

Different types of Tapes-

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1. Cloth or linen tape

• Used for subsidiary measurements

• Very light, easy to handle
• May effect by moisture

2. Metric steel tape

• Made of steel
• Outer end is provided with a ring for holding

3. Invar tape

• Used for high precision work

• Made of alloy steel

4. Synthetic tape
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 • Made of glass fiber with PVC coating
• These are used for short measurements.

DIRECT MEASUREMENT METHOD

Direct measurement is obtaining the measurement directly which means measuring the length directly using
simple equipment and there is no need to solve hard equations..! In the Direct methods, the distance is
actually measured during field work using a chain or a tape.

The following instruments are used while chaining:

1. Chains
2. Tapes
3. Arrows
4. Ranging rods and offset rods
5. Pegs
6. Plumb-bob

CHAIN
The chain is composed of 100 or 150 pieces of galvanized mild steel wire called links, joined together with
oval rings and handles at both ends. The end of each link are bent into a loop and connected together by
means of three oval rings. The ends of the chain are provided with brass handles for easy handling. The
length of chain is measured from one handle to other handle.

ARROWS OR CHAIN PINS

They are also called as marking or chaining pins and are used to mark the end of chain during the process of
chaining. They are made up of good quality hardened and tempered steel wire of 4mm in diameter. The
arrows are made 400 mm in length. The one pointed part of an arrow is inserted into ground and the other is
attached with ring.

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RANGING RODS OR OFFSET RODS OR RANGING POLES
Ranging rods or offset rods are round poles made up of wood or metal. These rods are used to range
intermediate points of a survey and to set out straight lines on the field when the surveying length is long.
The only difference between ranging rods and poles is the length. Ranging rods and offset rods are
commonly occurs in 3m length but the ranging poles are available up to 8m length. The rods possess a metal
point at its bottom and the rod or pole is painted with red & white or black & white successive combination.
When the survey lines are too lengthy a flag with red/white/yellow colour will be attached to the top of the
pole for easy identification.

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PEGS
The pegs are made up with wood and they used to mark the survey positions or terminals.

The size of the pegs (40 to 60 cm) depends on the type of survey work they are used for and the type of soil
they have to be driven in. Although the pegs are driven into the ground 1/5 th of its part should be visible on
the ground surface.

PLUMB-BOB

A string suspended with a weight at the bottom will be both vertical and perpendicular to any level plane
through which it passes. The plumb consists of a specially designed weight and coarse string or special
threads. At one end of the string the weight is affixed. Precisely machined and balanced bobs have pointed
tips, and can be made of brass, steel, or other materials, including plastic.

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Tape Corrections
Correction for absolute length, (ii) Correction for temperature, (iii) Correction for tension or Pull, (iv)
Correction for Compression or Sag, and (v) Correction for slope or vertical alignment.

A correction is said to be plus or positive when the uncorrected length is to be increased,

and minus or negative when it is to be decreased in order to obtain true length.

Correction for Absolute Length: - It is the usual practice to express the absolute length of a tape as
its nominal or designated length plus or minus a correction. The correction for the measured length is given
by the formula,

Ca = Lc / l ------------------- (1)

Where Ca = the correction for absolute length.

L = the measured length of a line.

l = the nominal length of a tape.

C = the correction to a tape.

The sign of the correction (Ca) will be the same as that of c. it may be noted that L and l must be expressed
in the same units and the unit of Ca is the same as that of c.

Correction for Temperature: - It is necessary to apply this correction, since the length of a tape is
increased as its temperature is raised, and consequently, the measured distance is too small. It is given by
the formula,

Ct = a (Tm – To)L-----------(2)

in which Ct = the correction for temperature, in m.

a = the coefficient of thermal expansion.

Tm = the mean temperature during measurement.

To = the temperature at which the tape is standardized.

L = the measure length in m.

The sign of the correction is plus or minus according as Tm is greater or less

than To. The coefficient of expansion for steel varies from 10.6 x 10-6 to 12.2 x 10-6 per degree centigrade
and that for invar from 5.4 x 10-7 to 7.2 x 10-7. If the coefficient of expansion of a tape is not known, an
average value of 11.4 x 10-6 for steel and
6.3 x 10-7 for invar may be assumed. For very precise work, the coefficient of expansion for the tape in
question must be carefully determined.

Correction for Pull (or Tension): - The correction is necessary when the pull used during measurement is
different from that at which the tape is standardized. It is given by the formula,

Cp = (P-Po)L / AE ----------(3)

Where Cp = the correction for pull in metres.

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 P = the pull applied during measurement, in newtons (N).

Po= the pull under which the tape is standardized in newtons (N).

L = the measured length in metres.

A = the cross-sectional area of the tape, in sq.cm.

E = the modulus of elasticity of steel.

The value of E for steel may be taken as 19.3 to 20.7 x 1010 N/m2 and that for invar 13.8 to 15.2 x
1010 N/m2. For every precise work its value must be ascertained. The sign of the correction is plus, as the
effect of the pull is to increase the length of the tape and consequently, to decrease the measured length of
the line.

Correction for Sag: - (Fig.1). When a tape is stretched over points of support, it takes the form of a
catenary. In actual practice, however, the catenary curve is assumed to be a parabola.

The correction for sag (or sag correction) is the difference in length between the arc and the subtending
chord (i.e., the difference between the horizontal distance between supports and the length measured along
the curve). It is required only when the tape is suspended during measurement. Since the effect of the set on
the tapes is to make the measured length too great this correction is always subtractive. It is given by the
formula,

Cs = l1 (mgl1)2 / 24P2 = l1(Mg)2 / 24P2 ………………(4)

in which Cs = the sag correction for a single span, in metres.

l1 = the distance between supports in metres.

m = the mass of the tape, in kilograms per metre.

M = Total mass of the tape in kilograms.

P = the applied pull, in newtons (N).

If there are n equal spans per tape length, the sag corrections per tape length is given, by

Cs = nl1(mgl1)2 / 24P2 = l(mgl1)2 / 24P2 = l(mgl)2 / 24n2P2 ………….(4a)

in which l = the length of the tape = nl1, and l1= l/n.

