UNIT-2

DC Machines: DC Generators – Basic principle, construction, Derivation for induced

EMF, types, OCC and load Characteristics of shunt and series, Application and examples

DC Motor – Introduction, working principle, significance of back EMF, types,

Derivation for power & Torque, Characteristics- shunt, series & compound, necessity of
starters, 3-point starter, Application and examples.

D.C. MACHINES.

A machine which works on direct current is defined as a D.C.Machine.

Fleming’s rules:
Fleming’s Right hand rule: This rule helps in deciding the direction of the induced emf.
• Hold the right hand thumb, fore finger and the middle finger set at right angles to
each other and the thumb points the direction of the motion of the conductor and the fore
fingerpoints the direction of the field and the middle finger points the direction of the
induced emf.

Fleming’s Left hand rule: This rule helps in deciding the direction of
force acting on a conductor.
• Hold the left hand thumb, fore finger and the middle finger set at right angles to
each other and the thumb points the direction of the force acting on the conductor and the
direction of the fore finger points the direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger
points the direction of the current in the conductor

APPLICATION TO ELECTRIC MACHINES:

In electrical engineering, electric machine means machines such as electric

motors, electric generators, and others included transformers, which although they do not
have any moving parts are also energy converters, changing the voltage level of
an alternating current.[1]

Electric generator as name suggest is used to produce electrical power. Electric generator
can be used to produce electricity on large scale as in industries or in electricity
producing plants. It can also be seen in small firms, business organisations and in small
shops to generate electric power in case of power.

Electric motor converts electrical energy in to mechanical power Electric motor is usually
present in air cooler, fan, blowers and in those devices where it is required to convert
electrical energy in to mechanical power or simply say where a device can convert
electricity in to some kind of motion.

Electric generators Electric motors Transformers

D.C. MOTOR.

CONSTRUCTION OF A D.C.MOTOR.

Whether a d.c. machine is a generator or motor, the basic construction remains the
same. The fig. 26 shows the cross- sectional view showing the various parts of four pole,
practical d.c. machine.

It consists of the following parts:

Yoke:Functions :
i) It serves the purpose of outermost cover of the d.c. machine. So that the insulating
materials get protected from harmful atmospheric elements like moisture, dust and
various gases like SO2, acidic fumes etc.
ii) It provides mechanical support to the poles.
iii) It forms a part of the magnetic circuit. It provides a path of low reluctance for
magnetic flux. The low reluctance path is important to avoid wastage of power to provide
same flux. Large current and hence the power is necessary if the path has high reluctance,
to produce the same flux.

b) Choice of material: To provide low reluctance path, it must be made up of some

magnetic material. It is prepared by using cast iron because it is cheapest. For large
machines rolled steel, cast steel, silicon steel is used which provides high permeability
i.e. low reluctance and gives good mechanical strength.
As yoke does not need any machining or
good finishing as it rough, casting is the best method
of construction of yoke.
Poles:
Each pole is divided into two parts
Namely, a) pole core and b) pole shoe
This is shown in fig. 27.

a) Function of pole core and pole shoe:

i) pole core basically carries a field winding which is necessary to produce the flux.
ii) It directs the flux produced through air gap to armature core, to the next pole.
iii) pole shoe enlarges the area of armature core to come across the flux, which is
necessary to produce larger induced e.m.f. to achieve this, pole shoe has given a
particular shape.
b) Choice of material : It is made up of magnetic material like cast iron or cast steel.
as it requires a definite shape and size, laminated construction is used. The
laminations of required size and shape are stamped together to get a pole, which is then
bolted to the yoke.
Field winding [F1-F2] :
The field winding is wound on the pole core with a definite direction.
a) Functions: i) To carry current due to which pole core on which the winding placed
behaves as an electromagnet, producing necessary flux.
As it helps in producing the magnetic field i.e. exciting the pole as
electromagnet it is called ‘Field winding’ or ‘Exciting winding’.

