MODUL 2: FAMILY AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION

2.1 Introduction

The family is the oldest human institution, which is often taken for granted. This Study
module is designed to expose you to the concept of family institution with a view to help you
understand its functions, structures, elements and variations across several cultures.

Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this module two, learners should be able to:

1) Discuss the family as a social institution and its structure

2) Explain why are patrilineal societies more favored than matrilineal societies?

3) Discuss the different marriage patterns you know?

4) Identify the fundamental bases of each of the theories explaining family roles.

5) Point out the major causes of divorce

Terminology

Family This represents two or more persons who share resources, share responsibility
for decisions, share values and goals, and have a commitment to one another
over time.
Kin A person's closest living relative, often entitled to inherit the personal property,
and in some cases the real property, of the deceased, if that person dies.
Divorce The breaking up of a couple after marriage or after being legally joined together
as one.
Family The emotional, physical, or sexual abuse of one family member by another.
violence

2.2 Definition of the family

Family is an intimate domestic group made up of people related to one another by bonds of
blood, sexually or legal ties. It is a very resilient social unit that has survived and adapted
through time (Scott and Marshall, 2009). Family is a social institution which provides
foundation of every society (Riegel, 2008). Family in a broader context is the basic and
necessary social institution which provides foundations to build a structure of a society.
Family is a more or less durable association of husband and wife with or without children
(Nimkoff, 2008).

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In a broader sense, a family is defined as two or more persons who share resources, share
responsibility for decisions, share values and goals, and have a commitment to one another
over time (Aldous and Dumon, 1991).

Family is a social group characterized by common residence, economic cooperation and

reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at least two, of who maintain a socially
approved sexual relationship and one or more children, owned or adopted, of the sexually
cohabiting adults (Murdock, 2010).
Traditional definition of family: social unit of people related through marriage, birth or
adoption, which reside together in sanctioned relationships, engage in economic cooperation,
socially approved sexual relations, and reproduction and child rearing.
Contemporary definition of family: primary group of people usually related by
ancestry/bloodline, marriage or adoption, who form a cooperative unit and care for any
young who consider their identity to be attached to the group; and are committed to
maintaining the group.

2.2.1 Characteristics of a family

1) The family is the most basic of human institutions

2) The family has its own complex identity as a community of covenant, love and trust
binding father, mother and children.
3) The family bonds hold for the lifetime of its members and reaches back to grandparents,
ahead to grandchildren, and out to other relations.

2.2.2 Family as a social institution

The institution of the family comprises goals, values and roles aimed at achieving important
goals such as the reproduction and the socialization of new generations and also the
economic empowerment of these children.
The family in traditional societies, was responsible for the provision of the basic needs of its
members. These basic needs include the communication among members, production and
distribution of goods and services, protection and defence, replacement of members and
control of members. In present day however, most of these functions are being carried out by
other institutions that were specially designed for these roles.

Rapid social change has hindered the family from carrying out the roles expected from
members by the society. For example, many families in industrial communities were quite
good at preparing their children for blue-collar manufacturing jobs, but as those jobs have
been eliminated owing to globalization of the economy, it is no longer clear how families can
equip their offspring to compete in the new job market.

The family always adapt to major changes that occur in other institutions, likewise other
institutions also adapt to major changes made in the family. The effect of these changes is
what makes the family an institution.
Quiz One (Max One page)
What do you understand about family as a social institution?

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2.2.3 Structure/Types of the Family