Normal Tension: - The normal tension is a tension at which the effects of pull and sag are neutralized, i.e.
the elongation due to increase in tension is balanced by the shortening due to sag. It may be obtained by
equating the corrections for pull and sag. Thus we have,

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 (Pn-Po)l1 / AE = l1(mgl1)2 / 24Pn2 or (Pn-Po) Pn2 = W2AE / 24

~ Pn = 0.204 W √AE / √(Pn-Po) …………………………………………..(5)

in which Pn = the normal tension in newtons (N).

W = the weight of the length of tape between supports in newtons (N).

The value of Pn may be determined by trial.

Correction for Slope or Vertical Alignment: - (Fig 2) This correction is required when the points of

support are not exactly at the same level.

Let l1 l2, etc. = the lengths of successive uniform slopes.

lt1, lt2 etc. = the differences in height between the extremities of each of these

slopes.

Cs = the total correction for slope.

If l is the length of any one slope, and h the difference in height between the ends of the slope,

the slope correction = l - √ l2-h2

= l – l (1 – h2 / 2l2 – h4 / 3l4 – etc..)

=(h2 / 2l + h4 / 3l3 + etc.) = h2 / 2l ------------------------(6)

hence, Cs = (h12 / 2l1 + h22 / 2l2 + ….. + hn2 / 2ln) -------------------------------(6a)

When the slopes are of uniform length l we have

Cs = l / 2l (h12 + h22 + ……… + hn2) = ∑h2 / 2l -------------------------(6b)

This correction is always subtractive from the measured length. If the slopes are given in terms of vertical
angles (plus or minus angles), the following formula may be used:

The correction for the slope = l – l cos 0 = 2l sin2 0 / 2

= l versin 0 (-ve) --------------------------(7)

in which l = the length of the slope : 0 = the angle of the slope.

Direct and Indirect Ranging-

Direct ranging is possible only when the end stations are inter visible.

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The ranging in which intermediate points are interpolated by reciprocal ranging or running an auxiliary
line.

Indirect ranging is done where end points are not visible and the ground is high.

Direct ranging can be done by any of the following two methods:

(i) By judgment of eye, and

ADVERTISEMENTS:

(ii) By a line ranger.

(i) Ranging by judgement of Eye:

The surveyor stands about 2m behind the ranging rod at the starting point of the line, while the assistant
holds the ranging rod at arm’s length near the point where it is desired to fix the intermediate station. The
surveyor then looking to the end ranging rod directs the assistant, by using hand signals, to move to the right
or left until the three ranging rods appear to be exactly in a straight line.

The surveyor then checks the position of the rod by sighting over the lower ends of the three rods in order to
avoid the errors due to non-verticality of the rods and then finally he signals the assistant to drive the rod
into the ground.

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(ii) Ranging by a Line Ranger:
A line ranger (Fig. 2.16) is a small reflecting instruments used for ranging long lines when it is difficult
to go to either end of the line. It consists of two right-angled isosceles triangular prisms placed one
above the other.

The surveyor takes approximate position of the intermediate station say P with his face at right angles
to the line and with the instrument held near the level of the eye. The rays of light from A enter the
upper prism and after being reflected from the hypotenuse enter the eye at right angles to the line AB.

Similarly rays from B enter the lower prism and after being reflected from the hypotenuse are also seen
by the same eye. Thus the images of the rods at A and B are seen directly in the upper and lower
prisms respectively.

The observer will continue to move forward and backward at right angles to the line AB until both the
images coincide exactly. If the two images coincide as shown in (fig. 2.16 c), the required point P is
then vertically below the centre of the instrument.

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Indirect or Reciprocal Ranging:
Let X and Y be the two intermediate points to be fixed in line with the end points A and B (Fig. 2.17 a).
Select two approximate positions of X and Y on height ground say x1 and y1 (Fig. 2.17 b) such that a
person at x, can see y1 and the end ranging rod B and similarly a person at y1 can see x1 and the end
ranging rod A. Then the person at x1 directs y1 to move to y2 to be in line with B and then the person at
y2 directs x1 to move to x2 to be in line with A. Again x2 directs y2 to move to y3 to be in the line with B.
They continue to do so till they take up such positions that no further movement of either X or Y is
required. Then X and Y are the desired positions of the intermediate points in line with A and B.

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Reciprocal Ranging across a Valley or Depression:
X and Y are the two stations at the ends of a valley. Let the intermediate points A, B, C etc. are to be fixed in
line with X and Y across the valley. To do this, the surveyor at X will direct his assistant at A to be in line
with Y so that the top of ranging rod at A is brought in line with the bottom of the ranging rod at Y (Fig.
2.18). The ranging rod is then fixed at A. The survivor at X again directs his assistant to move downwards to
B so that the top of the ranging rod at B is in line of sight pointing to the bottom of rod at A.

This process is continued till a point is reached near the lowest portion which is invisible from X. The
surveyor then goes to the other end-station Y. He will then direct the assistant to move to the position F such
that top of the ranging rod at F is in line of sight pointing F such that top of the ranging rod at F is in line of
sight pointing to the bottom of the rod at X. The process is repeated as before. X, F, G …B, A and Y are then
in the same straight line.

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 Compass surveying

Compass surveying is a type of surveying in which the directions of surveying lines are
determined with a magnetic compass, and the length of the surveying lines are measured
with a tape or chain or laser range finder. The compass is generally used to run a traverse
line.

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Compass surveying is the branch of surveying in which the position of an object is located using
angular measurements determined by a compass and linear measurements using a chain or tape.
Compass surveying is used in following circumstances:

• If the surveying area is large, chain surveying is not adopted for surveying rather compass
surveying is employed.
• If the plot for surveying has numerous obstacles and undulations which prevents chaining.
• If there is a time limit for surveying, compass surveying is usually adopted

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Prismatic compass
Compass surveying is not used in places which contain iron core, power lines etc which usually
attracts magnets due to their natural properties and electromagnetic properties respectively.
Compass surveying is done by using traversing. A traverse is formed by connecting the points in the
plot by means of a series of straight lines.

Magnetic compass

Magnetic compass is used to find out the magnetic bearing of survey lines. The bearings may either
measured in Whole Circle Bearing (W.C.B) system or in Quadrantal Bearing (Q.B) system based on
the type of compass used. The basic principle of magnetic compass is if a strip of steel or iron is
magnetized and pivoted exactly at centre so that it can swing freely, then it will establish itself in the
magnetic meridian at the place of arrangement.

