1 Basics of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics-CE105/CE205

Chapter – 1
Introduction to Civil Engineering
INTRODUCTION
Engineering is the profession that puts scientific knowledge to practical use. i.e.,
Engineering is an applied science. Engineers look for better and optimized ways to use
existing resources and often develop new resources & new materials.

In general, the field of engineering includes a wide variety of activities. Engineering

projects range from the construction of huge dams to the design of tiny electronic circuits.
Engineers may help to produce guided missiles, industrial robots, or artificial limbs for the
physically handicapped. They develop complex scientific equipment’s to explore the reaches
of outer space and the depths of the oceans. Engineers also plan electric power and water
supply systems, and deal with automobiles, television sets, and other consumer products.
They work to reduce environmental pollution, increase the world’s food supply, and make
transportation faster & safer.

Out of all branches of engineering, Civil Engineering is the one that is directly
associated with the welfare of the society. ‘Civil Engineering’, a branch full of human
activities, has been pursued from very early times when man began to adopt the environment
to his needs. The motto of the civil engineering is the “protection of the welfare and safety of
the public”. Indeed, the term civil in civil engineering refers to the discipline’s involvement in
public works, including government buildings, military bases, mass transit systems (i.e.,
highways, railways, airports, and water ways), water treatment works, waste management,
irrigation etc. In ancient times, there was no formal engineering education. The earliest
engineers-built structures and developed tools by experience and by methods which were
empirical in nature. However, the present-day engineering activities are based on sound
theoretical knowledge. Guided by theory and the experience, the present-day civil engineers
work for the benefit of the society, carrying out the works according to certain standards.
Maintaining the quality in their works help them to achieve good performance from their
outputs.

Scope of different fields of Civil Engineering

The scope of Civil Engineering is very vast, and it has many diversified fields which
help in the total development of any civilization. Various subdivisions that come under civil
engineering branch are listed below.

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• Surveying
• Building Materials Technology
• Geotechnical Engineering
• Structural Engineering
• Construction Technology
• Hydraulics
• Water Resources and Irrigation Engineering
• Transportation Engineering
• Environmental Engineering

A brief description of the contents of study of each of these sub-divisions is given

below

• Surveying
It is a field of specialization which involves processes through which the relative
positions of various points are objects on the earth’s surface are determined on a horizontal

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plane as well as on a vertical plane. The results of such processes are represented in the form
of map or plan. A plan is a graphical representation of various ground features as projected on
a horizontal plane, to some convenient scale, on a sheet of paper.
Surveying is an essential work which is carried out in the beginning of any
constructional activity, such as development of an area, construction of transportation
facilities such as roadways, railways and airfield pavements, construction of structures such
as buildings, bridges, dams, and the like.
Conventional methods of surveying include chain surveying, compass surveying,
theodolite surveying, plane table surveying and levelling. The modern-day surveying, by
virtue of developments in technology, include the use of sophisticated instruments like total
station and other electronic, electro-magnetic, electro-optical instruments and tools such as
Geographic Information System (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS) and the like. It also
makes use of allied fields such as remote sensing and photogrammetry.

• Building Materials Technology

Any constructional activity invariably requires the use of different types of materials.
These materials of construction can be broadly classified in to
▪ Conventional materials (Ex: soil, stones, bricks, timber, cement / lime, tiles, plain
and reinforced cement concrete, pre-stressed concrete).
▪ Modern building materials (Ex: Fibre reinforced concrete, aluminium, glazed tiles,
plaster of Paris).
▪ Alternate building materials (Ex: Fly ash, polymeric materials, industrial wastes,
recycled aggregates).
▪ Smart materials.

Depending upon the requirement, budget and other constraints, any combination of
these materials can be used in the construction works. Building materials technology deals
with a detailed study of these materials of construction – origin / fabrication / manufacture,
types, properties, functional advantages, limitations. These information help in judging the
suitability of different materials to be used in the proposed constructional activity.