The precise shape and character of kinship arrangement vary, but all societies recognize
family (Murdock, 1965).
Nuclear/Conjugal family: is a dominant form of family organization in modern,
industrialized and urban societies. It consists of husband, wife and dependent children. Just
as extended family, nuclear family also developed in response to social and economic
conditions of the people. This form of family developed out of marriage, hence it is also
referred to as “conjugal family”. Nuclear family is becoming more predominant in our
contemporary societies as against the extended family structure which was more popular
(Macionis, 1995; Anderson and Taylor, 2004).
Extended family: In traditional, agrarian and rural societies, extended family form
dominates. It consists of husband, wife/ wives, their children, and other relatives (Henslin
and Nelson, 1995; Calhoun, 1994). Sometimes, extended families, or part thereof, live
together, sharing their labour and economic resources to survive. For example, extended
families are common among the urban poor because they develop a cooperative system of
social and economic support. Kin, in such a context, may refer to those who are intimately
involved in the family support system, and are considered part of the family (Stack, 1974;
Collins, 1990 and Anderson and Taylor, 2004).
Pre-industrial societies attach great importance to the extended family, a family unit
including parents, children and next of kins. Extended families are also called consanguine
families. This means that they include everyone with “shared blood”. Extended family
systems are common among Caribbean, Latin American, and African Societies. Studies of
African societies show, for example, that the extended family is a pervasive and durable
family form that enables members to adapt to changing circumstances, including migration,
upward mobility, and economic hardship (Bacazin and Eitzen, 2000).
According to Bacazin and Eitzen (2002), extended families are also found at the very top of
the socio-economic scale. Among elite, extended family systems preserve inherited wealth,
whereas among the poor, extended family systems contribute to economic survival. In sum,
extended families provide a means of adaptation to economic conditions that require great
cooperation within families.
2.2.4 Forms of Family
1. Family of orientation: This is the family an individual is born into and which confers
ascribed status on the individual.
2. Family of Procreation: This is the family that is established by individual upon
marriage.

Quiz Two (Max One page)

What do you understand by extended family?

2.2.5 Effects of Industrialization on the Family Institution

Industrialization refers to the shift from an agricultural economy to one that is based on
factory production. It came into existence about the late 18th century and early 19th century.
It is said to have had an effect on the family structure. According to Parsons (1995),

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industrialization caused the transformation from the extended family households to the
nuclear family household. He also argued that pre-industrial families were units of economic
production. Work and home were not separated; family members worked and lived together.
There was a strong sense of obligation to help each other either in health, welfare,
employment or protection. Pre-industrial extended families were basically multifunctional.

The family became structurally isolated from the wider family and had no binding obligation
to their wider kinship group (Individualism and competition spread). Also, extended families
were unable to relocate easily and so it was easier to adopt nuclear families in line with the
geographically mobile workforce that is required by industrialization (Boois, 2009). There
was also a shift from small scale specializations (Blacksmiths and bakers) to large scale
specializations (Flour mills).

Industrialization caused a drift between family members as urbanization made most youths to
leave home in search of jobs in the urban areas, thereby also creating a reduction in working
population in the rural areas. Presently, production takes place outside the home and the roles
previously undertaken by the family has changed to job-oriented roles. For example, the
family was responsible for the provision of basic needs such as food and clothing are now
being sourced for outside the family as members have to work in factories brought about by
industrialization to be able to satisfy these basic needs. There is now a more favourable
attitude towards working wives and mothers (Pedrosa, 2010).

2.2.6 Functions of a family

Functions of a family are categorized as follows;
1) Biological/ Reproduction function: This is the function which allows the human
generation to maintain its existence. This involves the processing of replacing
membership in society as some members die. It is one main function of the family to
replace its member through childbearing.

2) Love and affection: Family is the basic source of love and affection in society. Through
love and affection, sense of intimacy, warm and security if shared with members. This
is more pronounced outside the family such as places of work. Nevertheless, it is the
responsibilities of the family to provide emotional needs and supports to its members.

3) Regulation of sexual behavior: It is within the family that control of sexual needs of its
adults and mutual affection among its members are created. Prohibition and regulations
regarding sexual relations vary from one culture to another. For example, incest taboo
(sexual relation/marriage between kins) is prohibited in most societies, for example the
Igbos and Yoruba prohibits sex between father and daughter, mother and son, brother
and sister. However, among the Ashantis in Ghana, incest is not frowned upon.

4) Educational function: It is the family that is the first school of the children. It focuses
on both social and religious education and likewise career building of their members.

5) Recreational function: The family that teaches a person about the limits to fulfil
recreational needs.
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6) Religious function: The family is the first source which gives religious identity to the
children. We are not born Muslims or Christians; it is our family that gives us religious
identity.

7) Economic function: The parents in every family work hard for the economic
empowerment of their children. They bring them up and send them for formal education,
so that they may be able to earn their livelihood. The family also provides what is
needed for survival.