Major types of magnetic compass are:

1. Prismatic compass
2. Surveyor’s compass
3. Level compass
Prismatic compass

Prismatic compass is a portable magnetic compass which can be either used as a hand instrument or
can be fitted on a tripod. It contains a prism which is used for accurate measurement of readings.
The greatest advantage of this compass is both sighting and reading can be done simultaneously
without changing the position.

20
 Prismatic compass (Geology Superstore)

Major parts of a Prismatic Compass are:

• Magnetic needle
• Graduated ring
• Adjustable mirror
• Sliding arrangement for mirror
• Object vane
• Eye vane
• Metal box
• Glass cover
• Horse hair

Adjustments of prismatic compass

Two types of adjustments:

1. Temporary adjustment
2. Permanent adjustment

Temporary adjustments
• Centering: it is the process of fixing the compass exactly over the station. Centering is
usually done by adjusting the tripod legs. Also a plumb-bob is used to judge the accurate
centering of instruments over the station.

• Leveling: the instrument has to be leveled if it is used as in hand or mounted over a tripod. If
it is used as in hand, the graduated disc should swing freely and appears to be completely
level in reference to the top edge of the case. If the tripod is used, they usually have a ball and
socket arrangement for leveling purpose.

• Focusing the prism: Prism can be slide up or down for focusing to make the readings clear
and readable.
Permanent adjustments are same as in the Surveyor’s compass.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Compass surveying

Advantages
• They are portable and light weight.
• They have fewer settings to fix it on a station
• The error in direction produced in a single survey line does not affect other lines.
• It is suitable to retrace old surveys.
21
Disadvantages

• It is less precise compared to other advanced methods of surveying.

• It is easily subjected to various errors such as errors adjoining to magnetic meridian,
local attraction etc.
• Imperfect sighting of the ranging rods and inaccurate leveling also causes error.

Errors in compass survey

Errors can be arising due to various reasons during the process of surveying, they are classified as:

• Instrumental errors
• Personal errors
• Natural errors

Instrumental errors

As the name suggests they are arise due to the wrong adjustments of the instruments.
Some other reasons are:

• If the plane of sight not being vertical, it causes error in sighting and reading.
• If the magnetic needle is not perfectly straight or if it is sluggish, readings may not be
accurate.

Personal errors

They arise mainly due to the carelessness of the surveyor. They are:

• Inaccurate leveling
• Inaccurate reading
• Inaccurate centering

Natural errors

Natural errors are occurring due to the various natural causes which affect the working of compass.
It has nothing to do with the surveyor and to minimize them, some corrections in calculations
applied. They are:

22
Surveyor’s Compass

Surveyor’s compass consists of a circular brass box containing a magnetic needle which swings
freely over a brass circle which is divided into 360 degrees. The horizontal angle is measured using
a pair of sights located on north – south axis of the compass. They are usually mounted over a tripod
and leveled using a ball and socket mechanism.

They also have two types of adjustments, temporary and permanent. Temporary adjustments are
same as described in prismatic compass.

The difference between prismatic and surveyor’s compass are

Prismatic Compass

1. Graduation circle is fixed to broad type needle. Hence, it will not rotate with the line of sight.
2. There is a prism at viewing end.
3. Sighting and reading can be done simultaneously.
4. The magnetic needle do not act as an index.
5. The graduations are in whole circle bearing.
6. Graduations are marked inverted since its reflection is read through prism.
7. The reading is taken through a prism.
8. Tripod may or may not be used. It can be held on a stretched hand also.

Surveyors Compass

1. Graduation circle is fixed to the box. Hence, it rotates with the line of sight.
2. At viewing end there is no prism. There is only a slit.
3. Sighting and viewing cannot be done simultaneously.
4. Magnetic needle acts as index while reading.
5. The graduations are in quadrantal system.
6. Graduations are marked directly. They are not inverted.
7. The reading is taken by directly viewing from top glass.
8. Tripod is essential for using it.

23
 Bearing of a Line

Bearing of a line is the angle measured from either the north or south end of a reference meridian. The angle
is observed from north or south towards the east or west, to give a reading less than 90°. Bearing is
represented by the letter N or S preceding the angle. The E or W succeeding it demonstrates the appropriate
quadrant.

Bearing is with reference to N-S line angles, they are measured clockwise in the 1st and 3rd (NE and SW)
quadrants and it is measured anticlockwise in 2nd and 4th quadrants (NW and SE). This is also known as
Quadrant Bearing.
When bearings are measured with reference to true meridian it is called as true bearing. If the bearing is from
magnetic meridian, it is Magnetic Bearing

24
 Line Bearings

OA N60°E

OB S32°E

OC S39°W

OD N45°W

Azimuth of a Line?
The azimuth of a line is defined as the horizontal angle, measured clockwise, from a base direction to the
given line. They are usually measured from the north and vary from 0° to 360° and so they do not require
letters to categorize their quadrant. They are also called as whole circle bearing. (WCB)

25
Line Azimuths

OA 60°

OB 148°

OC 219°

OD 315°

26
Forward and Back Bearings

The bearing of a line in the direction in which a survey is progressing is called the Forward Bearing. The
bearing of the line in the direction contrary to that of progress is called Back Bearing.

In plane surveying, forward bearings can be calculated to back bearings and in return.
The value of both forward bearings and back bearing will be same but the direction will be opposite. The
direction will be changing from N or S to S or N and E or W to W or E.

Forward bearing OA = N60°E will changes to AO = S60°W in case of back bearing.

27
Local attraction

It is the phenomenon by which the magnetic needle is constantly prevented to point towards the magnetic
north at a place. ... The occurrence of local attraction can be detected by observing the difference between
the fore and back bearings.

28
Modern Surveying

It is defined as the science of making measurements especially of the earth surface. ... This is being done by
finding out the spatial location(relative/absolute) of points on or near the earth surface

Electronic distance measurement (EDM) is a method of determining the length between two points using
electromagnetic waves. EDM is commonly carried out with digital instruments called theodolites.

EDM instruments are highly reliable and convenient pieces of surveying equipment and can be used to
measure distances of up to 100 kilometers. Each piece of EDM equipment available at Engineer Supply
provides dependably accurate distance measurements displayed on an easy-to-read digital screen.

Devices known as total stations share similarities with theodolites and can be used to measure distances as
well as angles.