1) Explain Choice of material: As it has to carry current hence obviously made up

of some conducting material. So aluminium or copper is the choice. But field
coils are required to take any type of shape and bend about pole core and copper
has good pliability i.e. it can bend easily. So copper is the proper choice.
Filed winding is divided into various coils called bas field coils. These are
connected in series with each other and wound in such a direction around pole cores, such
that alternate ‘N’ and ‘S’ poles are formed.
By using right hand thumb rule for current carrying circular conductor, it can be
easily determined that how a particular core is going to behave as ‘N’ or ‘S’ for a
particular winding direction around it.
Armature:
It is further divided into two parts namely,
I) Armature core and II) Armature winding
I) Armature core is cylindrical in shape mounted on the shaft. It consists of slots on its
periphery and the air ducts to permit the air flow through armature which serves cooling
purpose.

a) Functions:
i) Armature core provides house for armature winding i.e. armature conductors.
ii) To provide a path of low reluctance to the magnetic flux produced by the field
winding.
b) Choice of material :
A it has to provide a low
Reluctance path to the flux,
it is made up of magnetic
material like cast iron or cast
steel.
It is made up of laminated Construction to keep eddy current Loss as low as possible.
A single circular Lamination used for the construction of the armature core is shown in
Fig. 28.

II) Armature winding is nothing but the interconnection of the armature conductors,
placed in the slots provided on the armature core periphery. When the armature is rotated,
in case of generator, magnetic flux gets cut by armature conductors and e.m.f. gets
induced in them.

a) Functions:
i) Generation of e.m.f. takes place in the armature winding in case of generators.
ii) To carry the current supplied in case of d.c. motors
iii) To do the useful work in the external circuit.

b) Choice of material: As armature windings carries entire current which depends on

external load, it has to be made up of conducting material, which is copper.
Armature winding is generally former wound. The conductors are placed in the
armature slots which are lined with tough insulating material.
Commutator:
We have seen earlier that the basic nature of e.m.f induced in the armature
conductors is alternating. This needs rectifications in case of d.c. generator which is
possible by device called commutator.
a) Functions:
i) To facilitate the collection of current from the armature conductors.
ii) To convert internally developed alternating e.m.f. to unidirectional (d.c.) e.m.f.
iii) To produce unidirectional torque in case of motors.

b) Choice of material: As it collects current from armature, it is also made up of copper

segments.
 It is cylindrical in shape and is made up of wedge shaped segments of hard drawn, high
conductivity copper. Those segments are insulated from each other by thin layer of mica.
Each commutator segment is connected to the armature conductor by means of copper
lug or strip. This connection is shown in the fig. 29.

Brushes and brush gear:

Brushes and stationary and resting on the surface of the commutator.

a) Functions:
i) To collect current from commutator and make it available to the stationary external
circuit.

b) Choice of material: Brushes are normally made up of soft material like carbon.
Brushes are rectangular in shape. They are housed in brush holders, which are
usually of box type. The brushers are made to press on the commutator surface by means
of a spring, whose tension can be adjusted with the help of lever. A flexible copper
conductor called pig tail is used to connect the brush to the external circuit.

Bearings:
Ball bearings are usually as they are more reliable. For heavy duty machines, roller bearings
are preferred.
Principle of DC Motor
 This DC or direct current motor works on the principal, when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a torque and has a tendency to
move. This is known as motoring action. If the direction of current in the wire is
reversed, the direction of rotation also reverses. When magnetic field and electric field
interact they produce a mechanical force, and based on that the working principle of DC
motor is established.
The direction of rotation of a this motor is given by Fleming’s left hand rule, which states
that if the index finger, middle finger, and thumb of your left hand are extended mutually
perpendicular to each other and if the index finger represents the direction of magnetic
field, middle finger indicates the direction of current, then the thumb represents the
direction in which force is experienced by the shaft of the DC motor.

Principle Of Operation: Whenever a current coil is placed in a magnetic field the coil
experiences a mechanical force, and is given by

F=BI LSinθ newtons. Where B is the flux density in Tesla

I is the current through the coil
l is the active length of the coil side
θ is the angle between the movement of the
coil and the direction of the flux
The direction of the force acting can be decided by applying Fleming’s left hand rule.