8) Function of social protection: The family provides protection to its members from
every kind of social and natural problems. Constant care and economic security is
required for human infants. Longer periods of dependency are required by children, and
this responsibility can only be placed in the hands of older family members. This is
evident in all cultures.
9) Socialization function: It is the family that transmits societal culture from one
generation to the next. Customs, values and behaviour of a society, is made known to a
child in the family environment. The influence of the family on the life of a child cannot
be over – emphasized. It is the family that a child is born into, determines whatever the
child will become in the future. Parents try as much as possible to help their children
learn to be well integrated and responsible members of the society (Parsons and Bales,
1995). Furthermore, the social class of the family has a significant influence on the
socialization experiences and protection children receive.

Quiz Three (Max One page)

How will you describe the emergence of industrialization into the family structure, a blessing
or curse, and why?

2.3 Kinship Systems

Family relationships are generally defined by kinship system, of which families are all made
out of. Families as social units are built on close bonds of blood, marriage or adoption that
joins individuals together into a family (Groll, 1995; Macionis, 1995; Anderson and Taylor,
2004).
People related by ties of blood have what is called a biological kinship, those related by
descent have a legal kinship, while those related through marriage have an affinal kinship
(Peil, 1977).

2.3.1 Rules of Descent/Inheritance

The pattern of defining relatives or the system through which individuals in a society trace
their lineage over generations is known as descent. According to Anderson and Taylor
(2004); Haviland (1985), and Macionis (1995) people of a common kinship system trace
their descent in one of the following ways:
a) Patrilineal: This is when people of the same kinship system trace their links, rights and
duties through the male line. A good example is the Ugandan society. Offspring in this
descent system are usually given the name of the father. Also, properties of the father are
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passed directly unto the sons. Patrilineal descent is also common amongst the pastoral
and agrarian societies, in which men provide valued resources.
b) Matrilineal: This is when individuals of the same kinship group trace their links, rights
and duties through the female line. A good example is the Ghanian society. Here, not
only is property inherited by daughters from their mothers, but also individuals define
only their maternal side as kin. This is common amongst horticultural societies where
women are the primary food producers.
c) Unilineal: A society with unilineal descent may trace rights and duties in one line and
inheritance in some other way. For example, in a patrilineal society, women may have
some inheritance from their mothers, and in a basically matrilineal society, children may
inherent some goods or position from their fathers.
d) Bilateral: This is when individuals of the same kinship group trace their links, rights and
duties equally from both sides/parents (Bohannan, 1969; Peil, 1977). Children are linked
by kinship to the families of both parents, though children still bear the name of their
father. This practice though is undergoing changes presently, as women are keeping their
names.

2.3.2 Rules of Authority

Similar patterns govern authority in a family. Rules of authority in families follow one of the
following;
1) Patriarchy: Here authority resides in the hands of the oldest male in the family. For
example, Uganda (most tribes)
2) Matriarchy: Authority here lies in the hands of the oldest female in the family. I.e India
and Botswana
3) Egalitarian: in some societies, control/authority are split equally between spouses.

2.3.3 Rules of Residence

Societies also designates where couples reside. In pre-industrial societies, for example, most
newlyweds live with one set of parents, gaining economic assistance and security in the
process. Couples were also allowed to live on their own if they could afford it. The place
where newly married couples set up their households vary from culture to culture.
a) Patrilocal: Here newly married couples set up their households with/near the husband’s
parent. After marriage, a woman is separated from her own kinship group and resides
with the husband or his kinship group. Example of this is found in Premodern China and
many African counties.
b) Matrilocal: Here newly married couple set up their households with/near the wife’s
parents. A woman continues to live with her family of origin. The husband resides with
the wife and her family; though, he does not give up membership of his own group.
Example of this is found in the Nayar society of South India.
c) Neolocal: Here couples establish residence on their own, away from both parents.
Example of this is the American model of residence.
The major reason why a society takes to either Patrilocal or Matrilocal kinship system is due
to military/economic reasons. Societies who want their son close by (Patrilocal societies)
may do so, so as to protect them in times of war. On the other hand, other societies favour
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patrilocality/matrilocality depending on whether the sons/daughters have more economic

importance
Quiz Four (Max One page)
What do you understand by rules of authority of a family?

