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/ 156
ULTRASONIC TESTING
ASNT Level - II Theory Book
CONTENTS
SL.NO. | LESSON NO. SUBJECT _ ~ PAGE NO.
ol vet Applications of Ultrasonics _ 01 to 02,
o a Urasonic Principles _ 0310.09
03 03 Ultrasonic Equipment 10 to 16
04 04 Modes of Ultrasonic Wave Travel 17 to 25
0s 05 Couplants and Ultrasonic Sound Energ; _26 to 32
06 06 Attenuation, Acoustic Impedance and Resonance 33 to 37
_07_| 07 _| Displaying Ukrasonic indications | 381044 |
08 08 ‘Transducer and Standard Reference Blocks 45 10 57
09 09 __| 1mmersion Inspection 5810 64
10 10 Ultrasonic Contact Testing 65t0 72
uu ul Applications of Contact Testing TB to 80
12. 12 Non-relevant Ultrasoni _Bi to 86
13__| 13 __| Types of Discontinuities 871095
14 - Additional Notes ocean
15 15 Ultrasonic Standard - Article - 5 faseon Lesson]
BASIC APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONICS.
ULTRASONICS IS A VERSATILE INSPECTION TECHNIQUE, IT IS USED TO TEST A
VARIETY OF BOTH METALLIC AND NONMETALLIC PRODUCTS SUCH AS WELDS,
FORGINGS, CASTINGS, SHEET, TUBING, PLASTICS AND CERAMICS.
ULTRASONICS HAS AN ADVANTAGE OF DETECTING SUBSURFACE DISCONTI-
NUITIES WITH ACCESS TO ONLY ONE SIDE OF THE SPECIMEN.
THE OBJECTIVE OF ULTRASONIC TESTING IS TO ENSURE PRODUCT RELIABIL-
ITY BY MEANS OF:
1, OBTAINING INFORMATION RELATED TO DISCONTINUITIES.
2. DISCLOSING THE NATURE OF THE DISCONTINUITY WITHOUT IMPAIRING
THE USEFULNESS OF THE PART.
3. SEPARATING ACCEPTABLE AND UNACCEPTABLE MATERIALS IN AC-
CORDANCE WITH PREDETERMINED STANDARDS.
TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION
IT IS IMPORTANT THAT THE TECHNICIAN AND SUPERVISOR BE QUALIFIED IN
THE ULTRASONIC METHOD BEFORE THE TECHNIQUE IS USED AND TEST RE-
SULTS EVALUATED.
THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING RECOMMENDS THE
USE OF THEIR DOCUMENT “RECOMMENDED PRACTICE NO. SNT-TC-1A.”
THIS DOCUMENT PROVIDES THE EMPLOYER WITH THE NECESSARY GUIDE-
LINES TO PROPERLY QUALIFY AND CERTIFY THE NOT TECHNICIAN IN ALL
METHODS.
TO COMPLY WITH THIS DOCUMENT THE EMPLOYER MUST ESTABLISH A “WRIT-
TEN PRACTICE” WHICH DESCRIBES IN DETAIL HOW THE TECHNICIAN WILL BE
TRAINED, EXAMINED AND CERTIFIED. '
THE STUDENT IS ADVISED TO STUDY THE CURRENT EDITION OF SNT-TC-1A TO
DETERMINE THE RECOMMENDED INITIAL NUMBER OF HOURS OF CLASSROOM
INSTRUCTION AND MONTHS OF EXPERIENCE NECESSARY TO BE CERTIFIED AS
AN ULTRASONIC TESTING TECHNICIAN. CERTIFICATION OF NDT PERSONNEL IS THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE
EMPLOYER AND IS USUALLY AT THREE LEVELS.
LEVEL! PERFORM SPECIFIC CALIBRATIONS, SPECIFIC TESTS, AND SPECIFIC
EVALUATIONS ACCORDING TO WRITTEN INSTRUCTIONS.
LEVEL | SET UP AND CALIBRATE EQUIPMENT AND INTERPRET AND EVALU-
ATE RESULTS WITH RESPECT TO CODES, STANDARDS AND SPECIFI-
CATIONS. MUST BE ABLE TO PREPARE WRITTEN INSTRUCTIONS AND.
REPORT TEST RESULTS.
LEVEL II] RESPONSIBLE FOR ESTABLISHING TECHNIQUES, INTERPRETING
CODES, AND DESIGNATING THE TEST METHOD AND TECHNIQUE TO
BE USED. MUST HAVE A PRACTICAL BACKGROUND IN THE TECH-
NOLOGY AND BE FAMILIAR WITH OTHER COMMONLY USED METH-
ODS OF NDT.
THE SNT-TC-1A DOCUMENT RECOMMENDS THAT LEVEL | AND II NDT TECHNI-
CIANS BE EXAMINED IN THE FOLLOWING AREAS:
A. GENERAL EXAMINATION
B. SPECIFIC EXAMINATION
©. PRACTICAL EXAMINATION Lesson 2
ULTRASONIC PRINCIPLES
IN ULTRASONIC TESTING WE USE SOMETHING CALLED “ULTRASONIC VIBRA-
TIONS.” WE MUST KNOW TWO FACTS ABOUT A VIBRATION:
4. A VIBRATION IS A BACK AND FORTH MOVEMENT.
2. A VIBRATION IS ENERGY IN MOTION.
A DEPRESSION OF A SURFACE FROM ITS NORMAL POSITION IS CALLED A
DISPLACEMENT.
RUBBER BALL
VIBRATIONS PASS THROUGH A SOLID MATERIAL AS A SUCCESSION OF PARTI-
CLE DISPLACEMENTS. THIS CAN BE VISUALIZED AS SHOWN BELOW:
oo ‘
\
a \
ow »
fo O
THE STRUCTURE OF A MATERIAL IS ACTUALLY MANY SMALL PARTICLES OR
GROUPS OF ATOMS.
THESE PARTICLES HAVE NORMAL OR REST POSITIONS, AND CAN BE DIS-
PLACED FROM THESE POSITIONS BY SOME FORCE. WHEN THE FORCE IS
REMOVED, THE PARTICLES WILL TEND TO RETURN TO THEIR ORIGINAL POSI-
TIONS. . ENERGY IS TRANSMITTED THROUGH A SOLID MATERIAL BY A SERIES OF
SMALL MATERIAL DISPLACEMENTS WITHIN THE MATERIAL.
THE TRANSMISSION OF ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS THROUGH A MATERIAL IS
RELATED TO THE ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF THE MATERIAL.
IF YOU TAP A METAL SURFACE, THE SURFACE MOVES INWARD, CAUSING A
DISPLACEMENT.
puare srauck
mate DB Jf mnvasen
BQ ee
support
VIEW view 8
SINCE THE METAL IS ELASTIC THE SURFACE WILL TEND TO MOVE BACK TO ITS
ORIGINAL (REST) POSITION. THE SURFACE WILL ALSO MOVE THROUGH THE
ORIGINAL POSITION AND MOVE TO A MAXIMUM DISTANCE IN THE OPPOSITE
DIRECTION.
THIS COMPLETE SEQUENCE OF MOVEMENTS IS DEFINED AS A CYCLE.
DIRECTION OF
DIRECTION OF uti gwine
STRING STRING TRAVEL
PALL, sTAING
PALL L et y
one
evcue’
sewer
PENCIL
THE TIME REQUIRED FOR SOMETHING TO MOVE THROUGH ONE COMPLETE CY-
CLE IS CALLED THE PERIOD.
EXAMPLE: IF THE SWINGING BALL ABOVE MOVES OVER PATH ABCDE IN
ONE SECOND, THEN THE PERIOD OF THE CYCLE IS ONE SECOND. THE NUMBER OF CYCLES IN A GIVEN PERIOD OF TIME IS CALLED THE FRE-
QUENCY.
EXAMPLE: IF THE BALL SWINGS THROUGH THREE COMPLETE CYCLES IN
ONE SECOND, THEN THE FREQUENCY IS 3 CPS (CYCLES PER SEC-
OND).
IF YOU STRIKE A DRUM, IT HAS A FREQUENCY THAT IS LOW, APPROXIMATELY
50 CPS.
THE TOP NOTE ON THE PIANO HAS A HIGHER FREQUENCY, APPROXIMATELY
4100 CPS.
THE UNIT OF FREQUENCY USED TO DENOTE ONE CYCLE PER SECOND IS
HERTZ (ABBREVIATED Hz). ONE CYCLE PER SECOND (CPS) IS EQUAL TO ONE
HERTZ (Hz); 2 CPS = 2 Hz, ETC.
SOUND TRAVELS IN METAL AS WELL AS IN AIR. SOUND IS A VIBRATION AND
HAS A RANGE OF FREQUENCIES.
MAN CAN ONLY HEAR VIBRATIONS (SOUND) UP TO ABOUT 20,000 Hz.
HOWEVER, SOUND FROM AN ULTRASONIC TESTING UNIT IS ABOUT 5,000,000
Hz. (5 MEGAHERTZ).
VIBRATIONS ABOVE THE HUMAN HEARING RANGE ARE CALLED ULTRASONIC
VIBRATIONS.
THE TWO TERMS, SOUND AND VIBRATIONS, AS WE WILL USE THEM WILL MEAN
THE SAME THING.