Types of EDM instruments

Here are the three types of instruments that are used for electronic distance measurement, which are based on
the methods being used:
• Microwave Instruments —

Long range instrument • Freq range 3 -30GHz

Also called tellurometers, these instruments use microwaves. And they have been around since the
1936’s. Light weight instrument observation is taken both day and night time

• Infrared Wave Instruments —

Short range instrument • Freq used 3 x 1014 Hz • Distomat- very small light in weight an very accurate
in Measurement

• Visible Light Wave Instruments —

Medium range instrument • Freq used 5 x 1014 Hz ,It is of heavier in weight , observation is taken only
in night. Geodimeter is used
Instrument setup at oneend and reflects at the other end, light radio waves is used

Principles of EDM
Generation –-Modulation -- Transmission --Propagation –Reflection —Reception --Demodulation --Distance
Measured

29
30
Errors in EDM

1. Personal Error
➢ Inaccuracy in Initial Setups Instrument & Reflector measurements going Wrong
Atmospheric Pressures & Temperature Determination errors
2. Instrumental Error
➢ Calibration Error Chances of getting unstable frequent errors Errors Shown by
Reflector
3. Natural Error
➢ Atmospheric variations in Temperature, Pressure & Humidity Multiple
Refraction of Signals

Total Station

Total station is a surveying equipment combination of Electromagnetic Distance Measuring

Instrument and electronic theodolite. It is also integrated with microprocessor, electronic data
collector and storage system. The instrument can be used to measure horizontal and vertical angles
as well as sloping distance of object to the instrument.
Capability

1. Average of multiple angles measured.

2. Average of multiple distance measured.
3. Horizontal distance.
4. Distance between any two points.
5. Elevation of objects and
6. All the three coordinates of the observed points.
Total station is a compact instrument and weighs 50 to 55N

Advantages of Using Total Stations

1. Field work is carried out very fast.

2. Accuracy of measurement is high.
3. Manual errors involved in reading and recording are eliminated.
4. Calculation of coordinates is very fast and accurate. Even corrections for temperature and pressure
are automatically made.
5. Computers can be employed for map making and plotting contour and cross-sections. Contour
intervals and scales can be changed in no time.

31
32
 LECTURE NOTE

on

BASICS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

MODULE-III

Fundamental of soil and its classification, Foundations: Types of

shallow and deep foundations with neat sketches. Fundamentals of
Irrigation Engineering. Introduction of Hydraulics structure like
canals, siphons, weirs, dams etc.
 FUNDAMENTAL OF SOIL
LECTURE 1

Introduction:

The term "soil" can have different meanings, depending upon the field in which it is considered.

To a geologist, it is the material in the relative thin zone of the Earth's surface within which roots occur, and which
are formed as the products of past surface processes. The rest of the crust is grouped under the term "rock".

To a pedologist, it is the substance existing on the surface, which supports plant life.

To an engineer, it is a material that can be:

• built on: foundations of buildings, bridges

• built in: basements, culverts, tunnels
• built with: embankments, roads, dams
• supported: retaining walls

Soil Mechanics is a discipline of Civil Engineering involving the study of soil, its behaviour and application as an
engineering material.

Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with
sediments and other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles, which are produced by the mechanical and
chemical disintegration of rocks, regardless of whether or not they contain an admixture of organic constituents.

Soil consists of a multiphase aggregation of solid particles, water, and air. This fundamental composition gives rise
to unique engineering properties, and the description of its mechanical behavior requires some of the most classic
principles of engineering mechanics.

Engineers are concerned with soil's mechanical properties: permeability, stiffness, and strength. These depend
primarily on the nature of the soil grains, the current stress, the water content and unit weight.

Formation of Soils:
Soil is formed from rock due to erosion and weathering action. Igneous rock is the basic rock formed from the
crystallization of molten magma. This rock is formed either inside the earth or on the surface. These rocks
undergo metamorphism under high temperature and pressure to form Metamorphic rocks. Both Igneous and
metamorphic rocks are converted in to sedimentary rocks due to transportation to different locations
by the agencies such as wind, water etc. Finally, near the surface millions of years of erosion and weathering
converts rocks in to soil.
.

Fig. Geologic Cycle of Soil

Soils are formed from materials that have resulted from the disintegration of rocks by various processes of physical
and chemical weathering. The nature and structure of a given soil depends on the processes and conditions that
formed it:

• Breakdown of parent rock: weathering, decomposition, erosion.

• Transportation to site of final deposition: gravity, flowing water, ice, wind.
• Environment of final deposition: flood plain, river terrace, glacial moraine, lacustrine or marine.
• Subsequent conditions of loading and drainage: little or no surcharge, heavy surcharge due to ice or
overlying deposits, change from saline to freshwater, leaching, contamination.

All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from different rock types.

Weathering:
Physical weathering reduces the size of the parent rock material, without any change in the original composition of
the parent rock. Physical or mechanical processes taking place on the earth's surface include the actions of water,
frost, temperature changes, wind and ice. They cause disintegration and the products are mainly coarse soils.

The main processes involved are exfoliation, unloading, erosion, freezing, and thawing. The principal cause is
climatic change. In exfoliation, the outer shell separates from the main rock. Heavy rain and wind cause erosion of
the rock surface. Adverse temperature changes produce fragments due to different thermal coefficients of rock
minerals. The effect is more for freeze-thaw cycles.

Chemical weathering not only breaks up the material into smaller particles but alters the nature of the original parent
rock itself. The main processes responsible are hydration, oxidation, and carbonation. New compounds are formed
due to the chemical alterations.

Rain water that comes in contact with the rock surface reacts to form hydrated oxides, carbonates and sulphates. If
there is a volume increase, the disintegration continues. Due to leaching, water-soluble materials are washed away
and rocks lose their cementing properties.

Chemical weathering occurs in wet and warm conditions and consists of degradation by decomposition and/or
alteration. The results of chemical weathering are generally fine soils with altered mineral grains.

The effects of weathering and transportation mainly determine the basic nature of the soil (size, shape, composition
and distribution of the particles).
The environment into which deposition takes place, and the subsequent geological events that take place there,
determine the state of the soil (density, moisture content) and the structure or fabric of the soil (bedding,
stratification, occurrence of joints or fissures)

Transportation agencies can be combinations of gravity, flowing water or air, and moving ice. In water or air, the
grains become sub-rounded or rounded, and the grain sizes get sorted so as to form poorly-graded deposits. In
moving ice, grinding and crushing occur, size distribution becomes wider forming well-graded deposits.