2.4 Marriage Patterns

Marriage is a cultural universal, but the ceremonies may vary according to different cultural
groups. All cultures have norms that specify whether an individual brought up in that culture
may marry outside or within the cultural group. This selection of mates can be categorized
into two as follows:
1) Endogamy: This is the cultural norm that allows marriage within one’s cultural and
racial groups. It constrains marriage to other people of the same social category. The
logic of endogamy is that people of similar social position pass along their standing to
offspring, thereby maintaining traditional social patterns.
2) Exogamy: Norms guiding exogamy allows marriage between people of different social
category. Exogamous marriages are usually conducted to help create useful alliances and
encourage cultural diffusion (Murdock, 1965; Macionis, 1995).

2.4.1 Forms of Marriage

a) Monogamy: This form of marriage is mostly practiced by those in modern/industrialized

nations. It is a marriage between one man and one woman. This means the practice of
sexual exclusive marriage with one spouse only. This marriage is an ideal pattern not
only culturally, but legally and according to religious teachings.
b) Polygamy: This form of marriage is usually contracted between one man and multiple
women simultaneously. It is mostly practiced by Muslim societies, Mormons and Old
Testament Patriarchs, though it is mostly carried out by the elite. It was also contracted
to display high prestige among Muslim men, because the more wives one had, the higher
his social status. Also, it was practiced more in agrarian societies, because it provided
cheap and inexpensive labour for the men who married many wives.
c) Polyandry: This is a rare form of marriage where one woman gets married to more than
one man at the same time. An example of societies that practice this form of marriage is
the Tibetan Buddhists. Also in areas where agriculture is difficult, polyandry help to
discourage the sharing of lands but divides the costs equally among all men, and also in
societies where abortion of female foetuses is encouraged, female population drops
thereby, men have to share the few that are available (Murdock, 1965; Macionis, 1995).

2.4.2 Alternative Family Forms

Recently new family forms have developed and these include;

Single/One-Parent Families: These are families that are headed by one parent usually a
single mother. This is usually as a result of divorce, death or an unmarried woman’s decision
to have a child.

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Cohabitation: This is the sharing of a household by an unmarried couple. Cohabiting tends

to appeal to more independent-minded individuals as well as those who favour gender
equality (Brines and Joyner, 1999).
Gay and Lesbian Couples: This is the union between individuals who are of the same sex.
That is male to male or female to female. It is widely practiced in countries such as; United
States, Belgium, Canada, Netherlands, Spain and South Africa, however it is forbidden in
countries like Nigeria, where if one is caught practicing it, penalties are awarded to the
individuals involved (Macionis, 2008).
Quiz Five (Max One page)
What is the difference between endogamy and exogamy forms of marriage?

2.5 Marriage and Economic Exchange

In many societies, marriage is accompanied by the transfer of certain symbolically important
goods. Anthropologists have identified two major categories of marriage payments, usually
called bride wealth and dowry.
Bride wealth is most common in patrilineal societies that combine agriculture, pastoralism
and Patrilocal marriage, although it is found in other types of societies as well. When it
occurs among matrilineal peoples, a post marital residence rule (Avunculocal, for example)
usually takes the woman away from her matrilineage.

The goods exchanged have significant symbolic value to the people concerned. They may
include shell ornaments, ivory tusks, brass gongs, bird feathers, cotton cloth, and animals.
Bride wealth in animals is prevalent in eastern and southern Africa, where cattle have the
most profound symbolic and economic value. In these societies, a man’s father, and often his
entire patrilineage, give a specified number of cattle (often in instalments) to the patrilineage
of the man’s bride. Anthropologists view bride wealth as a way of compensating the bride’s
relatives for the loss of her labour and childbearing capacities. When the bride leaves her
home, she goes to live with her husband and his lineage. She will be working and producing
children for his people, not her own.