THE BEST WAY TO DEFINE SOUND IS TO SAY THAT IT IS A VIBRATION THAT
TRANSMITS ENERGY BY A SERIES OF SMALL MATERIAL DISPLACEMENTS. ULTRASONIC TESTING IS THE PROCESS OF APPLYING ULTRASONIC SOUND TO
A SPECIMEN AND DETERMINING ITS SOUNDNESS, THICKNESS, OR SOME
PHYSICAL PROPERTY.
THE ENERGY IS ORIGINATED IN SOMETHING CALLED A “TRANSDUCER” WHICH
CAUSES MATERIAL DISPLACEMENT WITHIN THE SPECIMEN.
A TRANSDUCER IS A DEVICE THAT CONVERTS ENERGY FROM ONE FORM TO
ANOTHER.
EXAMPLE: ELECTRICAL ENERGY TO MECHANICAL, OR MECHANICAL TO
ELECTRICAL. .
A SPEAKER IN A RADIO CONVERTS ELECTRICAL ENERGY TO A
BACK AND FORTH MECHANICAL MOVEMENT.
VIEW “A” BELOW ILLUSTRATES THE “PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT.” ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IS APPLIED THROUGH TWO WIRES CONNECTED TO A CRYSTAL, CAUS-
ING THE CRYSTAL TO VIBRATE.
THE TERMS CRYSTAL AND TRANSDUCER ARE USED INTERCHANGEABLY IN
THIS LESSON.
CRYSTAL
TRAN:
[FY 5 SOUCER
ELECTRICAL eneRcY { worarion
wine
view a View 8
ELECTRICAL ENERGY CAUSES A PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTAL TO EXPAND AND
CONTRACT, FORMING MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS.
A PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER CAN ALSO CONVERT MECHANICAL ENERGY
TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY, THEREFORE, A TRANSDUCER CAN BOTH SEND AND
RECEIVE ENERGY. ‘
SPECIMEN
Pa
TRANSDUCER. wove
SOUND IS REFLECTED
WITHIN SPECIMEN AND.
RETURNS TO TRANSDUCER
view ENERGY TRANSMITTED BY A TRANSDUCER CAN BE EITHER PULSED OR CON-
TINUOUS.
PULSED ULTRASOUND IS DEFINED AS SHORT GROUPS OF TRANSMITTED
VIBRATIONS BEFORE AND AFTER WHICH THE TRANSDUCER CAN ACT AS A
RECEIVER.
STEEL, WATER AND OIL WILL TRANSMIT ULTRASOUND VERY WELL, BUT AIR
PRESENTS A PROBLEM.
TRANSDUCER
STEEL.
| SPECIMEN
AIR IS A POOR TRANSMITTER OF ULTRASOUND BECAUSE THE PARTICLE DEN-
SITY IS SO LOW THAT IT IS DIFFICULT TO TRANSMIT SOUND ENERGY FROM
PARTICLE TO PARTICLE. THAT IS WHY WE PUT OIL OR GREASE BETWEEN THE
TRANSDUCER AND THE SPECIMEN.
THE PARTICLE DENSITY OF A MATERIAL HELPS DETERMINE THE VELOCITY OF
SOUND. THE VELOCITY OF SOUND WILL CHANGE AS IT MOVES FROM ONE
MEDIUM TO ANOTHER AS SHOWN BELOW. THE ELASTICITY OF THE MATERIAL
IS ALSO A FACTOR.
eof AMET
0.33 _KN/SEC 1.48 KM/SEC 5.9 KM/SEC
AIR WATER STEEL
VISUALIZE THAT THE BALLS SHOWN ABOVE REPRESENT THE INTERNAL
STRUCTURE OF AIR, WATER AND STEEL.
THE IMPULSE MOVING THROUGH THE ROW OF BALLS CAN BE COMPARED TOA
PULSE OF ULTRASONIC SOUND.
7 A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE OF THE VELOCITY OF SOUND IN DIFFERENT
MATERIALS IS SHOWN BELOW.
maser. OL 1
ex
IT WILL TAKE LONGER FOR THE SOUND TO TRAVEL THROUGH THE WATER
THAN THROUGH THE STEEL. THE SOUND VELOCITY IN STEEL IS APPROXIMATE-
LY FOUR TIMES GREATER THAN IN WATER.
A WAVELENGTH |S CONSIDERED TO BE THE DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO SUC.
CESSIVE DISPLACEMENTS.
TRANSDUCER WAVELENGTH [=>
Va ‘4 ‘Ms eR
THE WAVELENGTH CAN ALSO BE DEFINED AS THE DISTANCE A WAVE
TRAVELS DURING ONE COMPLETE CYCLE.
TRANSDUCER
et MY Rebbe]
® ©OOoO
THE SYMBOL \ IS USED TO REPRESENT A WAVELENGTH AND IS CALLED
“LAMBDA”. THE ILLUSTRATION BELOW SHOWS A TRANSDUCER VIBRATING AT A FIXED
FREQUENCY (f) AND TRANSMITTING SOUND WAVES INTO THE SPECIMEN.
VeLocity —
“Hob | ol lot
SouND WAVES ——
TRANSOUCER
THESE SOUND WAVES MOVE AT A FIXED VELOCITY (v) THROUGH THE
SPECIMEN.
THE WAVELENGTH CAN BE CHANGED IF THE FREQUENCY OF THE
TRANSDUCER VIBRATION CHANGES.
ee WAVELENGTH = —YELOCITY
t FREQUENCY
EXAMPLE: YOU CAN SHORTEN THE WAVELENGTH BY INCREASING THE
FREQUENCY.
WAVELENGTH IS A RATIO OF A FIXED VALUE (VELOCITY) DIVIDED BY A
VARIABLE (FREQUENCY).
IN PRACTICAL SITUATIONS, THE SMALLEST DISCONTINUITY YOU CAN FIND
WITH ULTRASONIC TESTING IS ABOUT 1/2 LAMBDA (WAVELENGTH).
THEREFORE, TO DETECT SMALLER DEFECTS, YOU WILL NEED TRANSDUCERS.
THAT PRODUCE HIGHER FREQUENCIES.
EXAMPLE: WHAT WOULD BE THE SMALLEST DISCONTINUITY THAT YOU
COULD FIND IN A STEEL SPECIMEN WITH A VELOCITY OF
6KM/SEC USING A TRANSDUCER WITH A FREQUENCY OF 3
MEGAHERTZ (MHz).
10° Ms
8x 10" CMISEC > MILLIMETERS
3. MHz
IF THE SMALLEST DEFECT DETECTABLE IS 1/2 LAMBDA, THEN
THE ANSWER IS 1 MILLIMETER OR 0.040 INCHES. name_Key
UT Lesson 2
uz
Relative to ultrasonic testing, air Is considered a good conductor and for this reason
ultrasound will carry long distances in air.
Particle density of a materlat has a direct relationship to the velocity of sound in that
material
The symbol used to represent a wavelength is called "Shepda.””
with
in sto
ferything else equal, the wavelength in water would be shorter than a wavelength
To understand our definition of ultrasonics, a steel ball is considered to be more elastic
than a lead ball,
3. Man can hear sounds up to approximately 5,000,000 Hz,
Vibrations pass through a solid material as a series of particle displacements,
The velocity of sound is slower in steel than in water.
‘The number of cycles in a given period of time is called the frequency.
For the purposes of this lesson, 112 the wavelength Is considered to be the smallest ais.
continuity that can be detected with ultrasonics.
If the longitudinal velocity in aluminum is 6.5 x 10° emisec and you are using a 2.6 MHz
probe, what is the smallest discontinuity you can detect? (3 pts)
‘The ability of a transducer to convert mechanical energy to electrical and electrical
energy to mechanical is due to the _______ effect.
. The distance that an ultrasonic pulse travels while a particle makes one complete cycle
Is called —_ ULTRASONIC EQUIPMENT
CRT
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CIRCUIT GENERATOR? CIRCUIT
a)
~t
sweer
cincurt
TRANSDUCER l
test
SPECIMEN
power } __. cro eack circurt) ~~
SUPPLY DISCONTINUITY >
BACK REFLECTION
THE ULTRASONIC PULSE ECHO INSTRUMENT GENERATES HIGH VOLTAGE
ELECTRICAL PULSES OF SHORT DURATION. THESE PULSES ARE APPLIED TO
THE TRANSDUCER WHICH CONVERTS THEM INTO MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS
THAT ARE APPLIED TO THE MATERIAL BEING INSPECTED.
A LARGE PERCENTAGE OF THE SOUND IS REFLECTED FROM THE FRONT
SURFACE OF THE TEST PART BACK TO THE TRANSDUCER. THE REMAINDER
IS REFLECTED BY THE BACK SURFACE OR DISCONTINUITIES.
THE SOUND REFLECTED BACK TO THE TRANSDUCER IS CONVERTED BACK
TO ELECTRICAL PULSES, WHICH ARE AMPLIFIED AND DISPLAYED ON THE
CATHODE RAY TUBE (CAT) AS VERTICAL PULSES.
THE A-SCAN DISPLAY INDICATES THE DEPTH AND THE AMPLITUDE OF THE
SOUND REFLECTIONS FROM A DISCONTINUITY.
THE AMPLITUDE IS A RELATIVE MEASURE OF THE AMOUNT OF REFLECTED
ENERGY
10 PULSE-ECHO, |S THE MOST WIDELY USED ULTRASONIC SYSTEM
SHORT EVENLY TIMED PULSES OF ULTRASONIC WAVES ARE TRANSMITTED.