• Geotechnical Engineering
All structures built on earth transfer the superimposed loads to the ground (soil / rock)
underneath, through appropriate foundation. Soils are complex geological materials which are
expected to receive the loads transferred to them safely without causing damage to the
structure. The soils are physico-chemically active materials, and their engineering behavior

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depends upon their water content. This subject encompasses

▪ a detailed study of soils – formation, composition, properties, and their
determination
▪ a detailed study of rocks – types, properties, strength and deformation
characteristics and their determination.
▪ different types of foundations, their relative merits and limitations, suitability and
design aspects.
▪ design and analysis of various earth structures such as embankments, dams,
retaining walls etc.

▪ site investigation, sub-soil exploration and field tests.

▪ Ground improvement techniques

Geotechnical earthquake engineering is a specialized field of geotechnical

engineering, which deals with earthquakes, their effects on foundation soil, different types of
seismic hazards, study of dynamic soil properties, seismic design of earth structures, soil
improvement to withstand / minimize seismic hazards etc.

• Structural Engineering
All structures constructed on this earth are subjected to various types of loads of
different complexities / nature. Various components of a structure are expected to respond to
these loads favourably and to withstand them safely. The satisfactory performance of
structures requires the knowledge of materials’ behavior and selection of appropriate material
for use, proportioning / designing different components of a structure, estimating the stresses
developed in different component of a structure and back checking the design. This field
includes subjects like engineering mechanics, strength of materials, structural analysis, and
design of structures. It also requires the knowledge of different tools to carry out the analysis
and design of structural components such as matrix method of analysis, finite different
techniques, finite element method of analysis and the like.

• Construction Technology
All activities undertaken in the construction of any structure come under this field.
Construction of various types of structures, making use of various types of constructional
materials available, study of different technologies of construction, management of various
constructional activities with respect to different parameters like resources (material /
human), time, finance and legal aspects are included in this field of civil engineering.

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• Hydraulics
Water is an integral part of human life and of almost all constructional activities. This
subject deals with
▪ basic properties of water
▪ study of water at rest as well as in motion
▪ flow through pipes
▪ open channel flows
▪ flow measurements
▪ different analytical, computational, and experimental approaches to analyse the
flow problems.

• Water Resources and Irrigation Engineering

There are different sources of fresh water on this earth such as rain, ground water,
streams / rivers. These waters have to be harnessed and stored properly before they are
utilised for different purposes such as drinking, irrigation and waterpower generation. This
subject deals with
▪ different sources of water on this earth
▪ estimation of total water available and water requirement
▪ construction and maintenance of structures to tap the available resources of water
▪ planning and building of water retaining structures such as tanks / dams
▪ construction and maintenance of water carrying structures
▪ different irrigation schemes
▪ flood control methodologies
▪ depletion and replenishment of water resources

• Transportation Engineering
The social and economic development of any country is a function of transportation
facilities available in that country. Different means of transportation include roadways,
railways, air ways and water ways. This field deals with a detailed study of planning, design,
construction and maintenance of different types of roadways, railways, airports and runways,
harbours and docks, bridges and tunnels.

• Environmental Engineering
This subject deals with
▪ study of available water quality and checking against the standards
▪ water collection and water purification through various treatment processes

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▪ supply and distribution of quality water for urban and rural areas, for domestic and
industrial usage
▪ study of domestic water supply system and sanitary system
▪ wastewater collection, treatment, and safe disposal
▪ study of wastes and waste management
▪ study of different kinds of pollution and pollution control measures
▪ study of environmental safety

INFRASTRUCTURE
Infrastructure is a system of services and communication that is required for the overall
development of the society. It refers to facilities such as transportation (i.e., Railways,
Highways, Air ways, Water ways etc.,), hospitals, education, energy (coal, electricity, oil
etc.), irrigation, farm equipment’s & machineries, science and technology, communication,
health & hygiene, banking that facilitate and contribute in the process of production of goods
and services for the overall development of the economy of the society.

The infrastructure is of two types.

a) Economic infrastructure: It contributes directly to the economic development of any
country. It consists of transport and communication, power supply, irrigation
networks, financial institutions etc.

b) Social infrastructure: It contributes to the process of economic development of any

country indirectly. It consists of education & training, health & family welfare,
housing & water supply and other civic amenities.