Types of D.C.Motors:
Depending on the interconnection between the armature and the field circuit D.C.Motors
are classified as
(i) Shunt Motor, (ii) Series Motor and (iii) Compound motors just like D.C.Generators.
 DC Motor
To understand the DC motor in details lets consider the diagram below,

let the input voltage E, is applied across the brushes. Electric current which flows through
the rotor armature via brushes, in presence of the magnetic field, produces a torque Tg.
Due to this torque Tg the dc motor armature rotates. As the armature conductors are
carrying currents and the armature rotates inside the stator magnetic field, it also produces
an emf Eb in the manner very similar to that of a generator. The generated Emf Eb is
directed opposite to the supplied voltage and is known as the back Emf, as it counters the
forward voltage. The back emf like in case of a generator is represented by

Where, P = no of poles
φ = flux per pole
Z= No. of conductors
A = No. of parallel paths
N is the speed of the DC Motor.
So, from the above equation, we can see Eb is proportional to speed ‘N.’ That is whenever
a direct current motor rotates; it results in the generation of back Emf

Back EMF: Whenever a current coil is placed under a magnetic field the coil experiences
a mechanical force due to which the coil starts rotating. This rotating coil again cuts the
magnetic lines of force resulting an EMF induced in it whose direction is to oppose the
applied EMF (as per Fleming’s right hand rule), and hence the name BACK EMF or
Counter Emf.

Significance of Back EMF: Back EMF is a must in a motor which helps to regulate the
armature current and also the real cause for the production of torque.

Expression for the back Emf is given by Eb=V-IaRa,

Where E is the back emf, V is the applied emf, Ia is the armature current and Ra is the
armature circuit resistance.
And also Eb= PZNФ/60A volts, from the machine parameters.
Production of torque in a D.C. Motor.

The production of torque in a d.c. motor can be well explained with the help of the following
figures.

Fig (a) represents the magnetic field distribution between a bipolar magnet from North pole to
South pole.
Fig(b) shows the field set up around a current carrying coil
In fig © the current carrying coil is brought under the influence of bipolar magnetic field.
The resultant field around the coil due to the inter action of the main field and the coil field is
seen in fig (d) where in the flux is strengthened in the left part of the upper coil side and
weakened in the right part of the upper coil side and vice-versa in the lower coil side. The
resultant flux which strengthened at one point exerts a force on the conductor as per
Fleming’s left hand rule and thereby the coil side experiences a mechanical force.

In the construction it is seen that several coils sides are on the armature and the tangential
force acting on each of these coil sides add each other and resulting in a unidirectional
movement which makes the armature to rotate at a uniform speed thereby torque is
produced.

TORQUE EQUATION:
Let P be the total number of poles, Z be the total number of armature conductors arranged in
A number of parallel paths. Let Ф be the flux per pole, N be the speed of rotation in rpm, and
T be the torque in Nm.

We know that the back emf E=V-IaRa

Multiplying the above equation by Ia on both sides
We get EIa=VIa-Ia2 Ra
Where VIa represents the Power input to the armature, Ia2 Ra represents the armature copper
loss and EIa represents the Total power output of the armature which is the electrical power
converted into mechanical power called the electro-mechanical power
in watts.
The equivalent mechanical power is given by 2 π NT/60 watts.

Therefore, EIa=2 π NT/60 watts

But E = PZN Ф/60A,
therefore the torque T= PZФIa/2πA Nm.
From the above equation it can be seen that the torque is directly proportional to the product
of the flux and the armature current.

Speed of a D.C.Motor:-
We know that for a motor in general the back emf e is given by
Eb= V-IaRa Eb=PZNФ/60A
From which we write,
N=Eb/ PZФ60A
N=(V-IaRa)/PZФ60A,
and the speed N is proportional to (V-IaRa)/Ф,
From the above equation we write the speed is directly proportional to the applied voltage
V, and the armature current Ia and inversely proportional to the flux Ф.

Types of DC motor:-
Characteristics of D.C.Motors: To study the performance of a motor it is necessary to study
the variation of its speed and torque with the variations of the load on it.

There are two types of characteristics: (i) Speed v/s load characteristics
(ii) Torque v/s load characteristics

(i)Speed/Load characteristics: (a) D.C.Shunt Motor:

In a shunt motor the flux is considered to be constant because of the reason that the field
circuit is connected across a constant power supply. Also as the applied voltage is constant the
speed is directly proportional to the armature current only, and also as the load is increased
the armature current also increases at the same rate and the speed becomes constant. But due
to the increased friction at the bearings with the increase of the load there is a small decrease
in the speed. The characteristic is shown in the fig. and is compared with the ideal
characteristics. The drop in the speed can be reduced by slightly de-exciting the field flux,
there by the speed is controlled.