INTO THE MATERIAL BEING TESTED.
THESE PULSES REFLECT FROM DISCONTINUITIES IN THEIR PATH, OR FROM
ANY BOUNDARY THAT THEY STRIKE,
THE RECEIVED REFLECTIONS ARE THEN DISPLAYED ON A CATHODE RAY
TUBE (CRT),
THE SAME TRANSDUCER CAN BE USED TO TRANSMIT AND RECEIVE.
THROUGH TRANSMISSION REQUIRES THE USE OF TWO TRANSDUCERS, ONE
FOR SENDING AND THE OTHER FOR RECEIVING.
EITHER SHORT PULSES OR CONTINUOUS WAVES ARE TRANSMITTED INTO
THE MATERIAL.
THE QUALITY OF THE MATERIAL BEING TESTED IS MEASURED IN TERMS OF
ENERGY LOST BY A SOUND BEAM AS IT TRAVELS THROUGH THE MATERIAL.
THERE ARE TWO TEST METHODS NORMALLY USED IN ULTRASONIC TESTING.
“CONTACT TESTING” - WHERE THE TRANSDUCER IS COUPLED TO THE
MATERIAL THROUGH A THIN LAYER OF COUPLANT.
“IMMERSION TESTING” - BOTH THE MATERIAL AND THE TRANSDUCER ARE
IMMERSED IN A TANK OF COUPLANT (USUALLY WATER).
12 TO DETERMINE THE LOCATION OF DISCONTINUITIES WITHIN A TEST PART, THE
CRT HORIZONTAL DISPLAY IS DIVIDED INTO CONVENIENT INCREMENTS SUCH
AS CENTIMETERS, INCHES, ETC.
AT A GIVEN SENSITIVITY (GAIN) SETTING, THE AMPLITUDE OF THE PIP IS
DETERMINED BY THE STRENGTH OF THE SIGNAL GENERATED BY THE
REFLECTED SOUND WAVE.
THUS, THE CRT DISPLAYS TWO TYPES OF INFORMATION:
1. DISTANCE (TIME) OF THE DISCONTINUITY FROM THE TRANSDUCER
2, RELATIVE MAGNITUDE OF THE REFLECTED ENERGY
FOCUS AND ASTIGMATISM CONTROLS - ADJUST THE SHARPNESS OF THE DIS-
PLAYED SIGNALS.
SENSITIVITY OR GAIN CONTROLS - DETERMINE THE AMOUNT OF AMPLIFICA-
TION THE SIGNALS FROM THE DISCONTINUITY RECEIVED.
INCREASING THE SENSITIVITY (GAIN) INCREASES THE AMPLITUDE OF THE
PIPS ON THE CRT SCREEN.
13 TWO CONTROLS, THE “SWEEP LENGTH” AND “SWEEP DELAY” REGULATE
HOW MUCH OF THE TEST PART IS DISPLAYED AT ONE TIME ON THE CRT, AND
WHAT PORTION OF THE PART IS DISPLAYED.
THE SWEEP LENGTH (MATERIAL CONTROL) EXPANDS OR COMPRESSES THE
DISPLAY ON THE CRT AS SHOWN BELOW:
puke 0 1}
T
0 Ai
EXPANDED SWEEP COMPRESSED SWEEP
viewa views
THE SWEEP DELAY CONTROL ALLOWS ONE TO MOVE THE VIEWING SCREEN
ALONG THE DEPTH OF THE TEST PART.
IN IMMERSION TESTING, THE SWEEP DELAY CAN BE USED TO REMOVE THE
INITIAL PULSE FROM THE CRT.
A INITIAL PULSE
= FRONT SURFACE PIP
C= 1ST BACK SURFACE REFLECTION PIP “PULSE REPETITION RATE” CONTROL REGULATES HOW OFTEN THE PULSE IS
APPLIED. PULSE RATES VARY FROM 50 TO 1200 PULSES PER SECOND OR
MORE,
WHEN THE SWEEP IS LONG, THE PULSE RATE MUST BE LOWER TO ALLOW
ENOUGH TIME FOR THE SWEEP TO BE DISPLAYED BEFORE ANOTHER PULSE
IS TRANSMITTED.
IN SOME INSTRUMENTS THE PULSE RATE IS ADJUSTED AUTOMATICALLY.
INCREASING THE PULSE LENGTH INCREASES THE AMOUNT OF SOUND
ENERGY APPLIED TO THE TEST PART, BUT DECREASES THE RESOLVING
POWER OF THE EQUIPMENT.
THE "PULSE ENERGY" MUST BE INCREASED TO OBTAIN DEEP PENETRATION
OR TO PENETRATE COARSE GRAINED MATERIALS.
THE “REJECT CONTROL” OR “SUPPRESSION CONTROL” IS USED TO ELIMi-
NATE OR REDUCE “GRASS” OR VERY LOW AMPLITUDE PIPS ALONG THE BASE
OF THE SWEEP LINE. THIS CONTROL MAY AFFECT THE VERTICAL LINEARITY
OF THE PRESENTATION.
A“FLAW ALARM" OR “GATING CIRCUIT” IS USED TO ESTABLISH ZONES ALONG
THE SWEEP LINE WITHIN WHICH PIPS OF PREDETERMINED AMPLITUDE WILL
ACTIVATE EITHER AN ALARM OR A RECORDING SYSTEM.
ALARM AMPLITUDE
START OF GATE
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UT LESSON 3
quiz
With “Through Transmission", an increase in amplitude indicates the presence of a
possible discontinuity.
‘The “Pulse Echo” system uses a continuous wave and a separate transducer receives
the echo.
Both contact testing and Immorsion testing require the use of a coupling medium,
. Typically, the “gain” control will determine the amount of amplification for a suspected
discontinuity indication.
‘Swep length and sweep delay are two names for the same control
‘The sweep length control is often used to sweep the initial pulse off the CRT In immer.
slon testing,
In the A-scan presentation used in contact testing, the height of the vertical deflection
(pip) on the CRT represents:
‘velocity
B. clapsed time
©. distance
D. signal amplitude
The “aistance amplitude correction” control has the ability to automatically increase
the sereen range when a thicker part is Inspected.
|. On the CRT “A” below, draw in the pulse if a normal beam transducer were used to show
9° deep continuity using a 15” screen range. How many divisions from the left?
(@ pts)
below, what is the distance to the pulse if a 2.5" screen range were be-
Ing used for the inspection? @pts)
boot =a es
t——
$ *
! '
tie | t
Wea Fine ge bunny Lexa
oe AF oo “DISTANCE/AMPLITUDE CONTROL” - IN ULTRASONIC TESTING THE AMPLITUDE
OF THE PIP FROM A DISCONTINUITY OF A GIVEN SIZE DECREASES AS THE
DEPTH INCREASES. TO COMPENSATE FOR THIS "ATTENUATION," AN ELEC:
TRONIC CONTROL HAS BEEN ADDED TO MANY ULTRASONIC UNITS.
SOME OF THE COMMON NAMES FOR THIS CONTROL ARE:
DAC - DISTANCE AMPLITUDE CORRECTION
TCG - TIME CORRECTED GAIN
STC - SENSITIVITY TIME CONTROL
THIS CONTROL IS VERY USEFUL WHEN USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE
FLAW ALARM AND WITH RECORDING SYSTEMS.
WITHOUT 04. WITH DAC
16 Lesson 4
MODES OF ULTRASONIC WAVE TRAVEL
VELOCITY CAN BE DEFINED AS THE DISTANCE A WAVE WILL PROPAGATE
THROUGH A MEDIUM IN A GIVEN UNIT OF TIME, USUALLY A SECOND.
THE WAVE SPEED REMAINS CONSTANT THROUGH A GIVEN MEDIUM.
TRANSDUCER
_
STEEL
™ SST conan
POINT A
cee |
POINT 8 —
LISTED BELOW IS A TABLE OF IMPEDANCE, VELOCITY AND DENSITY VALUES.
THIS INFORMATION WILL BE USEFUL LATER IN THIS LESSON FOR PERFORM-
ING BASIC ULTRASONIC CALCULATIONS.
ACOUSTIC SOUND __
] meeoance vevocity | oeNsiTY
|_warerian | ccramyem?-secr_ | tom/sec)_|_(GRam/om?
AIR | 9.000033 x 10° 0.33 x 10° 0.001
acum | 1.72 x 108 easxi® | 2.
ULTRASONIC WAVES ARE REFLECTED WHEN THEY ENCOUNTER A MEDIUM OF
A DIFFERENT ACOUSTICAL IMPEDANCE. THE “SURFACE” AT WHICH THIS
REFLECTION OCCURS IS CALLED AN “INTERFACE.”
AN INTERFACE !S THE COMMON BOUNDARY BETWEEN TWO MATERIALS OR
PHASES, SUCH AS ALUMINUM-TO-STEEL OR WATER-TO-STEEL.
17 A BEAM OF ENERGY APPROACHING AN INTERFACE IS REFERRED TO AS AN
“INCIDENT WAVE.”
THE ANGLE AT WHICH THE WAVE STRIKES THE INTERFACE IS KNOWN AS
THE “ANGLE OF INCIDENCE” AS SHOWN BELOW.