Transport and Communication:

In this modern age, transport along with electricity and power forms the basic
infrastructural requirement for industrialization. Transport provides vital link between
production centers and distribution points. It also exercises a unifying and integrating
influence upon the economy. Indeed, transport facilitates agricultural development by supply
of modern inputs like seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, farm implements and machinery.
Transport helps the movement of agricultural produce from scattered farms to the distant
markets. It helps the industrial development by facilitating the regular and prompt movement
of raw materials and labor to the factories and finished products to market. It helps to widen
the market for wide variety of industrial goods. Transport helps to widen the market and
trade. It facilitates exploitation of natural resources, helps the mobility of labor, and serves

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administration and defense requirements.

The important means of transport are railways, roadways, waterways, and airways.
The importance of transport services in economy depends on several economic factors such
as interdependence, mutual co-operation, and co-existence of different regions. Therefore, to
integrate diversified economic regions within the country and economies of the world, a well-
developed network of transport system is of vital importance.

Railways provide an economical mode of transport for freight over long distances.
The roadways are most ideal transport for short distance travel and light freight and to cater
to diverse points of production, distribution, and consumption. Well-constructed roads have
become main components of economic infrastructure today. The other main components of
transport network in the economy along with roads and railways are coastal shipping, inland
waterways, and domestic airlines.
Communication means imparting or transmission of information. The difference
between transport and communication is that while the former implies the conveyance of
goods and passengers from one place to another, the latter implies the conveyance of
information. The conveyance of information is necessary for the development of industry,
commerce, and trade of any country. Today, a very large network of communication media
exists. These include postal services, telegraph and the telephone, radio and television
(Doordarshan), tele printers, telex, fax services, the cinema and the press. The responsibility
of building and extending the services is fixed to specialized departments and agencies like
postal department, telegraph department etc.
The communication network is also claimed to be formed under social infrastructure
of the economy. Communication can also be a service in imparting education.

Education:
Education plays a vital role in the process of production; because it imparts
knowledge, skills, and capabilities to people. Investing precious resources on education and
training leads to definite economic returns, just like investing on any productive activity.
Better training and reliable research will produce better human capital.
Over and above the basic skills imparted by primary education, the growing economy
needs the secondary and much higher skills for its human resources. These can be imparted
only to those who can pick them up in their respective fields. Thus, not everybody can be
trained to be a good mechanic or a good foreman. Such specialized skills can be met only by
high-level educational institutions like Training Institutes, Colleges and Universities from the

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point of view of developing the economic resources. More than the expansion of higher
education at a greater expenditure, strengthening training and research are greatly needed.
Otherwise, the educated unemployment will increase, and it becomes a serious problem.

Housing:
This involves providing a good neighbourhood with civic amenities of living such as
water supply, sewerage, roads, electricity, schools, parks besides safety and comforts to lead
a peaceful life. Housing can either reduce or enhance the disparities in society. Social status
of any individual directly depends upon housing he / she owns.

Health & family welfare:

The provision of health services in a country reflects nation’s social priorities. The
policy programmes adopted by any country for health services have economic implications.
The emphasis should be placed on public health measures, better sanitation and drinking
water rather than making provisions to have expensive treatment facilities to cater only a few.
The family welfare programmes also contribute a lot to the overall economy of the country.
ROLE OF CIVIL ENGINEERS IN INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT
The role of Civil Engineers lies in planning the work meticulously and carrying out
the designed works systematically to achieve the most optimal and efficient output that help
the common people to lead a satisfactory life. They are also responsible for the regular
maintenance of the works carried out by them. Following illustrations explain the
complexities involved in the works to be carried out by a civil engineer.
Civil Engineering constructions vary from very simple routine works to very
complicated, huge structures. Everything depends upon the prevailing site conditions which
may or may not be favorable for the construction. Environmental conditions, location of the
site, site & soil conditions and the like may contribute to all kinds of problems, in addition to
unforeseen circumstances which may suddenly creep in. A civil engineer must think calmly
and take judicious and practicable decisions, considering all alternates and their pros and
cons.
Civil engineering is much more than erecting skyscrapers or bridges. The civil
engineers must have a thorough understanding of the interaction among the various units of
construction, among the various structural elements, between the structure and the complex
environment. Since constructing a large building or public-works project can involve
elaborate planning, civil engineers can be outstanding project managers. They sometimes
manage thousands of workers. They also develop advanced computerization and planning