(b) Series Motor:

In a series motor the flux is solely dependent on the armature current hence the speed
variation with load is not like shunt motor. At no load condition only residual flux is in action
which is very very small resulting in a dangerously high speed. Therefore series motors are
not to be started on no load, which result in the initial speed of dangerously high value called
RUN AWAY SPEED which severely damages the motor. Hence in series motors there is a
provision of a fly wheel fixed to the shaft which acts like a mechanical load to prevent the
motor to attain this high speed.

DC series motor :
i) N-I characteristics :

EbN∅
∅Ia
EbN Ia
N Eb / Ia
Characteristics is a HyPerbola
ii) T-I characteristics :

TIa ∅Ia
TIa2

Characteristics is a Parabola

ii) N-T characteristics :

EbN∅

EbN Ia

N1/T
Characteristics is a Rectangular-HyPerbola
Applications : Cranes, trolleys .

DC shunt motor :
i) T-I characteristics :
TIa ∅Ia
Characteristics is a straight line.

ii) N-I characteristics :

Eb =

EbN

With Increase in armature current back emf decreases and speed also decreases

Applications : Lathe machine, milling machine.

Necessity of a starter in D C Motor

We know that, back emf

Eb =
At the beginning Eb =0,
Since armature resistance is small, it will draw a heavy current. The high starting current
may result in
a) Burning of armature due to excessive heating effect.
b) Damaging the commutator and brushes due to heavy effect.
c) Excessive voltage drop in the line to which the motor is connected.
The starting resistance is gradually removed electrically as the motor picks up its speed.
This is so because once the motor picks up its speed, the back e.m.f comes into action and
regulates the current drawn by the armature. Therefore to limit this current a starter is
used.

3 POINT STARTER
Construction of 3 Point Starter
Construction wise a starter is a variable resistance, integrated into the number of sections
as shown in the figure beside. The contact points of these sections are called studs and are
shown separately as OFF, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, RUN. Other than that there are three main points,
referred to as
1. ‘L’ Line terminal (Connected to positive of supply)
2. ‘A’ Armature terminal (Connected to the armature winding)
3. ‘F’ Field terminal (Connected to the field winding)
And from there it gets the name 3 point starter. Now studying the construction of 3
point starter in further details reveals that the point ‘L’ is connected to an electromagnet
called overload release (OLR) as shown in the figure. The other end of OLR is connected
to the lower end of conducting lever of starter handle where spring is also attached with
it, and the starter handle also contains a soft iron piece housed on it. This handle is free to
move to the other side RUN against the force of the spring. This spring brings back the
handle to its original OFF position under the influence of its own force. Another parallel
path is derived from the stud ‘1’, given to another electromagnet called No Volt Coil
(NVC) which is further connected to terminal ‘F.’ The starting resistance at starting is
entirely in series with the armature. The OLR and NVC act as the two protecting devices
of the starter.
Working of Three Point Starter
Having studied its construction, let us now go into the working of the 3 point starter.
To start with the handle is in the OFF position when the supply to the DC motor is
switched on. Then handle is slowly moved against the spring force to make contact with
stud No. 1. At this point, field winding of the shunt or the compound motor gets supply
through the parallel path provided to starting the resistance, through No Voltage Coil.
While entire starting resistance comes in series with the armature. The high starting
armature current thus gets limited as the current equation at this stage becomes:
Applications of DC Motors

The main applications of the three types of DC motors are given below.

Series Motors:-

The series DC motors are used where high starting torque is required, and variations in
speed are possible. For example – the series motors are used in Traction system, Cranes,
air compressors, Vaccum Cleaner, Sewing machine, etc.

Shunt Motors

The shunt motors are used where constant speed is required and starting conditions are
not severe. The various applications of DC shunt motor are in Lathe Machines,
Centrifugal Pumps, Fans, Blowers, Conveyors, Lifts, Weaving Machine, Spinning
machines, etc.

Compound Motors

The compound motors are used where higher starting torque and fairly constant speed is
required. The examples of usage of compound motors are in Presses, Shears, Conveyors,
Elevators, Rolling Mills, Heavy Planners, etc.