1 macinary
[7 PERPENOICULAR
UNE
INCIDENT WAVE I
I INTERFACE
VA
[ANGULAR INCIDENCE
THE INCIDENT WAVE IS SAID TO HAVE NORMAL INCIDENCE WHEN ITS DIREC-
TION OF PROPAGATION IS PERPENDICULAR TO AN INTERFACE.
AS SHOWN BELOW THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IS ZERO.
INCIDENT WAVE]
wrenrace
ZL
NORMAL INCIDENCE
SOME OF THE WAVE ENERGY STRIKING AN INTERFACE WILL BE TRANSMITTED
THROUGH THE INTERFACE, AND SOME WILL BE REFLECTED AT THE ANGLE OF
INCIDENCE.
THE AMOUNT OF REFLECTION DEPENDS ON THE ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE
RATIO BETWEEN THE TWO MEDIA INVOLVED. THIS REFLECTANCE FACTOR
WILL BE DISCUSSED IN DETAIL IN THE NEXT LESSON.
18 LONGITUDINAL (COMPRESSIONAL) WAVES HAVE PARTICLE VIBRATIONS IN A
BACK AND FORTH MOTION IN THE DIRECTION OF WAVE PROPAGATION.
CONSIDER THAT ALL MATERIALS ARE*MADE UP OF ATOMS LINED UP IN
STRAIGHT LINES TO FORM A LATTICE STRUCTURE. WHEN STRIKING THE
SIDE OF THE LATTICE, A CHAIN REACTION OF PARTICLE MOVEMENT IS
STARTED CAUSING THE LONGITUDINAL WAVE.
meDiuNe
DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION
PARTICLE MOTION
LONGITUDINAL WAVES
SHEAR (TRANSVERSE) WAVES HAVE PARTICLE VIBRATIONS PERPENDICULAR
TO THE DIRECTION OF WAVE MOTION
SHEAR WAVES WILL NOT TRAVEL THROUGH LIQUIDS OR GASSES.
IN SOME MATERIALS, THE VELOCITY OF A SHEAR WAVE IS ABOUT 1/2 THAT
OF LONGITUDINAL WAVES. THEREFORE, THE WAVELENGTH IS SHORTER
(ABOUT 1/2), PERMITTING SMALLER DISCONTINUITIES TO BE LOCATED.
meow
YF PROPAGATION
PARTICLE MOTION
(SHEAR WAVES)
20 SNELL’S LAW CAN BE USED TO DETERMINE ANGULAR RELATIONSHIPS BE-
TWEEN MEDIA FOR BOTH LONGITUDINAL AND SHEAR WAVES.
@, = ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
VELOCITY IN FIRST MEDIUM.
ANGLE OF REFRACTION
V, = VELOCITY IN SECOND MEDIUM
THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLE CALCULATES THE ANGLE OF REFRACTION®, FOR
A LONGITUDINAL WAVE PASSING THROUGH A WATER-TO-STEEL INTERFACE.
10 DEGREES = ANGLE OF INCIDENCE (p,)
1.49 KMISEC = LONGITUDINAL VELOCITY IN WATER (V,)
5.85 KM/SEC = LONGITUDINAL VELOCITY IN STEEL (V,)
22 AS THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE INCREASES, THE ANGLE OF REFRACTION IN-
CREASES.
WHEN THE REFRACTION ANGLE OF A LONGITUDINAL WAVE REACHES 90
DEGREES, THE WAVE EMERGES FROM THE SECOND MEDIUM AND TRAVELS
PARALLEL TO THE INTERFACE OR SURFACE.
THIS IS CALLED ITS FIRST OR LOWER “CRITICAL ANGLE” ABOVE APPROXI-
MATELY 28 DEGREES WITH A PLASTIC-TO-STEEL INTERFACE, ONLY SHEAR
WAVES ARE GENERATED IN THE PART.
ANGLE
(OF INCIDENCE, 28°
Puastic REFRACTED
LONGITUDINAL,
WAVE
Bs
f A
REFRACTED SHEAR
wave
IF THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IS INCREASED PAST THE FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE,
ONLY A SHEAR WAVE IS GENERATED IN THE PART. WHEN THE ANGLE OF RE-
FRACTION FOR THE SHEAR WAVE IS 90 DEGREES, THEN WE HAVE REACHED
THE UPPER OR SECOND CRITICAL ANGLE WHICH PRODUCES SURFACE
WAVES,
STEEL |
AS SHOWN BELOW, THERE IS THEN TOTAL REFLECTION FOR BOTH LONGI-
TUDINAL AND SHEAR WAVES.
WITH A PLASTIC-TO-STEEL INTERFACE, THIS HAPPENS AT APPROXIMATELY
58 DEGREES.
REFLECTED LONGITUDINAL
WAVE
ance 7
OF INcIDENCE
puastic
REFRACTED SHEAR
ner (SURFACE WAVE) PLATE WAVES OR LAMB WAVES HAVE THE ABILITY TO PROPAGATE THROUGH
THIN PLATES IN A VARIETY OF WAVE MODES DEPENDING ON PLATE THICK:
NESS, TRANSDUCER FREQUENCY AND INCIDENT ANGLE.
PLATE WAVES ARE GENERATED BY USING LONGITUDINAL WAVES WHICH
DEVELOP EITHER SYMMETRICAL OR ASYMMETRICAL WAVES AS SHOWN
BELOW,
PLATE WAVES OCCUPY THE ENTIRE THICKNESS OF THE PART, WITHOUT
SATURATING" THE PART, THE WAVE CANNOT EXIST.
THIN SHEET OR PLATE THIN SHEET OR PLATE
DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION ——— QoS
particue 4 J morion. PARTICLE maicue (Yaron
SYMMETRICAL ASYMMETRICAL
PLATE waves.
TO GENERATE PLATE WAVES, YOU ADJUST THE INCIDENT ANGLE TO THE
POINT THAT MAXIMUM REFLECTIONS ARE OBSERVED ON THE CRT SCREEN
FROM A KNOWN REFLECTOR.
ITIS NOT POSSIBLE TO GENERATE SHEAR OR SURFACE WAVES ON MATERIALS
THINNER THAN ONE-HALF WAVELENGTH. THEREFORE, PLATE WAVES ARE
USEFUL AS SHOWN BELOW.
TRANSDUCER —
HOLLOW EXTRUSION
25 oosens
Le Hb
4110.
EI
Key
Name
UT LESSON 4
ouz
An “ultrasonic beam’ travels through a medium as waves of sound energy.
Normal incidence is when the incident beam is parallel to the interface.
‘The refraction of an incident beam at an interface is equal to its angle of reflection,
Particle vibration in a longitudinal wave is in the direction of wave propagation.
‘Shear wave velocity is approximately twice the velocity of longitudinal waves.
Mode convarsion occurs when a sound beam strikes an interlace between two media of
different veldcities at an angle.
The bending of an incident beam as it passes through an intertace is called refraction,
Longitudinal waves will propagate through both solids and liquids
Both plate waves and surface waves Can follow the part contour
Shear velocity in steel = 3.23 x 10° cmisec
Long. velocity in steel = 5.85 x 10° cmisec
Long, velocity in water = 1.49 x 10° cmisec
Long. velocity in lucite = 273 x 10° cmisec
USING THE ABOVE INFORMATION, SOLVE THE FOLLOWING PROBLEMS.
INDICATE THE APPROXIMATE ANGLES ON THE SKETCH AND LABEL EACH.
H you wanted a shear wave to travel into steel at 60 degrees, what would be the incigent
angie on the lucite wedge? (SHOW WORK! (3 pts)
What would be the retracted longitudinal wave if the angle of incidence through a wa
to steel interlace 1s 12 degrees? (SHOW WORK) (2 pts) Lesson
COUPLANTS AND ULTRASONIC SOUND ENERGY
THE PRIMARY PURPOSE OF A COUPLANT IS TO PROVIDE A SUITABLE SOUND
PATH BETWEEN THE TRANSDUCER AND THE TEST SURFACE.
A COUPLANT MUST EFFECTIVELY WET OR TOTALLY CONTACT BOTH SUR
FACES OF THE TRANSDUCER AND TEST PART.
14, THE COUPLANT MUST EXCLUDE ALL AIR FROM BETWEEN THE SUR-
FACES AS AIR IS A VERY POOR CONDUCTOR OF SOUND.
2. THE COUPLANT FILLS IN AND SMOOTHS OUT IRREGULARITIES ON THE
SURFACE OF THE TEST PART.
3. THE COUPLANT AIDS IN THE MOVEMENT OF THE TRANSDUCER OVER
THE SURFACE IN CONTACT TESTING.
4.4 PRACTICAL COUPLANT MUST BE EASY TO APPLY AND EASY TO
REMOVE. IT MUST ALSO BE HARMLESS TO THE PART SURFACE.
TRANSDUCER
—_
TEST MATERIAL
OIL OR WATER MIXED WITH GLYCERINE (2 PARTS WATER AND 1 PART
GLYCERINE) ARE COMMONLY USED COUPLANTS. EVEN WALLPAPER PASTE
HAS ADVANTAGES AS A COUPLANT.
HEAVIER COUPLANTS, SUCH AS GREASE OR HEAVY OIL CAN BE USED ON
ROUGH OR VERTICAL SURFACES.