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policies.
In addition, many civil engineers are also involved with preserving, protecting, or
restoring the environment. A growing number of civil engineers are involved in many
sensitive and hazardous projects involving huge money such as cleaning up toxic industrial or
municipal wastes at abandoned dump sites, reclamation of unsuitable sites for construction,
rehabilitation of old / heritage structures, maintaining national forest parks, and restoring the
land around mines, oil wells, or factories.
In total, a civil engineer must perform the role of a planner, a builder, an architect, a
management expert, and an arbitrator.

IMPACT OF INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT

The overall development of any country is directly dependent on the infrastructural
facilities made available to the people of the country. The positive impact of developing good
infrastructural facilities can be summarized as indicated below.
• Self-sufficiency in food sector can be achieved
• Foreign exchange can be saved
• Export of surplus food products industrial products is possible.
• Unemployment can be reduced through increased job opportunities
• Prevention of unhealthy urbanization can be prevented, which in turn solves many
problems such as urban congestion, acute housing shortage, traffic problems, crimes,
pollution etc.
• Per capita income is increased.
• The living standards of people can be enhanced.
• Public health can be improved
• Inflation can be reduced.
• Draught and flood related problems can be controlled / minimized
• Pollution can be controlled
• Literacy level of people can be increased
• Public awareness gets improved

On the other hand, ill planned, ill executed, and ill maintained infrastructure
development projects have negative impact on the society. Some of them are listed below.

• Small scale industries, handicrafts industries and rural industries are adversely affected.
• Fuel consumption is increased, which has direct impact on foreign exchange.

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• Environmental pollution (air, water and ground pollution) continues to increase.

• The culture of the society can be adversely get affected.
• Literacy level of people will come down.
• Health related problems can be on the rise.
• Labour problems will increase.
• Inflation will increase.

If the infrastructure developments are urban centered, then that will lead to
uncontrolled urbanization. This will aggravate the urban housing problems, water supply and
sanitation problems and urban traffic congestion. This may also result in an increase in the
crime rate.
If the infrastructural facilities provided are rich people oriented, then the gap between
the rich and poor will continue to widen. This results in an unhealthy society, full of crimes
and unrest.

Roads
Transportation is a non-separable part of any society and is responsible for the
development of civilizations. It meets travel requirement of people and transport requirement
of goods and it is one of the key infrastructures of a country & considered a mark of its
progress.
The roles of transportation in society are:
• Advancement of community
• Economic prosperity and general development of a country
• Strategic movement in emergency
• Safety, Pollution, Energy consumption
• Other impacts
Roadways or Highways are one of the primary modes of transportation. Roads
provide best bet for achieving inclusive growth of our society than any other modes of
transport. Following are the characteristics of roadways
• Maximum flexibility for travel
• Route, Direction, Time, and Speed
• Safety decreases
• Door to door service
• Feeder system for other modes

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• Used by various types of vehicles

• For short distance travel – saves time
• Requires relatively small investment
India has the second largest road network in the world, next only to USA. However,
large stretches of our roads still suffer from deficiencies in road geometry and riding quality
resulting in hazardous conditions and poor road safety. Civil engineers face the challenge of
designing safe highways and at the same time improving the operational speeds of the
vehicles to reduce the travel time.