2.6 Theoretical Perspectives on the Family as an Institution

Introduction
All social phenomena are difficult to view from a single perspective ditto the family as a
social institution. Sociological theories of family tried to give answers to questions such as;
what are the interests for which families are organized? Are families a source of
power/conflict? How do new family forms emerge? How do members and people adapt to
the changes that affect families? Thus, this Study Session will expose you to the four (4)
main theories that have been propounded to answer the foregoing questions.

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2.6.1 The Functionalist Theory

Theorists here, see the family as performing certain functions just as other social institutions
that are organized to fulfil certain needs. These duties of the family include; socializing the
young, regulating sexual activity and procreation, providing care for its members, giving
identity, psychological support and also emotional security to individuals. Functionalists are
also of the view that the family provides care and also teach the values to the children as is
generally accepted by the society.
According to functionalists, due to rapid changes occurring in the society, institutions have
become weak and disorganized, and the family was not left out. Therefore, it has been noted
that overtime, other institutions have taken up some of the functions originally meant for the
family. For instance, as children spend longer hours in the schools, some of the schools have
taken up not just physical care but also socialization originally meant for the family. Changes
have occurred in family responsibilities; while they have dropped certain previous
responsibilities, they have also taken up more roles apart from their previous roles.
Preparing older children for adult roles in the economic institutions of industrialized societies
is a traditional role of the family.

2.6.2 Conflict theory

Theorists here view the family as existing only to reinforce and support power relations in
the society. They have a different opinion from the functionalists as they view family as a
system where a power relation that reflects the inequalities in the society abounds. They see
the family as an avenue where opportunities and disadvantages of class, race and gender are
required. Theorists are also of the view that the family is an important part of the system of
capitalism because it is where workers are produced to fulfil the capitalists’ needs. The
family therefore socializes their children to conform to the capitalists needs through; the
installation of obedience, subordination to authority and good consumption. Conflict
perspective is different from functionalists in the sense that they view family as also
succumbing to the same conflicts and tensions that plague the rest of the society. Conflict
theorists also view the family as a contribution to social injustice. It is through the family
that property, power and privileges are passed on to coming generations, this means that the
socio-economic status of a child’s family will have a significant influence on his/her
nutrition, health, housing, education and in general, chances in life. It is however concluded
by conflict theorists that families help in maintaining inequality.

2.6.3 Symbolic Interactionist Theory

Theorists here are of the view that families emerge so that people can meet basic needs and
develop relationships. They were interested in how individuals interacted with one another.
A good example of this interaction is from studies conducted show that it is not the sexual
orientation of parents that determines the children’s behavioural adjustment but the nature of
family interactions and quality of relationships (such as love between parents and children,
parental conflict and stress). The focus of most studies on family interactions are on the
sources of tensions and conflict, within the family. The construction of meaning within the
family is emphasized by symbolic interactionists as members in the family define/re-define
their behavior towards one another, so also the roles in the family continue to evolve. This
perspective is helpful in understanding changes in the family because it supplies a basis for
analyzing new meaning systems.

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2.6.4 Feminist Theory

Each theoretical perspective used to analyse families illuminates different features of the
family. It is noteworthy that some feminists have responded negatively to sociological
theories used to analyse and explore the concept of the family in particular, feminist scholars
have criticized the work of the noted theorist, Talcott Parsons (1951a), for his analysis of the
role of men and women in the family.
Parsons (1951a) wrote that men played “instrumental role” in the family, and women played
“expressive roles” that is, those associated with affection, nurturing, and emotional support.
These observations from Parsons were considered to be biased by some Feminist theorists.
As critic, Fichler (2001), has also argued that sociologists’ approach in the study of family
institution is biased. Among the biases that Fichler (2001) therefore noted in relation to the
family institution are the following:
- Monolithic bias: This emerge as out of the belief that the family and its members
behave in uniform ways. This perspective opined that diversities in the family should
have been recognized.

- Conservative bias: In this case, some of the ugly and unfavourable aspects of the
family is ignored and unimportant. For instance, little attention is paid on internal
crisis in the family.

- Ageist bias: This bias regards the children and the aged as passive members of
families.

- Sexist bias: This is exhibited in patterns such as double standards for female and male
members of the family, as well as gender insensitivity in that all members are treated
the same way and also all members are assumed to experience family in the same
way.