SPECIALLY FORMULATED LIQUID AND PASTE COUPLANTS ARE ALSO AVAIL-
ABLE FROM ULTRASONIC EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS.
IN CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE THE USE OF LIQUIDS OR PASTE IS UNDESIRABLE,
THIN RUBBER OR RUBBER-LIKE MATERIALS MAY BE USED.
IN ALL CASES THE COUPLANT SHOULD BE AS THIN AS POSSIBLE, IF THE
COUPLANT IS EXCESSIVE, IT MAY ACT AS A WEDGE AND ALTER THE DIREC-
TION OF THE SOUND BEAM.
26 THE SURFACE OF A TEST SPECIMEN CAN GREATLY AFFECT ULTRASONIC
WAVE PROPAGATION.
ROUGH SURFACES CAN CAUSE UNDESIRABLE EFFECTS SUCH AS REDUC-
TION OF DISCONTINUITY AND BACK SURFACE AMPLITUDES DUE TO DISTOR-
TION OF WAVE DIRECTIVITY.
I ‘COUPLANT,
UNEVEN BUT CONSISTANT rr Ear ROUGH AND IRREGULAR
SURFACE baste Oia SURFACE
FAIR vest POOR
FRONT SURFACE
NITIAL PULSED
wie
FRONT SURFACE,
BACK SURFACE,
DISCONTINUITY
MARKERS: CCRT INDICATIONS
FLAT SMOOTH SURFACE - GOOD RESPONSE ROUGH AND IRREGULAR SURFACE ~ POOR RESPONSE
‘AVSCAM PRESENTATION
(PULSE-ECHO)
nm
Ni ‘A GOOD BACK SURFACE REFLECTION INDICATES A GOOD RESPONSE FROM
THE MATERIAL BEING TESTED. IT IS REFLECTED BACK TO ITS SOURCE SIMILAR
TO LIGHT STRIKING A MIRROR.
IF THE SURFACES ARE NOT PARALLEL, THE REFLECTED ENERGY WILL BE
DIRECTED AWAY FROM THE TRANSDUCER SIMILAR TO LIGHT FALLING ON A
MIRROR AT AN ANGLE.
TRANSDUCER FRONT SURFACE
RFA {INITIAL PULSE), aeouceo
FRONT SURFACE. a
Vi
~ BACK SURFACE
SPECIMEN
cross-section” |
EFLECTION
Ack SURFAG CCRT IWOICATIONS
INDICATION
THE PHYSICAL SHAPE OR CONTOUR OF A PART MUST BE CONSIDERED WHEN
ATTEMPTING TO DISCERN WHETHER A DISCONTINUITY INDICATION IS REAL
OR FALSE.
><] _E=1
EXAMPLES OF SOUND PATHS LEADING TO SPURIOUS INDICATIONS,
IN TESTING LONG SPECIMENS, REFLECTION OF A SPREADING BEAM CAN PRO-
DUCE FALSE INDICATIONS ON THE CRT AS SHOWN BELOW.
A SHEAR WAVE MAY BE GENERATED WHICH IS REFLECTED AT A STEEP
ANGLE TO THE OPPOSITE SIDE, WHERE MODE CONVERSION TAKES PLACE.
MODE CONVERSION WILL BE DISCUSSED IN A LATER LESSON. HOWEVER,
THIS TYPE OF FALSE SIGNAL WILL APPEAR ON THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE
FIRST BACK ECHO.
FIRST BACK
LONGITUDINAL Wave
\
TRANSOUCER:
~ SPECIMEN
DIAMETER GRAIN STRUCTURE HAS A GREAT INFLUENCE ON THE ACOUSTICAL PROPER-
TIES OF A MATERIAL,
(A STEEL FORGING GENERALLY HAS A FINE GRAIN STRUCTURE AND HAS A
LOW DAMPING EFFECT ON THE SOUND BEAM.
HOWEVER, A CASTING GENERALLY HAS A COARSER GRAIN STRUCTURE
WHICH IS MORE DIFFICULT TO GET SOUND THROUGH.
FRONT SUREACE. |S DISCONTINUITY egy suneace
\, BACK SURFACE
BACK SURFACE REFLECTION
KT ReFLection LOST oR reDucto
/
FINE GRAIN COARSE GRAIN
WHEN A DISCONTINUITY IS NOT NORMAL (AT 90 DEGREES) TO THE INCIDENT
WAVE, THE REFLECTED WAVE WILL BE AT AN ANGLE.
AS SHOWN BELOW, THE RESULT IS A REDUCTION IN THE AMPLITUDE OF THE
DISCONTINUITY INDICATION DISPLAYED ON THE CRT.
Bastion ¢
PS enace
CYLINORICAL SPECIMEN
POSITION &
POSITION A
POSITION A POSITION 8 POSITION C
AT POSITION “A” ABOVE, THERE IS A SHARP DISCONTINUITY INDICATION AND
LITTLE BACK SURFACE INDICATION. AT POSITION "“C" THE DISCONTINUITY IS.
AT A MINIMUM, OR MAY NOT BE SEEN AT ALL.
29 TWO BASIC TECHNIQUES ARE USED IN LOCATING AND EVALUATING ANGULAR
FLAWS. ‘
1. CONTACT TESTING UTILIZES AN “ANGLE BEAM” TRANSDUCER WITH A
PLASTIC WEDGE TO CHANGE THE DIRECTION OF WAVE PROPAGATION.
2. IMMERSION TESTING USES WATER AS A COUPLANT, TILTING THE TRANS-
DUCER TO ACHIEVE THE NECESSARY DIRECTIONALITY.
ANGLE BEAM
‘TRANSOUCER
nussvie weoee se
eet a
|-—~seecmen eos
CONTACT TESTING IMMERSION TESTING
PROBE —_ TRANSOUCER
WATER
THE SHAPE OR SURFACE CONDITION OF A DISCONTINUITY INFLUENCES THE
INDICATION ON THE CRT.
A DISCONTINUITY HAVING A ROUGH SURFACE WILL TEND TO SCATTER THE
REFLECTION AS COMPARED TO A SMOOTH FLAW.
NONMETALLIC INCLUSIONS ARE TYPICALLY ROUGH AND WOULD SCATTER,
THE SOUND MORE THAN A CRACK-LIKE DISCONTINUITY.
30 AIR IS A POOR MEDIUM FOR TRANSFERRING ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS INTO
LIQUIDS OR SOLIDS. THEREFORE, A COUPLANT MUST BE USED TO TRANSFER
ENERGY FROM THE TRANSDUCER TO THE TEST MATERIAL.
WATER IS A COMMONLY USED COUPLANT AS SHOWN BELOW:
MAA ttt
| _/SECONDARY LOBES WATER
PRINCIPAL DIRECTION
— oF SOUND BEAM
SECONDARY LOBES
MOST OF THE ULTRASONIC ENERGY IS CONCENTRATED ALONG THE CENTER-
LINE OF THE BEAM.
THE SECONDARY OR SIDE LOBES FORM AT THE TRANSDUCER FACE AND
RADIATE AWAY FROM THE PRINCIPLE DIRECTION OF SOUND TRAVEL.
THESE SECONDARY LOBES REPRESENT AREAS OF HIGH AND LOW INTENSI-
TIES AT THE EDGE OF THE BEAM.
BECAUSE OF THE SECONDARY LOBES, THE USEFUL WIDTH OF A TRANS-
DUCER BEAM IS LESS THAN THE TRANSDUCER'S PHYSICAL WIDTH.
TRANSDUCER DIAMETER HAS A DEFINITE INFLUENCE ON THE SOUND BEAM
TRANSMITTED THROUGH A MEDIUM.
FOR A GIVEN FREQUENCY, A SMALLER TRANSDUCER HAS A GREATER BEAM
SPREAD ANGLE THAN A LARGER DIAMETER TRANSDUCER AS SHOWN BELOW:
LARGE DIAMETER evi
TARE 4
MEDIUM
BEAM CONSTANT
3t CHANGING THE TRANSDUCERS VIBRATING FREQUENCY WILL ALSO CHANGE
THE BEAM SPREAD.
DIVERGENCE IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO FREQUENCY.
THEREFORE, A HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSDUCER HAS A MORE CONSTANT
DIAMETER SOUND BEAM THAN A LOW FREQUENCY TRANSDUCER.
BEAM DIVERGENCE CAN BE REDUCED BY INCREASING THE TRANSDUCER
FREQUENCY OR BY USING A LARGER DIAMETER TRANSDUCER.
THE AMOUNT OF BEAM SPREAD IS DETERMINED BY THE FOLLOWING EQUA-
TION:
|
SING = 1.22
WHERE \= WAVELENGTH
D = DIAMETER
= HALF-ANGLE OF
BEAM SPREAD TO
HALF-POWER POINTS
-9-
\—$>
AIR 9.000033 x 10° 0.33x10° | 9.001
| WATER 0,249 x 10° 1.49 x 10° 1.00
ALUMINUM 1.72 x 108 6.35 x 107 2m
‘ s
sox sani | re | DISPLAYING ULTRASONIC INDICATIONS.
THERE ARE THREE BASIC TYPES OF VISUAL DISPLAYS WHICH ARE COMMONLY
USED TO EVALUATE THE SOUNDNESS OR QUALITY OF A MATERIAL BEING
TESTED; A-SCAN, B-SCAN AND C-SCAN.