Classification of Roads
Roads can be classified based on different criteria.
I. Based on administrative jurisdiction and function:
➢ Primary System
• Express way
• National Highway (NH)
➢ Secondary System
• State Highway (SH)
• Major District Roads (MDR)
➢ Tertiary System
• Other District Roads (ODR)
• Village Roads (VR)
• Express way
These are special category of highways with superior facilities and design standards,
meant for very high volume of traffic at high speed. They are provided with divided carriage
ways, controlled access, grade separations at intersections and fencing. Parking, loading, and
unloading of goods and pedestrian traffic are not permitted on these highways. They come
under the jurisdiction of central or state government depending upon whether the route is a
national highway or a state highway.
• National Highway (NH)
These are the arterial roads of the country for inter-state and strategic traffic. They
connect national and state capitals, major ports, railway junctions and border. All national
highways are designated through numbers.
Ex: NH3: National Highway connecting Atari to Manali NH21: National Highway
connecting Jaipur to Agra NH44: National Highway connecting Srinagar to Kanyakumari

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Fig. 8 shows the cross section of a NH in rural area.

• State Highway (SH)
These are the arterial roads of a state for inter-district traffic. They link the national
highways and highways of adjacent states, state capital with district headquarters, important
cities within the state. Sometimes, these may carry heavier traffic volume. The national and
state highways have same design speed and geometric design specifications. Fig. 8 shows the
cross section of a SH in rural area.
• Major District Roads (MDR)
These are the rods within a district, for intra-district movements. They connect places
of production and market within the district and connect highways in a district. These have
lower speed and geometric design specifications than the national and state highways. Fig. 9
shows the cross section of a Major District Road.
• Other District Roads (ODR)
These serve to connect rural areas of production with the market centers, taluk
headquarters and other main roads. They have lower design specifications than MDR. Fig. 10
shows the cross section of an ODR.
• Village Roads (VR)
They connect villages with each other and with the nearest district roads, state and
national highways. Fig. 10 shows the cross section of a VR.

II. Based on their suitability for usage during different seasons of the year:
➢ All weather roads
➢ Fair weather roads
• All weather roads
These roads are negotiable during all-weather except at major river crossings.
• Fair weather roads
The traffic on these roads may be suspended during monsoon season due to flooding of
the roads.
III. Based on the type of road pavement:
➢ Paved roads
➢ Unpaved Roads
• Paved roads These roads are provided with hard pavement course.
• Unpaved Roads These roads are not provided with hard pavement course. The earth
roads and gravel roads belong to this category.

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IV. Based on the type of pavement surfacing

➢ Surface roads
➢ Unsurfaced roads
• Surface roads
These roads are provided with bituminous or cement concrete surface.
• Unsurfaced roads
These roads are not provided with bituminous or cement concrete surface.

CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN ROADS

Roads in the urban areas form a separate class altogether and are classified into
➢ Arterial roads
➢ Sub-arterial roads or major roads
➢ Collector streets or minor roads
➢ Local streets
• Arterial roads
These roads pass within the city limits and link the state and national highway system
with a limited access. They include ring road, by-pass road etc. These roads connect major
suburban centers and central business areas with residential areas. Parking, loading, and
unloading activities on these roads are regulated. Pedestrian crossings are allowed only at
intersections. No residential buildings are allowed along these roads.
• Sub-arterial roads
These roads are like arterial roads except that they have a lower level of traffic
mobility.
• Collector streets
These roads link the residential areas, business, and industrial areas with the arterial /
sub-arterial roads. Parking restrictions on these streets will not be there except during peak
hours of traffic.
• Local streets
These are the roads that connect residences, shops, and industries among themselves
and with each other. There are not restrictions of parking or pedestrian movements on
them.

COMPONENT OF A PAVEMENT / ROAD

Based on their structural behaviour, pavements can be of two types namely, flexible
pavements and rigid pavements.

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Flexible pavement: It has four components (i) Soil sub-grade (ii) Sub-base course (iii)
Base course (iv) Surface course
Typical section of a roadway
A roadway consists of Geometric Elements and Structural Elements. The geometric elements
are the visible elements across the roadway while the various layers in the carriage way
constitute the structural elements. The geometric elements include Cross section Elements,
Sight distance considerations, Horizontal and Vertical alignment details, and Intersection
elements.
The structural elements consist of typical layers of varying thicknesses and materials.
The common layers in a roadway are: Soil Subgrade, Sub-base course, Base course, and
Surface course.