In running water, soil can be transported in the form of suspended particles, or by rolling and sliding along the
bottom. Coarser particles settle when a decrease in velocity occurs, whereas finer particles are deposited further
downstream. In still water, horizontal layers of successive sediments are forme d, which may change with time, even
seasonally or daily.

Wind can erode, transport and deposit fine-grained soils. Wind-blown soil is generally uniformly-graded.

A glacier moves slowly but scours the bedrock surface over which it passes.

Gravity transports materials along slopes without causing much alteration

LECTURE 2

Soil Types:
Soils as they are found in different regions can be classified into two broad categories:

(1)Residual soils
(2) Transported soils

Residual Soils:
Residual soils are found at the same location where they have been formed. Generally, the depth of residual soils
varies from 5 to 20 m.

Chemical weathering rate is greater in warm, humid regions than in cold, dry regions causing a faster breakdown of
rocks. Accumulation of residual soils takes place as the rate of rock decomposition exceeds the rate of erosion or
transportation of the weathered material. In humid regions, the presence of surface vegetation reduces the possibility
of soil transportation.

As leaching action due to percolating surface water decreases with depth, there is a corresponding decrease in the
degree of chemical weathering from the ground surface downwards. This results in a gradual reduction of residual
soil formation with depth, until unaltered rock is found.

Residual soils comprise of a wide range of particle sizes, shapes and composition.

Transported Soils:
Weathered rock materials can be moved from their original site to new locations by one or more of the transportation
agencies to form transported soils. Tranported soils are classified based on the mode of transportation and the final
deposition environment.

(a) Soils that are carried and deposited by rivers are called alluvial deposits.

(b) Soils that are deposited by flowing water or surface runoff while entering a lake are called lacustrine deposits.
atlernate layers are formed in different seasons depending on flow rate.

(c) If the deposits are made by rivers in sea water, they are called marine deposits. Marine deposits contain both
particulate material brought from the shore as well as organic remnants of marine life forms.

(d) Melting of a glacier causes the deposition of all the materials scoured by it leading to formation of glacial
deposits.

(e) Soil particles carried by wind and subsequently deposited are known as aeolian deposits.
Phase Relations of Soils:

Soil is not a coherent solid material like steel and concrete, but is a particulate material. Soils, as they exist in nature,
consist of solid particles (mineral grains, rock fragments) with water and air in the voids between the particles. The
water and air contents are readily changed by changes in ambient conditions and location.

As the relative proportions of the three phases vary in any soil deposit, it is useful to consider a soil model which
will represent these phases distinctly and properly quantify the amount of each phase. A schematic diagram of the
three-phase system is shown in terms of weight and volume symbols respectively for soil solids, water, and air. The
weight of air can be neglected.

The soil model is given dimensional values for the solid, water and air components.

Total volume, V = Vs + Vw + Vv

Three-phase System:

Soils can be partially saturated (with both air and water present), or be fully saturated (no air content) or be perfectly
dry (no water content).

In a saturated soil or a dry soil, the three-phase system thus reduces to two phases only, as shown.
 LECTURE 3

The various relations can be grouped into:

• Volume relations
• Weight relations
• Inter-relations

Volume Relations:

As the amounts of both water and air are variable, the volume of solids is taken as the reference quantity. Thus,
several relational volumetric quantities may be defined. The following are the basic volume relations:

1. Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of voids (Vv) to the volume of soil solids (Vs), and is expressed as a
decimal.

2. Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of soil (V ), and is expressed as a percentage.

Void ratio and porosity are inter-related to each other as follows:

a nd

3. The volume of water (Vw) in a soil can vary between zero (i.e. a dry soil) and the volume of voids. This can be
expressed as the degree of saturation (S) in percentage.

For a dry soil, S = 0%, and for a fully saturated soil, S = 100%.

4. Air content (ac) is the ratio of the volume of air (Va) to the volume of voids.

5. Percentage air voids (na) is the ratio of the volume of air to the total volume.
Weight Relations:

Density is a measure of the quantity of mass in a unit volume of material. Unit weight is a measure of the weight of a
unit volume of material. Both can be used interchangeably. The units of density are ton/m³, kg/m³ or g/cm³. The
following are the basic weight relations:

1. The ratio of the mass of water present to the mass of solid particles is called the water content (w), or sometimes
the moisture content.

Its value is 0% for dry soil and its magnitude can exceed 100%.

2. The mass of solid particles is usually expressed in terms of their particle unit weight or specific gravity (Gs)
of the soil grain solids.

where = Unit weight of water

For most inorganic soils, the value of Gs lies between 2.60 and 2.80. The presence of organic material reduces the
value of Gs.

3. Dry unit weight is a measure of the amount of solid particles per unit volume.

4. Bulk unit weight is a measure of the amount of solid particles plus water per unit volume.

5. Saturated unit weight is equal to the bulk density when the total voids is filled up with water.

6. Buoyant unit weight or submerged unit weight is the effective mass per unit volume when the soil is
submerged below standing water or below the ground water table.
 LECTURE 4

Inter-Relations:

It is important to quantify the state of a soil immediately after receiving in the laboratory and prior to commencing
other tests. The water content and unit weight are particularly important, since they may change during
transportation and storage.

Some physical state properties are calculated following the practical measurement of others. For example, dry unit
weight can be determined from bulk unit weight and water content. The following are some inter-relations:

Example 1: A soil has void ratio = 0.72, moisture content = 12% and Gs= 2.72. Determine
its
(a) Dry unit weight
(b) Moist unit weight, and the
(c) Amount of water to be added per m3 to make it saturated.
U se

Solution:

(a) = 15.51 kN/m3

(b)

= = 1 7 . 3 8 k N / m3

(c) =

= = 19.62 kN/m3

Water to be added per m3 to make the soil saturated

= = 19.62 – 17.38 = 2.24 kN

Example 2: The dry density of a sand with porosity of 0.387 is 1600 kg/m3. Find the void
ratio of the soil and the specific gravity of the soil solids. [Take ]

n = 0. 38 7
= 1600 kg/m3

Solution:

(a) e = = = 0. 63 1

(b) =

Gs =
 ]LECTURE 5

Soil Classification:
It is necessary to adopt a formal system of soil description and classification in order to describe the various
materials found in ground investigation. Such a system must be meaningful and concise in an engineering context,
so that engineers will be able to understand and interpret.