A-SCAN IS A “TIME VERSUS AMPLITUDE” DISPLAY WHICH REVEALS A DISCON-
TINUITY USING A “PIP” ON A CATHODE-RAY TUBE (CRT)
Back suRFAce
REFLECTION
AMPLITUDE
Disconrimuity.
HORIZONTAL SWEEP
THE A-SCAN PRESENTATION, AS HAS BEEN DISCUSSED, IS READ FROM LEFT
TO RIGHT. THE HEIGHT OF A PIP CAN BE COMPARED TO THE HEIGHT OF A PIP
FROM A KNOWN REFERENCE REFLECTOR TO GIVE AN INDICATION OF RELA.
TIVE DISCONTINUITY SIZE.
+
AMPLITUDE
| \,
‘A-SCAM PRESENTATION
HORIZONTAL SWEEP
{ mia. rouse oxsconrmury { excx sunsace
ransoucen mrcaon | rertccton
bisconrwutry
seomwary ey pen pee
Tit u 7 MW
we] = | | C -
38 B.SCAN PRESENTATION, AS SHOWN BELOW, TYPICALLY USES AN OSCILLO-
SCOPE SCREEN TO DISPLAY A CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE MATERIAL BE-
ING TESTED.
THE IMAGE IS RETAINED ON THE CRT LONG ENOUGH TO EVALUATE THE SAM-
PLE AND TO PHOTOGRAPH THE SCREEN FOR A PERMANENT RECORD.
ron sutrace
biscowrmurries
THICKNESS OF
TEST MATERIAL
|
C-SCAN IS A “PLAN VIEW” PRESENTATION SIMILAR TO AN X-RAY PICTURE.
AS SHOWN BELOW, THE C-SCAN SHOWS THE SHAPE AND LOCATION OF THE
DISCONTINUITY, BUT DOES NOT SHOW THE DEPTH.
“ BACK SURFACE
[B-SCAN PRESENTATION
DISCONTINUITIES.
(CHSCAN PRESENTATION
39 HIGH SPEED ULTRASONIC SCANNING GENERALLY UTILIZES THE C-SCAN
PRESENTATION
AS SHOWN BELOW, SOME RECORDERS USE A CHEMICALLY TREATED PAPER.
THE PAPER MOVEMENT IS SYNCHRONIZED WITH THE MOVEMENT OF THE
TRANSDUCER ACROSS THE TEST SURFACE,
RECORDING PAPER FEED
MOTION OF
TRANSDUCER | PRINT BAR.
SCAN LINES
a } SU
A \\Swexnconun
~OIScONTINUITY Discontinuity
THE ADVANTAGE OF THE C-SCAN IS ITS SPEED AND ABILITY TO PRODUCE A
PERMANENT RECORD. HOWEVER, THE SCAN SHOWS ONLY LENGTH AND
WIDTH, BUT NOT DEPTH.
A-SCAN TESTEQUIPMENT. CARRIAGE 08 aniDce
MANIPULATOR
RECORDER CONTROL PANEL
IMMERSION TANK
CARRIAGE CONTROL PANEL
C-SCAN RECORDER
40 A TYPICAL BRIDGE/MANIPULATOR IS SHOWN FOR A BASIC ULTRASONIC
IMMERSION TEST.
WHEN A C-SCAN IS TO BE MADE, ELECTRIC MOTORS ARE UTILIZED TO ACTI-
VATE THE TRAVELING MECHANISMS AND THE UP AND DOWN MOVEMENT OF
THE SEARCH TUBE.
TANK WITH MOTORIZED BRIDGE
SCANNER TUBE
MANIPULATOR
TRANSOUCER
‘CARRIAGE OR:
@RIoce
Test SPcCIMEN
SUPPORT FOR TEST SPECIMEN
ATYPICAL A-SCAN PRESENTATION IS SHOWN BELOW USING CONTACT TEST-
ING WITH AN ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER,
THE PROCEDURE USED TO CALIBRATE THE UT UNIT IS SIMILAR TO NORMAL
BEAM TESTING AND REQUIRES A CALIBRATION BLOCK WITH A KNOWN SIZE.
REFLECTION SURFACE AT A KNOWN METAL TRAVEL.
ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER
a SHEAR
RT 2 WAVES i
oiscontinuiTY —
4l A CALIBRATION BLOCK (IIW TEST BLOCK FURTHER DISCUSSED IN LESSON 8) |S
SHOWN BELOW WITH A KNOWN DISTANCE OF 4 INCHES TO THE CURVED SUR:
FACE.
USING THE SWEEP AND DELAY CONTROLS, THE PIPS ARE ADJUSTED TO SHOW
MULTIPLES OF 4 INCHES ON THE CRT.
°
10
IF THE MINATURE ANGLE BEAM CALIBRATION BLOCK SHOWN BELOW WERE
USED TO CALIBRATE THE ABOVE CRT SCREEN, WHERE WOULD THE PIPS
APPEAR?
en
MINIATURE ANGLE BEAM
DEPENDING ON THE DIRECTION OF THE ANGLE BEAM PROBE, THE PIPS
WOULD EITHER APPEAR AT ONE, FOUR, AND SEVEN INCHES OR TWO, FIVE,
AND EIGHT INCHES. THE ANGLE BEAM TECHNIQUE IS OFTEN USED FOR WELD INSPECTION AS
SHOWN BELOW.
athe |
1 - Dad
" I
1 '
‘ ‘ ;
1 distance ' — 2nd skip distance!
PATH) ('V"PATH)
TYPICALLY, THE WELD SHOULD BE INSPECTED IN THE 1ST OR 2ND LEG WHEN
EVER POSSIBLE AS SHOWN BELOW,
SKP
oistance
view a VIEW 8
TO ASSIST IN EVALUATING THE RESULTS OF ANGLE BEAM INSPECTION, A
DIRECT READING ULTRASONIC CALCULATOR IS COMMONLY USED.
—
THE HORIZONTAL SCALE ACROSS THE TOP OF THE CARD REPRESENTS THE
NUMBER OF INCHES BETWEEN THE TRANSDUCER AND THE CENTER OF THE
WELD.
THE VERTICAL SCALE REPRESENTS SPECIMEN THICKNESS AND THE ASC
SHOWS THE ANGLE OF THE SOUND BEM. THE FOLLOWING IS AN.EXAMPLE OF A TYPICAL ANGLE BEAM INSPECTION US-
ING THE ULTRASONIC CALCULATOR.
A DOUBLE VEE WELD WITH AN OPENING OF 30 DEGREES IN A 2" STEEL PLATE
USING A 60 DEGREE SHEAR WAVE IN THE SPECIMEN
POINT OF INCIDENCE DASHED LINE, 8
1 3 4
J
Tel 7
DISCONTINUITY.
THE FOLLOWING PROCEDURE SHOULD BE USED IN SETTING UP THE CALCU-
LATOR:
1.
DRAW A LINE REPRESENTING THE SOUND PATH FROM THE UPPER LEFT
CORNER THROUGH THE 60 DEGREE MARK ON THE ARC, EXTENDING TO
THE 2” POINT REPRESENTING THE PLATE THICKNESS. CALIBRATE THE
HORIZONTAL SWEEP OF THE CRT TO REPRESENT BEAM TRAVEL
DISTANCE IN THE MATERIAL BEING TESTED,
TO SHOW THE FULL SKIP DISTANCE OF THE SOUND BEAM, YOU THEN
DOUBLE THE 3 7/16” AND MARK THAT POINT AT APPROXIMATELY 6 7/8”
(POINT “B" ABOVE)
NEXT, DRAW THE 30 DEGREE VEE WELD ON THE PLASTIC SLIDE OR
TRANSPARENT PAPER THAT SLIDES BACK AND FORTH OVER THE GALCU-
LATOR.
AS SHOWN ABOVE, A DISCONTINUITY IS DISPLAYED ON THE CRT SCREEN
AT 8.5". THE OPERATOR THEN MEASURES THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE
CENTER OF THE TRANSDUCER (EXIT POINT) AND THE CENTER OF THE
WELDMENT (4 5/8”) AND SLIDES THE TRANSPARENT PAPER TO THE SAME
DISTANCE.
THE POSITION OF THE DISCONTINUITY IS INDICATED AND CAN BE
EVALUATED
44 KH BB PB
10,
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LESSON 7
quiz
On a typical B-Sean, the horizontal sweep represents time and the vertical deflection
represents amplitude.
‘The B:Scan can display how deep the discontinuity Is below the gurface of the spect
‘The typical A-Scan is the display commonly used for recording a permanent record with
the immersion inspection technique.
The vertical pip on an A-Scan can be used to compare the relative size of a discon-
tinuity.
The C-Scan display will Indicate length and width of a discontinuity, but it cannot show
depth, .
To obtain an A‘Scan display with ultrasonic Immersion testing, it is necessary to auto
mate the bridgelmanipulator with electric motors.
The "Ultrasonic Calculator” can be used in weld inspection to indicate the location of a
discontinuity in the weldment.
Whenever possible, the weld should be inspected in the “2nd Skip Distance.
‘The calibration of a UT instrument for sound path distance can be performed using the
curved surface of the “IIW Block.”
To accurately utilize the “Ultrasonic Calculator” it is necessary to accurately measure
the distance trom-center line of the weld to the exit point of the transducer.