Sub grade: It is the natural soil on which the roads are constructed. It can also refer to the top
of the embankment over which the pavement is laid. The surface of the sub-grade is generally

known as formation. Entire load of the structure and that of traffic on the road surface are
ultimately transferred to the sub-grade. If natural sub-grade is not of good quality, it requires
strengthening through compaction.
Sub-base course: The layer which is immediately above the sub-grade is the sub-base. It
consists of granular materials (naturally occurring / compacted / stabilized with cement or
lime). This layer shall be stronger than sub-grade. It performs the following functions.
• It distributes the traffic loads to sub-grade underneath
• It acts as a good drainage layer
• It prevents moisture migration from the sub-grade upwards
Natural sand, murrum, gravel, crushed stone, crushed concrete, laterite etc. can be the granular
material constituents of sub-base course.
Base course: This is the main load bearing layer, underlying the wearing or surface course.
The material of the base shall be of high quality. It is normally made of crushed / broken

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aggregates mechanically interlocked by rolling and bonded together with screenings, soil
binder and water (Water Bound Macadam). The main function of this layer is to withstand the
high traffic loads imposed at the surface and to distribute them to the underlying layers of the
pavement.
Surface course (Wearing course): It generally consists of a binder course (normally
bituminous macadam) and a 2 – 5 cm thick bituminous surface dressing. The functions of this
surface are
• to withstand the stresses induced by the traffic, without undergoing unacceptable
deformations.
• to prevent the ingress of water (i.e. water proofing the base course)
• to provide a smooth, skid resistant riding surface.
Rigid Pavement: It has 2 – 3 components – Natural sub-grade, base course (optional) and
cement concrete slab (Fig. 4). The cement concrete slab itself can serve as a wearing surface as
well as an effective base course.

BRIDGES
Introduction
A bridge is a structure that provides passages for a road, railway, pedestrians, canal, or

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a pipeline over an obstacle without closing the way beneath. The obstacle to be covered may
be a river or a road or a railway or a valley.

Classification of bridges

Classification – I: According to function:

• Foot bridge (Pedestrian bridge)
• Road bridge
• Railway bridge
Note:
1. Aquaduct is a bridge carrying a canal constructed over a drainage / passage underneath.
2. Viaduct: It is a bridge constructed over a valley.

Classification – II: According to the materials of construction:

• Timber bridge
• Masonry bridge
• Iron bridge
• Steel bridge

Classification – III: According to type of super structure:

• Slab bridge (Fig. 1): Slabs (i.e., flat structural element) are placed across an open to carry
thesuper-imposed loads by bending action. These are used up to spans of 10 m.
• Beam bridge: In this bridge, two or more rectangular beams or T-beams or I-beams
areplaced parallel to one another over the piers. T-beam bridges are used for the spans 10-
25 m. Note: Normally a combination of beam and slab is adopted for bridges (i.e.,
beam and slabbridge) (Fig. 2).

• Truss bridge (Fig. 3): This consists of trusses which are nothing, but frame works built up
of straight members which carry the loads either by axial tension or axial compression.
This bridge can be used economically in the span range 100 – 200 m.
• Arch bridge (Fig. 4): The arch bridge is best suited to deep gorges with steep rocky banks
which furnished efficient natural abutments to receive heavy thrusts exerted by the ribs.
Steel arch bridges are used in the span range 100 – 250 m. Ex: Rainbow Bridge at Niagara
Falls, USA
• Bow-string girder bridge (Fig. 5): It is an arch bridge with the feet of arch ribs are
connected by a horizontal beam. These bridges are used where unyielding abutments for
arch action arenot available. They are used in the span range 30 – 35 m.
• Suspension bridge (Fig. 6): In this bridge, floor of the bridge is suspended from a pair of

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cables hung in the form of catenary between two tall supports. These bridges are best
suited for spans more than 500 m. Ex: Golden Gate Bridge, Sanfrancisco, USA
• Cable stayed bridge (Fig. 7): It is a bridge whose deck is suspended by multiple cables
that run down to the main girder from one or more towers. These bridges are suitable in
this span range 200 – 900 m. Ex: The Stromsund Bridge, Sweden