The small DC machines whose ratings are in fractional kilowatt are mainly used as
control device such in Techno generators for speed sensing and in Servo motors for
positioning and tracking.

Numericals

A 110V,DC shunt generator delivers a load current of 50A.The armature resistance is

0.2,the field circuit resistance is 55.The generator, rotating at a speed of 1800rpm has
6poles lap wound and has total of 360 conductors. Calculate
a) No-load voltage in the armature
b) Flux per pole
 Eg=V+IaRa Ia= 110/55=2A

Ia = IL+ Ish = 52A

Eg =

∅ = 120.4*60*6/360*1800

∅=0.011Wb

A 4 pole , 1500 r.p.m d.c generator has a lap wound armature having 24 slots
with 10 conductors per slot. If the flux pole is 0.04 Wb, calculate the e.m.f generated
in the armature.What would be the generated e.m.f if the winding is wave connected?

P =4, N = 1500 r.p.m,

Lap i.e. A = P,  = 0.04 Wb

Z = Slots x Conductors / Slot = 24x10= 240

Eg = =0.04*4*1500*240/60*4=240V

 Eg=240V
 If winding is wave connected, A=2

 Eg =0.04*4*1500*240/60*2 = 480V
Eg=480V

A DC Shunt generator has an induced voltage on open circuit of 127V.When the machine
is on load the voltage is 120V.Find the load current if the field resistance is 15 and

armature resistance is 0.02

E=127V
V=120V
Rsh=15 Ish=V/Rsh=120/15=8A
Ra=0.02
Ish=8A

E=V+IaRa

127=120+Ia*0.02

Ia=350A

IL = Ia-Ish
  IL = 342A

A 4 pole shunt generator with a lap wound armature has an armature resistance of 0.1
and field resistance of 50.The generator is supplying sixty 100V 40W lamps.Find
armature current.Current in each conductor and the generated emf assuming brush
contact drop of 1V per brush.

Z=4
O/P=V IL =2400W
IL =24A
Ish=V/Rsh=2A
Ia=IL +Ish =24+2=26A
A=P=4(Lap)
Current/Conductor =26/4
=6.5A

E=V+IaRa+Brush Drop
=100+26*0.1+1*2
=104.6V

A 4 pole generator with wave wound armature has 51 slots, each having 24 conductors.
The flux per pole is 0.01 Weber. At what speed must the armature rotate to give an
induced emf of 220 V? What will be the voltage developed if the voltage developed if the
winding is lap and the armature rotates at the same speed?

P = 4, for wave winding A = 2

Number of slots = 51, conductors/slot = 24
∅ = 0.01 wb
E = 220 volts
Z = Number of slots × conductors/slots
= 51 × 24
= 1224

E=

 N= =

 N = 539.21 rpm
Now speed is same but winding is lap  A=P

E=
 E = 110 volts

The current drawn from the mains by a 220 V D.C shunt motor is 4 A on no- load The
resistance and armature windings are 110 ohm and 0.2 ohm respectively . if the line
current on full load is A at speed of 1500 r.m.p. find the no-load speed .
 ILO = 4A,V =220 V, Rsh = 110 Ω, Ra = 0.2Ω, IFL = 40 A

Ish = = =2A

 Ia0 = ILO - Ish = 4-2==2A

 Ebo = V--IaoRa = 220-2×0.2=219.6V

IaFL = IFL- Ish =40-2=38 A ……… ISH is

constant
 IbFL = V- IaFL Ra =220-38×0.2=212.4V

N =  Eb ……. is
constant

 = i.e = ……NFL
=1500 r.p.m

 No = 1550.8474 r.p.m …. No load speed.