- Overall, the family as an institution plays significant roles in the sustenance of society
despite the dynamic changing economic conditions and values. While the family has
the function of reproducing its members and settle internal crises, it does not mean
that the divorce rate will reduce to zero.
Quiz Six (Max One page)
Which of the theoretical perspective viewed family as an organized institution established to
meet and fulfill certain needs?

2.7 Problems in Family Life

The ideal family is a source of pleasure and happiness but in present days’ certain problems
have led families to disintegrate and sometimes make the members to feel dejected and
unhappy. This session however is going to focus on two major reasons why families
disintegrate. They are; divorce and family violence.

2.7.1 Divorce

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This refers to the breaking up of a couple after marriage or after being legally joined together
as one. This break up is usually conducted with the backing of the law. It is most common
among young couples, especially those who marry after a brief courtship and who lack
money and emotional maturity.
Some of the causes of divorce are listed below;
- Financial hardship
- Conflicting values of child rearing
- Age of marriage
- Years of marriage
- Nature and quality of relationship
- Economic fluctuation
- Growing up of baby boomers
- Increasing financial independence of women
- Changes in attitude and values about divorce

2.7.2 Family Violence

The disturbing reality of most homes is family violence. Family violence refers to the
emotional, physical, or sexual abuse of one family member by another. Those more likely to
be affected by violence in the family are women and children. Historically, wives were
considered as the property of their husbands, today however States have enacted laws against
marital rape (Macionis, 2008).
Our focus in the next study session will be on meaning, elements, forms and functions of
religion.
Quiz Seven (Max One page)
Mention any two likely problems confronting family life

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References / Bibliography
Anderson, M.L. and Taylor, H.F. (2004). Sociology: Understanding a Diverse Society (3rd
Ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Browne, K. (2020). An Introduction to Sociology. 5th Edition.UK: Polity Press. (Chapter 3).
Bacazin, Maxine, and D. Stanley Eitzen (2000). Diversity in American Families (4th Ed.).
New York: Harper Collins.
Bohannan, P. (1990). The Six Stations of Divorce. In P. Bohannan (Ed.), Divorce and After.
New York: Dollbleday, 29-55. Boois, D. 2009.
Bray, James H., and John Kelly (1999). Stepfamilies: Love, Marriage and Parenting in the
First Decade. New York: Broadway Books.
Collins, Patricia H. (1990). Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness and the
Politics of Empowerment. Cambridge MA: Unwin Hyman.
0+2`
Eitzen, D. Stanley, and Maxine Bacazin (2000). In Conflict and Order: Understanding
Society (9th Ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Ember, Melvin M., and Carol, R. Ember (1991). Anthropology (6th ed.). Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Glenn, Evelyn Nalcano (1987). “Gender and Family”. In Beth Hess and Myra Marx Ferree
(Eds.), Analyzing Gender: A Handbook of Social Science Research. Newbury Park,
CA: Sage Publication, 348-380.
Goll, Elizabeth (1995). Changing Identities of Chinese Women. London: Zed Books.
Kornblum, William (1997). Sociology in a Changing World (4th Ed.). Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich.
Macionis, J. J. (2008). Sociology (12th ed.). Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River,
New Jersey.
Macionis, John J. (1995). Sociology (5th Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New York: Prentice Hall.
Murdock, George P. (1965). Social Structure. New York: Free Press.
Ogburn, William F. (1964). On Culture and Social Change. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Parsons, T. and Bales, R.F. (1955). Family, Socialization and Interaction Process. New
York: Free Press.
Schaefer, Richard T. and Robert P. Lamm (1997). Sociology: A Brief Introduction (2nd ed.)
New York: McGraw-Hill.
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Schaefer, Richard T., and Edith Smith (2005). Sociology (1st Canadian ed.). New York:
McGraw Hill.
Scott, J. and Marshall, G. (2009). Oxford dictionary of Sociology. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Stack, Carol (1974). All our Kin: Strategies for Survival in a Black Community. New York:
Harper Colophon.
Thorne, Barrie (1993). Gender Play: Girls and Boys in School. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers
University Press.

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