Classification – IV: According to the span:

• Simple bridge
• Continuous bridge
• Cantilever bridge. Ex: Howrah Bridge, Kolkata, India

Classification – V: According to the position of the bridge floor relative to super structure:
• Deck bridge (Fig. 8): In this bridge, the road deck is carried on the top of the super
structure or on the top of the supporting girders.
• Half-through bridge (Pony type bridge) (Fig. 9): In this bridge, the deck is provided at the
middle of the super structure or mid-way between top and bottom beam flanges and the
load is transferred to the girder through the web of the girder.
• Through bridge (Fig. 10): In this bridge, the deck is supported at the bottom of the super
structure or supported by the bottom beam flange of the main supporting girders provided
on either side.

Classification – VI: According to the method of connecting different parts of the super structure(For
steel bridges):
• Welded bridge
• Riveted bridge
• Pin connected bridge

Classification – VII: According to road level relative to highest flood level of the river below:
• High level bridge (non-submersible bridge / under-flow bridge): This bridge is capable
ofallowing the design flood discharge without getting submerged.
• Submersible bridge (Over-flow bridge): These bridges are not subjected to
submergenceunder ordinary floods. However, during high floods, water spills over the
deck of the bridge. Note: Cause way: This is an elevated paved road formed between
the retaining walls oneither side, taken sufficiently deep to withstand scour action.
During floods, water flowsover the road surface.

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Classification – VIII: According to the method of clearance for navigation:

• High level bridge
• Movable – bascule bridge (Fig. 11): In this bridge, main girders are lifted together with
the deck about the hinge provided at one end of the span. Ex: London Tower Bridge, UK,
Railway Bridge at Mandapam near Rameshwaram, India
• Movable – swing bridge (Fig. 12): In this bridge, the girders and the deck can be swung
about its middle over the middle pier, clearing the span on either side for the passage
ofships. Ex: Railway Bridge at Fort Madison, Iowa
• Lift bridge (Fig. 13): In this bridge, gantries are provided at the piers on either end of
the span and entire girder and the floor system is lifted by a hydraulic arrangement to the
extent required for the free passage of the ship. Ex: Cape Cod Canal Bridge at Buzzards
Bay, Massachusetts, USA; Road bridge across Mathanchery channel at Cochin.
• Transporters bridge (Fig. 14)

Classification – IX: According to span length:

• Culvert: Culverts are cross drainage structure with clear span < 8
m.
o RCC slab culvert (Fig. 15): This is used for spans up to 8 m.
o Stone arch culvert (Fig. 16):
o Box culvert (Fig. 17): This is used for spans up to 4 m.
o Pipe culvert (Fig. 18): This is used a cross drainage work on a road / railway
embankment when the drainage through the culvert is small.
o Steel girder culvert (for railways) (Fig. 19)
• Minor bridge (8 m – 30 m span)
• Major bridge (> 30 m span)
• Long span bridge (> 120 m span)

Classification – X: According to life span of bridges:

• Temporary bridge
• Permanent bridge

Classification – XI: According to alignment:

• Square bridge (Fig. 20): If the axis of the bridge is perpendicular to the axis of the stream
/ obstacle over which it is constructed, then such a bridge is called a square bridge.

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 19 Basics of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics-CE105/CE205

• Skew bridge (Fig. 21): If the axis of the bridge is not perpendicular to the
stream /obstacle over which it is constructed, then such a bridge is called a skew
bridge.
Note:
➢ Under bridge: It is a bridge constructed to allow a road to pass underneath.
The top ofthe bridge may be used for railway traffic or for laying pipelines
over the road.
➢ Over bridge: It is a bridge constructed such that a roadway is over the bridge
and theway beneath the bridge can be an obstacle or can be used for railway
traffic.

| Department of civil engineering.ACED

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| Department of civil engineering.ACED

 21 Basics of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics-CE105/CE205

| Department of civil engineering.ACED

 22 Basics of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics-CE105/CE205

| Department of civil engineering.ACED

 23 Basics of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics-CE105/CE205

| Department of civil engineering.ACED