A 500V shunt motor has 4 poles and a wave connected winding with 492 conductors.
The flux per pole is 0.05 Wb. The full load current is 20 Amps. The armature and shunt
field resistances are 0.1 and 250 respectively. Calculate the speed and the developed
torque.
Sol:
P = 4, V =500volts
 Φ = 0.05Wb
Z = 492
IL = IF.L. = 20A
Ra = 0.1
Rsh = 250,A = 2 for wave winding

Ish = = = 2A
IL = Ia + Ish Ia = IL – Ish = 20-2 = 18A

Now, Eb = =
But, Eb = V-IaRa = 500-(18)(90.1) = 500-1.8

 498.2 =

 N=
 N = 607.56 rpm
Now, Eb∙Ia = Ta × ω

Ta = =

Ta =
Ta = 140.94N-m) A 250 KVA, 11000/415V, 50 Hz single phase

A 120V DC shunt motor has an armature resistance of 60. It runs at 1800 RPM, when it
takes full load current of 40A. Find the speed of the motor while it is operating at half
the full load, with load terminal voltage remaining same.
Sol.:
 ,
IL1 = Ia1 + If
Ia1 = IL1- If = 40 – 2 = 38A

= 120 – 7.6 = 112.4V

N1 = 1800rpm
Now for shunt machine
T ∝ Ia as ∅ remains constant.
For half load

T2 = T1

Ia2 = ½ Ia1 = ½ (38) = 19A

Eb2 = V – Ia2 Ra = 120 – (19)(0.2) = 120 – 3.8
Eb2 = 116.2V
Now, Eb ∝ N for  constant

N2 = 1860.85 rpm
A 4 pole, 220 V. lap connected DC shunt motor has 36 slots, each slot containing 16
conductors. It draws a current of 40 A from the supply. The field resistance and armature
resistance are 110, 0.1  respectively. The motor develops an output power of 6 kW.
The flux per pole is 40 mwb. Calculate
a) the speed
b) the torque developed by the armature and
c) the shaft torque

Sol.: P = 4, V = 220 volts, slots = 36, A=P=4

Conductors/slot = 16, Z = 36 × 16 = 576
IL = 40 A
R sh = 110 = 0.1
P output = 6 KW, ∅ = 40× wb

Ish =
IL = Ia+Ish
 Ia = IL - Ish
= 40 – 2 = 38A
Eb = V - IaRa
 Eb = 220 – (38) (0.1)
= 220-3.8
 Eb = 216.2 volts

Now, Eb =  N= =

 N = 563 rpm
 Ta = 0.159 ∅ Z = 0.159 ∅ ZIa

= (0.159) (40× 10 -3) (576) (38)

 T a = 139.20 N-m

P out = T sh .

Tsh = = 101.76 N-m

 T sh = 101.76 N-m

A DC series motor is running with a speed of 1000rpm,while taking a current of 22A

from the supply.If the load is changed such that the current drawn by the motor is
increased to 55A,Calculate the speed of the motor on new load.The armature and series
winding resistances are 0.3 and 0.4 respectively.Assume supply voltage as 250V.

N1=1000rpm,Ia1=22A,Ia2=55A

Ra=0.3,Rse=0.4,V=250V
Eb1=V-Ia1(Ra+Rse)=250-22(0.3+0.4)=234.6V
Eb2=V-Ia2(Ra+Rse)=250-55(0.3+0.4)=211.5V

For Series motor,

 ∅IIa

NEb/∅Eb/Ia

N1/N2=Eb1/Eb2*Ia2/Ia1

1000/N2=234.6/211.5*55/22
N2=360.6138rpm

A 4Pole, 500V,shunt motor has 720 wave connected conductors on its armature.The full
load armature current is 60A.The flux per poleis 0.03Wb.The armature resistance is
0.2,the contact drop is 1V/brush.Calcualte the full load speed of the motor.

Eb=V-IaRa-Vb
=500-60*0.2-2
=486V

Eb =

N=Eb*60*A/∅PZ
=486*60/0.03*720*2

N=675rpm

A 440V DC shunt motor takes an armature current of 20A and runs at 500rpm.The
armature resistance is 0.6.If the flux is reduced by 40%,calculate the new values of
armature current and speed.
V=440V,Ia1=20A,N1=500rpm,Ra=0.6

∅2=∅1-40% of ∅1=0.6∅1
∅1/∅2=1/0.6
Assume,
T1=T2
T∅Ia
T1/T2=∅1/∅2*Ia1/Ia2

But T1=T2

1=1/0.6*20/Ia2
Ia2=33.33A
NEb/∅

N1/N2=Eb1/Eb2*∅2/∅1= (V-Ia1Ra)/ (V-Ia2Ra)* ∅2/∅1

500/N2=(440-20*0.6)/(440-33.33*0.6) *0.6
N2=817.761rpm