It is important to distinguish between description and classification:

Description of soil is a statement that describes the physical nature and state of the soil. It can be a description of a
sample, or a soil in situ. It is arrived at by using visual examination, simple tests, observation of site conditions,
geological history, etc.

Classification of soil is the separation of soil into classes or groups each having similar characteristics and
potentially similar behaviour. A classification for engineering purposes should be based mainly on mechanical
properties: permeability, stiffness, strength. The class to which a soil belongs can be used in its description.

The aim of a classification system is to establish a set of conditions which will allow useful comparisons to be made
between different soils. The system must be simple. The relevant criteria for classifying soils are the size
distribution of particles and the plasticity of the soil.

For measuring the distribution of particle sizes in a soil sample, it is necessary to conduct different particle-size tests.

Wet sieving is carried out for separating fine grains from coarse grains by washing the soil specimen on a 75 micron
sieve mesh.

Dry sieve analysis is carried out on particles coarser than 75 micron. Samples (with fines removed) are dried and
shaken through a set of sieves of descending size. The weight retained in each sieve is measured. The cumulative
percentage quantities finer than the sieve sizes (passing each given sieve size) are then determined.

The resulting data is presented as a distribution curve with grain size along x-axis (log scale) and percentage passing
along y-axis (arithmetic scale).

Sedimentation analysis is used only for the soil fraction finer than 75 microns. Soil particles are allowed to settle
from a suspension. The decreasing density of the suspension is measured at various time intervals. The procedure is
based on the principle that in a suspension, the terminal velocity of a spherical particle is governed by the diameter
of the particle and the properties of the suspension.

In this method, the soil is placed as a suspension in a jar filled with distilled water to which a deflocculating agent is
added. The soil particles are then allowed to settle down. The concentration of particles remaining in the suspension
at a particular level can be determined by using a hydrometer. Specific gravity readings of the solution at that same
level at different time intervals provide information about the size of particles that have settled down and the mass of
soil remaining in solution. The results are then plotted between % finer (passing) and log size.
Grain-Size Distribution Curve:
The size distribution curves, as obtained from coarse and fine grained portions, can be combined to form one
complete grain-size distribution curve (also known as grading curve). A typical grading curve is shown.

From the complete grain-size distribution curve, useful information can be obtained such as:

1.Grading characteristics, which indicate the uniformity and range in grain-size distribution.

2. Percentages (or fractions) of gravel, sand, silt and clay-size.

Grading Characteristics

A grading curve is a useful aid to soil description. The geometric properties of a grading curve are called grading
characteristics

To obtain the grading characteristics, three points are located first on the grading curve.

D60 = size at 60% finer by weight

D30 = size at 30% finer by weight
D10 = size at 10% finer by weight

The grading characteristics are then determined as follows:

1. Effective size = D10

2. Uniformity coefficient,

3. Curvature coefficient,

Both Cu and Cc will be 1 for a single-sized soil.

Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil, i.e. a soil which has a distribution of particles over a wide size range.
Cc between 1 and 3 also indicates a well-graded soil.

Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil, i.e. a soil which has a very narrow particle size range.
 LECTURE 6
Indian Standard Soil Classification System:
Fine-grained soils are those for which more than 50% of the material has particle sizes less
than 0.075 mm. Clay particles have a flaky shape to which water adheres, thus imparting the
property of plasticity.

A plasticity chart , based on the values of liquid limit (WL) and plasticity index (IP), is
provided in ISSCS to aid classification. The 'A' line in this chart is expressed as IP = 0.73
( W L - 20) .
Soil classification using group symbols is as follows:

Group Symbol Classification

Coarse soils
GW Well-graded GRAVEL
GP Poorly-graded GRAVEL
GM Silty GRAVEL
GC Clayey GRAVEL
SW Well-graded SAND
SP Poorly-graded SAND
SM Silty SAND
SC Clayey SAND

Fine soils
ML SILT of low plasticity
MI SILT of intermediate plasticity
MH SILT of high plasticity

CL CLAY of low plasticity

CI CLAY of intermediate plasticity
CH CLAY of high plasticity

OL Organic soil of low plasticity

OI Organic soil of intermediate plasticity
OH Organic soil of high plasticity

Pt Peat
Activity:
"Clayey soils" necessarily do not consist of 100% clay size particles. The
proportion of clay
mineral flakes (< 0.002 mm size) in a fine soil increases its tendency to swell
and shrink with
changes in water content. This is called the activity of the clayey soil, and it
represents the
degree of plasticity related to the clay content.

Activity = (PIasticity index) /(% clay particles by weight)

Classification as per activity is:

Activity Classification

< 0.75 Inactive

0.75 - 1.25 Normal

> 1.25 Active

Unit 1: FOUNDATIONS

1.1 Introduction
A building has two basic parts

1) Sub structure or foundations

2) Super-structure.

A foundation is that part of the structure which is in direct contact with the
ground to which the loads are transmitted.

Super- structure is that part of the structure which is above ground level.
Types of foundations:

Foundations may be broadly classified into 2 types;

a) Shallow Foundations b) Deep Foundations. According to Terzaghi, A

foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or less than its width. Foundation

is said to be deep if its depth is greater than its width.

Shallow foundations
Types of shallow foundations:

a) Spread footings
♦ It spread the super imposed load of wall or column over a large area
♦ It supports either a column or wall

It may be of the following types:

i) Single footing for a column
ii) Stepped footing for a column
iii) Sloped footing for a column
iv) Wall footing without step
v) Stepped footing for wall Grillage
foundation.

This fig shows a single footing for a column size (BXB) through a single
spread. The base is generally concrete for all types of spread footings.

Fig (a) shows spread footing for a wall, consisting of concrete base without any
steps
Usually masonry walls have stepped footings as shown in fig (b) with concrete
b) Combined footings
A spread footing which supports 2 or more columns is termed as
combined footing . It is classified as:
i. Rectangular combined footings
ii. Trapezoidal combined footings
iii. Combined column wall footings

c) Strap footings
♦ If the independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam, it
is called strap footing
♦ It is required where the distance between the columns are great so that
combined trapezoidal footings become quite narrow with high bending
moments.
♦ Each column is provided with independent footings and a beam is used
to connect the two footings
 d) Mat foundation
♦ A raft or mat is a combined footing that converts the entire area beneath
a structure and supportsall the wall and columns
♦ It is more economical when the soil pressure is low and it covers one
half thearea
♦ They are also used where it is difficult to control differential settlements
in soil.