Using an 8” scraen range on the CAT below, indicate where the “pips” should appear It
the instrument is to be properly calibrated for sound path distance in the block shown.
(SHOW WORK) (3 pts)
Pits
2
TUINATURE ANGLE BEAM u
: ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCERS AND STANDARD REFERENCE BLOCKS
THE ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCER |S THE HEART OF THE UT TEST SYSTEM.
SEALED CASE.
sigan
Connector.
BACKING
Grouno
[A connector
CRYSTAL
THE CRYSTAL MATERIAL IN AN ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCER IS MADE OF PIEZO-
ELECTRIC MATERIALS SUCH AS QUARTZ, LITHIUM SULFATE AND POLARIZED
CERAMICS,
1, QUARTZ WAS THE FIRST MATERIAL USED. IT HAS VERY STABLE FREQUEN:
CY CHARACTERISTICS. HOWEVER, QUARTZ IS A POOR GENERATOR OF
ACOUSTIC ENERGY AND HAS GENERALLY BEEN REPLACED BY MORE EF-
FICIENT MATERIALS,
2. LITHIUM SULFATE IS A VERY EFFICIENT RECEIVER OF ACOUSTIC ENERGY,
BUT IS FRAGILE, SOLUBLE IN WATER AND LIMITED TO USE AT TEMPER:
ATURES BELOW 165°F.
3. POLARIZED CERAMICS PRODUCE THE MOST EFFICIENT GENERATORS OF
ACOUSTIC ENERGY BUT THEY DO HAVE A TENDENCY TO WEAR.
COMMON POLARIZED CERAMICS INCLUDE BARIUM TITANATE, LEAD
METANIOBATE, AND LEAD ZIRCONATEITITANATE.
THE CAPABILITY OF A TRANSDUCER IS DESCRIBED BY THREE TERMS:
1, SENSITIVITY - THE ABILITY TO DETECT SMALL DISCONTINUITIES.
2. RESOLUTION - THE ABILITY TO SEPARATE THE SOUND REFLECTIONS
FROM TWO DISCONTINUITIES CLOSE TOGETHER IN DEPTH OR TIME.
3. EFFICIENCY - ENERGY CONVERSION EFFECTIVENESS.
45 SENSITIVITY OF A TRANSDUCER IS RATED BY ITS ABILITY TO DETECT A CER-
TAIN SIZE FLAT-BOTTOM HOLE, AT A SPECIFIED DEPTH, IN A STANDARD
REFERENCE BLOCK.
THE SMALLER THE DETECTABLE HOLE, THE GREATER THE SENSITIVITY.
TRANSDUCER SENSITIVITY IS MEASURED BY THE AMPLITUDE OF ITS RE-
SPONSE FROM AN ARTIFICIAL DISCONTINUITY IN A STANDARD REFERENCE
BLOCK.
THE REFERENCE BLOCK IS NECESSARY, BECAUSE EVEN TRANSDUCERS OF
THE SAME SIZE, FREQUENCY AND MATERIAL DO NOT ALWAYS PRODUCE THE
SAME AMPLITUDE SIGNAL FROM A GIVEN REFLECTOR.
TRANSOUCER
——
REFERENCE
|— tock
Lit _) FLAT porroren HoLe
RESOLUTION IS THE ABILITY TO SEPARATE (DISTINGUISH BETWEEN) THE
SOUND REFLECTIONS FROM A DISCONTINUITY CLOSE TO A BOUNDARY OR
TWO DISCONTINUITIES CLOSE TOGETHER IN DEPTH OR TIME.
POOR RESOLUTION GOOD RESOLUTION
BACK sunrAce\
REFLECTION REFLECTION
Deco DiscontimulTY
46 TRANSDUCER MATERIALS ARE USUALLY CUT IN TWO WAYS:
1. CRYSTALS CUT PERPENDICULAR TO THE X-AXIS PRODUCE LONGITUDINAL
WAVES.
2. CRYSTALS CUT PERPENDICULAR TO THE Y-AXIS PRODUCE SHEAR WAVES.
AS SHOWN BELOW, MOST CRYSTALS USED FOR UT ARE CUT PERPENDICULAR,
TO THE X-AXIS,
CRYSTAL DEFORMATION
AXIS XAXIS
YeAXIS
Z-AXIS
SIZE IS A CONTRIBUTING FACTOR IN PERFORMANCE OF A TRANSDUCER,
1, THE LARGER DIAMETER THE TRANSDUCER, THE LESS THE SOUND BEAM
WILL SPREAD FOR A GIVEN FREQUENCY.
2. HOWEVER, THE SMALL, HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSDUCERS ARE BETTER
ABLE TO DETECT VERY SMALL DISCONTINUITIES.
3. THE LARGER THE TRANSDUCER, THE MORE SOUND ENERGY IT TRANS-
MITS INTO THE TEST PART. LARGE LOW FREQUENCY TRANSDUCERS ARE.
OFTEN USED TO GET MORE PENETRATION.
4. LARGE SINGLE CRYSTAL TRANSDUCERS ARE GENERALLY LIMITED TO
THE LOWER FREQUENCIES. HIGH FREQUENCY CRYSTALS ARE SUSCEP-
TIBLE TO DAMAGE BECAUSE THEY ARE VERY THIN.
47 THE FREQUENCY OF A TRANSDUCER IS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN ITS APPLI-
CATION.
1. THE HIGHER THE FREQUENCY OF A TRANSDUCER, THE LESS THE SOUND
BEAM WILL SPREAD AND THE GREATER THE SENSITIVITY AND RESOLU-
TION.
WHEN THE SOUND BEAM IS SPREAD AS SHOWN BELOW, LESS SOUND IS
LIKELY TO BE REFLECTED FROM A SMALL DISCONTINUITY.
HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSDUCER LOW FREQUENCY TRANSDUCER
Discontinuity
2. THE LOWER THE FREQUENCY, THE DEEPER THE SOUND PENETRATION
AND THE LESS SCATTER. THE GREATER BEAM SPREAD AIDS IN DETECT-
ING REFLECTORS WHICH ARE NOT PERPENDICULAR TO THE AXIS OF THE
SOUND BEAM.
3. CRYSTAL THICKNESS IS ALSO RELATED TO TRANSDUCER FREQUENCY.
THE HIGHER THE FREQUENCY OF THE TRANSDUCER, THE THINNER THE
CRYSTAL WILL BE.
MOST ULTRASONIC TESTING IS DONE BETWEEN 0.2 MHz AND 25 MHz AND
CRYSTALS CUT FOR USE ABOVE 10 MHz ARE TOO THIN AND FRAGILE FOR
CONTACT TESTING
THEREFORE, TRANSDUCERS WITH OPERATING FREQUENCIES ABOVE 10
MHz ARE USED PRIMARILY FOR IMMERSION TESTING.
48 TRANSDUCERS FOR CONTACT TESTING AND IMMERSION TESTING ARE ESSEN-
TIALLY THE SAME BUT USUALLY ARE NOT INTERCHANGEABLE.
MOST CONTACT TESTING TRANSDUCERS HAVE WEAR PLATES IN FRONT OF
THE PIEZOELECTRIC ELEMENT TO PROTECT IT. THE EXCEPTION TO THIS IS A
QUARTZ TRANSDUCER.
AS SHOWN BELOW, CONTACT TRANSDUCERS CAN BE EITHER “STRAIGHT
BEAM” OR “ANGLE BEAM.”
‘TRANSDUCER Ra"\ BE
CERAMIC.
TRANSDUCER 8
STRAIGHT BEAM TRANSDUCERS USUALLY HAVE A LUCITE, CERAMIC, OR
QUARTZ WEAR PLATE IN FRONT OF THE CRYSTAL.
ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCERS HAVE THE WEAR PLATE WEDGE-SHAPED TO PRO-
DUCE THE DESIRED REFRACTED ANGLE.
AS SHOWN ABOVE, THE LUCITE WEDGE PROTECTS THE FACE OF THE CRYSTAL
AND DETERMINES THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE OF THE SOUND BEAM ON THE
TEST PART.
AS HAS BEEN DISCUSSED, WHEN SOUND WAVES ARE DIRECTED INTO THE
TEST PART AT AN ANGLE; THEY ARE DIVIDED INTO LONGITUDINAL AND SHEAR
WAVES BY REFRACTION.
MOST ANGLE BEAM TESTING IS DONE WITH SHEAR WAVES.
STRAIGHT BEAM TRANSDUCER ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER
-LONcTyoINAL SHEAR
waves: waves —
49 THE ANGLE BEAM PROBE CAN ALSO BE USED TO GENERATE SURFACE WAVES.
AS WE HAVE DISCUSSED, SURFACE WAVES ARE GENERATED WHEN THE INCI-
DENT ANGLE OF THE SOUND BEAM REACHES THE SECOND OR UPPER CRITI-
CAL ANGLE.
MOST ANGLE BEAM CONTACT TRANSDUCERS ARE IDENTIFIED BY THE RE-
FRACTED SHEAR WAVE PRODUCED (70°, 60°, ETC,), IN A SPECIFIC MATERIAL,
USUALLY STEEL AND ALUMINUM.
SPHERICALLY GROUND AND CYLINDRICALLY GROUND ACOUSTICAL LENSES
ARE COMMONLY ADDED TO IMMERSION TYPE TRANSDUCERS. THEY ARE USED
TO:
1, IMPROVE SENSITIVITY AND RESOLUTION.