Raft foundation is also used to reduce settlement by making the weight of

structure equal to weight of soil excavated

Deep foundations
Types of Deep foundations:

a) Deep strip, rectangular or square footings

b) Pile foundation
c) Pier foundation or dilled caisson foundation
d) Well foundation or caissons

Deep strip, Rectangular or square footings are generally deep foundations.

 a) Pile foundation:
♦ It is deep foundation where the loads are taken to a low level by means
of vertical members which may be of timber, concrete or steel
♦ It is adopted when loading is uneven and no firm bearing strata exists at
reasonable depths.
♦ When a firm bearing strata does not exists but at such depths, strip or
spread footing is uneconomical, it is used.
♦ When pumping of subsoil water would be too costly it is used.
♦ Piles used for buildings may be
following

b) Pier foundation or dilled caisson foundation

♦ A pier foundation consists of a cylindrical column of large diameter to
support and transfer super-imposed loads to the firm data below.
♦ The difference between pile foundation and pier foundation lies in the
method of construction.

c) Well foundation or caissons

♦ Well foundations are box like structure - circular or rectangular which are
sunk from the surface.
♦ They are much large in diameter compared to other deep foundations

Well foundation
♦ They are hollow from inside and filled with sand and plugged at the bottom.
♦ The load is transferred through perimeter wall called steining.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

I R I GA TI O N :
Irrigation may be defined as the science of the artificial application of water to
the land in order to fulfill the water requirements of the crops throughout the
crop period for the full nourishment of the crops. Nutrients to the crops may
also be applied through irrigation.

T h e r e a r e fo l l o wi n g t yp e s o f Su r fa c e i r r i g a ti o n m e th o d

 Border irrigation method

 Basin irrigation method
 Su b s u r fa c e ir r ig a tio n me th o d
 Sprinkler irrigation method

• Border irrigation method

• Basin irrigation method

As the names suggest the water applied to the fields by this inundates or
floods the land, even if temporarily. On the other hand there are many
crops which would try better if water is applied only near their root zone
instead of inundating.
• Subsurface irrigation method

The application of water to fields in this type of irrigation system is below

the ground surface so that it is supplied directly to the root zone of the
plants. The main advantages of these types of irrigation is reduction of
evaporation losses and less hindrance to cultivation works which takes
place on the surface.

• Sprinkler irrigation system

Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying water which is similar to natural

rainfall but spread uniformly over the land surface just when needed and at
a rate less than the infiltration rate of the soil so as to avoid surface runoff
from irrigation. This is achieved by distributing water through a system of
pipes usually by pumping which is then sprayed into the air through
sprinklers so that it breaks up into small water drops which fall to the
ground. The system of irrigation is suitable for undulating lands, with poor
water availability, sandy or shallow soils, or where uniform application of
water is desired. No land leveling is required as with the surface irrigation
methods. Sprinklers are, however, not suitable for soils which easily form a
crust. The water that is pumped through the pump pipe sprinkler system
must be free of suspended sediments. As otherwise there would be
chances of blockage of the sprinkler nozzles
• Drip irrigation system

A typical drip irrigation system consists of the following components:

• Pump unit

• Control Head

• Main and sub main lines

• Laterals

• Emitters and drippers

Canal Design:

The entire water conveyance system for irrigation, comprising of the main
canal, branch canals, major and minor distributaries, field channels and
water courses have to be properly designed. The de sign process
comprises of finding out the longitudinal slope of the channels and fixing
the cross sections. The channels themselves may be made up of different
construction materials. For example, the main and branch canals may be
lined and the smaller ones unlined. Even for the unlined canals, there could
be some passing through soils which are erodible due to high water
velocity, while some others may pass through stiff soils or rock, which may
be relatively less prone to erosion. Further, the bank slopes of canals would
be different for canals passing through loose or stiff soils or rock.

Cross Drainage Work: A cross drainage work is a structure carrying the

discharge from a natural stream across a canal intercepting the stream.
Canal comes across obstructions like rivers, natural drains and other
canals. The various types of structures that are built to carry the canal
water across the above mentioned obstructions or vice versa are called
cross drainage works. It is generally a very costly item and should be
avoided by diverting one stream into another. The changing the alignment
of the canal so that it crosses below the junction of two streams.

Types of cross drainage works:

Depending upon levels and discharge, it may be of the following t ypes

Cross drainage works carrying canal across the drainage the structures
that fall under this type are:

1. An Aqueduct

2. Siphon Aqueduct

Aqueduct:

W hen the HFL of the drain is sufficiently below the bottom of the canal such
that the drainage water flows freely under gravity, the structure is known as
Aqueduct.

• In this, canal water is carried across the drainage in a trough

supported on piers.
• Bridge carrying water
• Provided when sufficient level difference is available between the
canal and natural and canal bed is sufficiently higher than HFL.
Siphon Aqueduct:

In case of the siphon Aqueduct, the HFL of the drain is much higher above
the canal bed, and water runs under siphonic action through the Aqueduct
barrels. The drain bed is generally depressed and provided with pucca
floors, on the upstream side, the drainage bed may be joined to the pucca

Cross drainage works carrying drainage over canal.

The structures that fall under this type are:

1. Super passage
2. Canal siphon or siphon

for roadway.

Weir: A low dam built across a river to raise the level of water upstream or regulate its
flow.