2, COMPENSATE FOR TEST PART CONTOURS,
3. EXAMINE A GIVEN DEPTH OF THE TEST PART MORE CAREFULLY.
AS SHOWN BELOW, CYLINDRICALLY GROUND LENSES FOCUS THE SOUND
ENERGY TO A LINE. SPHERICALLY GROUND LENSES FOCUS THE SOUND
ENERGY TO A POINT.
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50 CYLINDRICAL LENSES ARE USED IN TWO WAYS:
1, TO INCREASE THE SENSITIVITY AND RESOLUTION OF EQUIPMENT.
2. FOR CONTOUR CORRECTION AS SHOWN BELOW. THE LENS CAN BE
GROUND SPECIALLY TO DIRECT THE SOUND ENERGY NORMAL (PERPEN-
DICULAR) TO A CURVED SURFACE AT ALL POINTS.
corouR
CORRECTION
FLAT SHOE Lens
CCRT SCREEN DISPLAY
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SPHERICAL LENSES CONCENTRATE THE SOUND ENERGY INTO A CONE
SHAPED BEAM. .
1, THE FOCUSING INCREASES ITS INTENSITY, BUT SHORTENS ITS USEFUL
RANGE.
2. WHILE THE CYLINDERICAL LENS ABOVE HAS A GREATER WIDTH, THE
SPHERICAL LENS HAS THE GREATEST SENSITIVITY.
3. THE SPHERICAL LENS IS OFTEN USED WHEN IMMERSION TESTING PARTS
HAVING A ROUGH SURFACE.
FOCUSED TRANSDUCERS ARE DESCRIBED BY THEIR FOCAL LENGTH.
THE SHORT FOCAL LENGTHS ARE FOR EXAMINING AREAS OF THE SPECIMEN
CLOSE TO THE SURFACE. LONGER FOCAL LENGTHS ARE FOR INCREASINGLY
DEEPER AREAS.
51 TRANSDUCERS COME IN MANY SHAPES, SIZES AND PHYSICAL CHARACTER:
IsTICs.
SOME COMMON TYPES INCLUDE PAINT-BRUSH, DUAL ELEMENT, SINGLE ELE-
MENT, ANGLE BEAM, FOCUSED, MOSAIC, CONTACT, AND IMMERSION.
SINGLE ELEMENT TRANSDUCERS MAY BE TRANSMITTERS ONLY, RECEIVERS
ONLY, OR BOTH TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER.
DOUBLE ELEMENT TRANSDUCERS (AS SHOWN BELOW) MAY BE EITHER
SINGLE TRANSDUCERS MOUNTED SIDE BY SIDE OR STACKED.
IN A DOUBLE ELEMENT TRANSDUCER, ONE IS A TRANSMITTER AND THE
OTHER A RECEIVER.
receiver TRANSMITTER
TRANSMITTER RECEIVER
SOUND BARRIER SOUND BARRIER
SIDE BY SIDE. STACKED
DOUBLE ELEMENT TRANSDUCERS HAVE BETTER NEAR SURFACE RESOLUTION
BECAUSE THE RECEIVER CAN RECEIVE DISCONTINUITY SIGNALS BEFORE THE
TRANSMITTER COMPLETES ITS TRANSMISSION.
DISCONTINUITY OBSCURED
BY INITIAL PULSE COAXIAL CABLE
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52 STANDARD REFERENCE BLOCKS
IN ULTRASONIC TESTING, DISCONTINUITIES ARE USUALLY COMPARED TO A
REFERENCE STANDARD.
THE STANDARD MAY BE ONE OF MANY REFERENCE BLOCKS OR SETS OF
BLOCKS SPECIFIED FOR A GIVEN TEST.
REFERENCE BLOCKS COME IN MANY DIFFERENT SHAPES AND SIZES AND THIS
LESSON WILL DISCUSS ONLY A FEW OF THOSE COMMONLY USED. A TYPICAL
BLOCK IS SHOWN BELOW.
TEST SURFACE
rT A = DIAMETER OF FBH
B = METAL DISTANCE
8 FROM TEST
Je SURFACE TO FBH
C= METAL DISTANCE
FLAT-80TTOM HOLE. if FROM TEST
SURFACE TO
BOTTOM OF BLOCK
MOST REFERENCE BLOCKS HAVE THE FOLLOWING IN COMMON:
1, THEY ARE MADE FROM CAREFULLY SELECTED MATERIAL.
2. THE MATERIAL MUST HAVE THE PROPER ATTENUATION, GRAIN SIZE,
HEAT TREATMENT AND BE FREE OF DISCONTINUITIES.
3. ALL DIMENSIONS MUST BE PRECISELY MACHINED.
4, ALL HOLES MUST BE FLAT-BOTTOMED AND HAVE A SPECIFIC DIAMETER
TO BE AN IDEAL REFLECTOR.
5. SIDE DRILLED HOLE DIAMETER MUST BE CAREFULLY CONTROLLED.
THREE COMMONLY USED SETS OF STANDARD REFERENCE BLOCKS ARE:
1. AREA AMPLITUDE BLOCKS
2. DISTANCE AMPLITUDE BLOCKS
3. ASTM BASIC SET OF AREA AND DISTANCE AMPLITUDE BLOCKS.
AREA AMPLITUDE BLOCKS PROVIDE STANDARDS FOR DISCONTINUITIES OF
DIFFERENT SIZES, AT THE SAME DEPTH.
DISTANCE AMPLITUDE BLOCKS PROVIDE STANDARDS FOR DISCONTINUITIES
OF THE SAME SIZE AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS.
53 THE ASTM BASIC SET OF AREA/DISTANCE AMPLITUDE BLOCKS CONSISTS OF
TEN, TWO INCH DIAMETER BLOCKS AS SHOWN BELOW:
FLAT-sortoM
HOLE (FBHI 1A
(SEE TABLED
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METAL DISTANCE, INCHES [« va [ va a[a]sfele
BH OIAIN O4THS INCH Ts fs [s afs[e[s]e
ANOTHER TYPE OF CALIBRATION BLOCK IS THE IIW BLOCK (INTERNATIONAL,
INSTITUTE OF WELDING). IT PROVIDES THE FOLLOWING
VERIFICATION OF KNOWN DISTANCES & ANGULAR RELATIONSHIPS, VERIFIES
TRANSDUCER ANGLE AND BEAM EXIT POINT AND CHECKS TRANSDUCER
RESOLUTION.
0.06" HOLE.
2 DIAMETER HOLE
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PLASTIC INSERT IN CONTACT ANGLE BEAM TESTING, THE BEAM EXIT POINT OF THE TRANS-
DUCER MUST BE KNOWN TO ACCURATELY DETERMINE THE LOCATION OF THE
DISCONTINUITY.
AS SHOWN BELOW, THE TRANSDUCER IS MOVED BACK AND FORTH UNTIL THE
PIP ON THE CRT REACHES MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE.
THE FOCAL POINT ON THE IIW BLOCK THEN CORRESPONDS WITH THE BEAM
EXIT POINT OF THE TRANSDUCER.
ANGLE BEAM
BEAM ExiT POINT TRANSDUCER
Focal PONT —
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SPECIAL CALIBRATION STANDARDS
SPECIAL STANDARDS ARE OFTEN USED FOR ITEMS SUCH AS WELDMENTS,
CASTINGS, AND PIPING. THE STANDARDS ARE NORMALLY OF THE SAME
MATERIAL AND PRODUCT FORM TO BE TESTED. REFERENCE REFLECTORS.
SUCH AS NOTCHES OR HOLES ARE ARTIFICIALLY ADDED TO THE STANDARD.
55 VERIFICATION OF THE TRANSDUCER ANGLE JS ACCOMPLISHED AS SHOWN
BELOW:
THE PLASTIC WEDGE OF THE ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER IS SUBJECT TO
WEAR IN NORMAL USE. THIS WEAR CAN CHANGE THE BEAM EXIT POINT AND
THE ANGLE OF THE SOUND BEAM.
BEAM EXIT POINT
0 DEGREE TRANSDUCER
2" DIAMETER HOLE
FROM THE POSITION SHOWN ABOVE, THE TRANSDUCER IS MOVED BACK AND
FORTH UNTIL THE REFLECTION FROM THE 2 INCH HOLE SHOWS MAXIMUM
AMPLITUDE ON THE CRT.
THE ANGLE OF SOUND BEAM CAN THEN BE READ FROM WHERE THE EXIT
POINT ON THE TRANSDUCER MATCHES THE DEGREES STAMPED ON THE SIDE
OF THE BLOCK.
THE TRANSDUCER SOUND BEAM EXIT POINT SHOULD ALWAYS BE CHECKED
FIRST. |F THE EXIT POINT MARKING IS NOT CORRECT, THEN THE ANGLE
CHECK WILL NOT BE ACCURATE.
56 THE FAR FIELD RESOLVING POWER OF THE TEST EQUIPMENT CAN BE ESTI-
MATED BY PLACING A NORMAL BEAM TRANSDUCER ON THE IIW BLOCK AS
SHOWN.
GOOD RESOLUTION WILL BE INDICATED IF THE INSTRUMENT CAN SATISFAC-
TORILY SEPARATE THE PIPS FROM ALL THREE REFLECTORS.
TRANSOUCER