Barrage: An artificial barrier across a river or estuary to prevent flooding, aid irrigation
or navigation, or to generate electricity by trial power.
 Module-4
Transportation Engineering
 Modes of transportation are designed to carry both the passengers and goods from one place
to another & the different modes of transportation are used for the physical movement across
the border or transport of goods and most modes of transportation can carry a combination of
both passengers and goods.
 There are many modes of transportation such as air, sea, roads, and inland waterways, and all
are used for the transporting of goods or passengers, and modes of transportation are an
important consideration when planning the process of shipment.
 When determining the form of transportation the size and weight of goods need to be
evaluated and the most common modes of transportation are land transport including roads,
rail, air, and water transport.
MODES OF TRANSPORT:
There are many modes of transportation as discussed below;
 Road Transportation
 Rail Transportation
 Air Transportation
 Water or Maritime Transportation
 Multimodal Transportation
The road is one of the common modes of transportation and provides a seamless movement of
goods even across various countries and states. Road transportation uses certain types of
vehicles such as automobiles, bicycles, vans or trucks, and buses, etc.
BENEFITS OF ROAD TRANSPORTATION:
There are following benefits of road transportation such as;
 Scheduled and quick delivery.
 Cost-effectiveness.
 Deliveries in local, over the border, even in rural areas.
 Flexible service.
 Compared to other modes of transportation this mode saves the packing cost.
 Complete door to door service and more economical.
RAIL TRANSPORTATION:
Rail transportation is also one of the commonly used modes of transportation and rails burn
less fuel per ton-mile than road vehicles. With rail transportation systems heavy industries are
traditionally linked and rail is a land transportation mode which offers the highest capacity with
23,000 tons.
The railways are constructed on the lands and used for the transportation of goods or people
but at the end of the rail transit, a road delivery will be needed and there will be a lift cost
which transfers the container between the road vehicle and the train.
BENEFITS OF RAIL TRANSPORTATION:
There are following benefits of rail transportation such as;
 Reliable schedules and transit times.
 Most efficient form of land transportation.
 Over long distance fast and cost-effective.
 The safety record of rail is strong.
 It helps in alleviating road congestion.
AIR TRANSPORTATION:
World air cargo traffic to meet the demand for growth and air transport is the critical mode of
transport and serves the demand speed of markets and supply chains.
Air transportation has the advantage of transporting both goods and passengers because the
plane has a belly-hold which is useful for transporting cargo.
Through the air, air transport includes all the transports and air traffic is extremely well
monitored for both passengers and goods and this mode of transport is commonly used over
the borders.
BENEFITS OF AIR TRANSPORTATION:
 Quick transit & less handling of cargo.
 Less documentation.
 Reliable departures and arrival.
 For cargo enhanced level of security.
WATER OR MARITIME TRANSPORTATION:
Water or maritime transportation is the most effective mode to transport large quantities of
cargo over long distances and the main routes of maritime are oceans, seas, channels, rivers, &
lakes. The transportation of goods or passengers via water-ways is called maritime
transportation and this type of transport is cheaper than air transport.
BENEFITS OF WATER TRANSPORTATION:
There are following benefits of water or maritime transportation such as;
 It can transport large volumes at low cost.
 They can transport heavy loads.
 More eco-friendly.
 Reduces the distance compared to land transport
MULTIMODAL TRANSPORTATION:
The utilization of more than one mode of transport is called multimodal transportation and this
type of transportation is a combination of different modes of transport like rail, road, and sea
which allows the customer to cost-effective shipments.
Rail networks combined with trucks and sea-air are examples of multimodal transportation and
along with eco-friendliness it provides the time and cost-saving global transportation.
BENEFITS OF MULTIMODAL TRANSPORTATION:
 To any part of the world cargo can be moved using these modes of transport.
 Between the manufacturers and customers, it reduces the distance for the goods.
 Delivery options are cost-effective and efficient.
Road sign colors
Road sign colors also tell drivers a great deal about the meaning of the sign, as per this list:
1. Red.
All red road signs are important regulatory signs. They issue instructions which drivers must
obey, for instance: STOP, YIELD, DO NOT ENTER and WRONG WAY.
2. Red and white.
Red and white signs signify that motorists must prepare to stop. The only road signs that use
red and white without any other colors are STOP signs, YIELD signs, DO NOT ENTER signs and
WRONG WAY signs.
3. Black and white.
These are usually general regulatory signs, which prohibit certain actions, give instructions or
state the road rules in that area. Certain route markers are also black and white.
4. Yellow.
Most warning signs are colored yellow. They warn drivers about adverse conditions and hazards
on the roadway.
5. Orange.
Warning signs used around construction or maintenance sites are all orange.
6. Blue.
Blue guide signs tell drivers about nearby or upcoming service facilities.
7. Green.
Green guide signs tell drivers about location, often including directions and distances to
upcoming destinations.
8. Brown.
Brown guide signs mark recreational facilities, parks, historical sites and other attractions.
9. Pink.
Coral-colored signs are used around incident sites. These temporary signs are used to direct
motorists around hazardous spills, flooded roads, fallen trees, mudslides and car accidents.
Different signs
1. Regulatory Signs (enforce road rules).
Typically, black and white rectangles. Some important ones are red and white with unique
shapes.
2. Warning Signs (tell drivers to proceed with caution).
Yellow or orange, with black text. Usually diamond-shaped. Some worksite warning signs may
be rectangular.
3. Guide Signs (provide information about location).
Most are blue, green or brown rectangles. Route markers vary in color but are often blue or
black and white.
4. Railroad Crossing Signs (warn drivers about railway tracks).
Black and white. Usually two crossed rectangles or an “X” symbol in a circle.
Geometric design of highway is the determination of layout and features visible on highway.
The emphasis is more on satisfying the need of the driver as well as to ensure the safety of the
vehicle, the comfort while driving and efficiency. Other related factors are also considered
based on the project.
The main features considered for geometric design of highway are:
 Cross section elements
 The gradient
 The intersection
 The consideration of sight distance
The geometric design of highway is influenced by:
 The characteristics of the vehicle
 The behavior of the driver
 The psychology of the driver
 Traffic characteristics
 Traffic Volume
 Traffic Speed
Severity of movement and accidents can be reduced largely by implementing a proper design.
The main objective of geometric design is to get optimum efficiency in the traffic operation
period and maximum safety.
All these features must be attained with maximum economy in the cost and construction.
Unlike the construction of pavement, the planning process is carried out in advance.

Based on traffic volume the roads are classified as follows

1. Very heavy traffic roads Above 600
2. Heavy traffic roads- 251 to 600
3. Medium traffic roads - 70 to 250
4. Light traffic roads Below 70
Factors Affecting the Geometric Design of Highways
The various factors that govern the geometric design of highways are:
 The Design Speed
 The topography factors
 Other Factors
Classification of roads consistent with importance
According to the importance of connecting holy places, major cities, stations of the strategic
importance of roads or classified as
  Class I roads
 Class II roads
 Class III roads
Classification supported location and performance
Nagpur road plan classified the road in India supported location and performance into following
 State Highways (SH)
 Major District Roads (MDR)
 Other District Roads (ODR)
 Village Roads (VR)