Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Khulna University of Engineering & Technology

ME 2215
Thermal Engineering and Heat Transfer

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Presented By--

Dr. Dipayan Mondal

Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
By-
KUET, Khulna-9203, Bangladesh
Dipayan Mondal
Email: [email protected], [email protected]
Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, KUET, Khulna
AssistantLecturer
 Refrigeration System:

Refrigeration :

It is a heat removal process from a substance. It also

includes the process of reducing and maintaing the
temperature of a body below than the general
temperature of its surroundings. In other words, the
refrigeration means a continues extraction of heat
from a body, whose temperature is already below
the temperature of its surroundings.
 Some Important Terms (1):

Units of Refrigeration:
The practical unit of refrigeration is expressed in terms of “tonne of
refrigeration” (written as TR). A tonne of refrigeration is defined as
the amount of refrigeration effect produced by uniform melting of
one tonne(1000 kg) of ice from and at 0oC in 24 hours. Since the
latent heat of ice is 335 Kj/Kg, therefore one tonne of refrigeration,

1 TR = 1000×335 Kj in 24 hours
=(1000×335)/(24×60)
= 232.6 Kj/min
In actual practice one tonne of refrigeration is taken as equivalent to
210 Kj/min or 3.5 Kw.
 Some Important Terms (2):

Coefficient of Performance of a Refrigerator:

The Coefficient of Performance of a Refrigerator (C.O.P) is the

ratio of heat extracted in the refrigerator to the work done on
the refrigerant. Mathematically,
Theoretical C.O.P = Q/W

Q= Amount of heat extracted in the refrigerator

W= Amount of work done.
 Refrigerants (1) :
Refrigerant is the working fluid in the refrigeration cycle that
transfers heat and work while undergoing different processes. It is
used to produce refrigerating effect in refrigeration system.

Properties of Refrigerant :
• Low boiling point
• High critical temperature
• High latent heat of Vaporization
• Low specific heat
• Non corrosive
• Non flammable
• Non toxic
• Easy to liquidity
• Low cost.
 Refrigerants (2):
Types of refrigerant :
Basically 2 types –
(i) Primary Refrigerant
(ii) Secondary refrigerant

Primary Refrigerant:
 Refrigerants, such as Dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12),
Monochlorodifluoromethane (R-22), and Refrigerant 502 (R-502),
are called PRIMARY REFRIGERANTS because each one changes its
state upon the application or absorption of heat, and, in this act of
change, absorbs and extracts heat from the area or substance.

 The primary refrigerant is so termed because it acts directly upon

the area or substance, although it may be enclosed within a system.
 Refrigerants(3):
 SECONDARY REFRIGERANTS are substances, such as air, water, or
brine. These are usually liquids, and are used to transfer heat from the
substance being cooled to a heat exchanger where the heat is absorbed by a
primary refrigerant. In an air conditioning system it could be said that air is
acting as a secondary refrigerant.
 Though hot refrigerants in themselves, they have been cooled by the primary
refrigeration system; they pass over and around the areas and substances to be
cooled; and they are returned with their heat load to the primary refrigeration
system.
 Properties of Secondary Refrigerants: A good secondary refrigerant should
have the following features:
 Non corrosive
 Inexpensive
 High specific heat
 Good heat transfer characteristics.
 Chemically stable
 Low viscosity
 Classification of refrigeration system :
1. Vapour Compression Refrigeration (VCR): uses
mechanical energy
2.Vapour Absorption Refrigeration (VAR): uses
thermal energy
3.Solar Energy based Refrigeration System
4.Air Cycle Refrigeration System
5.Steam and Vapour Jet Refrigeration System
6.Thermoelectric Refrigeration System
7.Vortex Tube Refrigeration System
8.Low Temperature Refrigeration System
9.Electrolux Refrigeration System
10. Magnetic Cooling Refrigeration System.
 Vapour Compression Refrigeration(1):
Vapour compression refrigerator works on vapour compression refrigeration
cycle which is also called the Reverse Rankine cycle.
 Vapour Compression Refrigeration(2):

Vapour Compression Refrigeration System:

Main Components- Condenser
3
(i) Compressor High
(ii) Condenser 4 Pressure
(iii)Expansion valve Side

(iv)Evaporator Expansion
Device Compressor

2 Low
1
Pressure
Evaporator Side
 Vapour Compression Refrigeration (2):

Low pressure liquid refrigerant in

evaporator absorbs heat and
changes to a gas

3
Condenser
High
4 Pressure
Side
Expansion
Device Compressor

1 2 Low
Pressure
Evaporator Side
 Vapour Compression Refrigeration (4):

The superheated vapour enters the

compressor where its pressure is
raised

3
Condenser
High
4 Pressure
Side
Expansion
Device Compressor

1 2 Low
Pressure
Evaporator Side
Vapour Compression Refrigeration (5):
The high pressure superheated gas
is cooled in several stages in the
condenser

3
Condenser
High
4 Pressure
Side
Expansion
Device Compressor

1 2 Low
Pressure
Evaporator Side
Vapour Compression Refrigeration (6):
Liquid passes through expansion device,
which reduces its pressure and controls the
flow into the evaporator

3
Condenser
High
4 Pressure
Side
Expansion
Device Compressor

1 2 Low
Pressure
Evaporator Side

15
Vapour Compression Refrigeration (6):
 The pressure-enthalpy diagram(1)
 The process of the vapor compression refrigeration cycle may conveniently be
displayed on a diagram having pressure and specific enthalpy as coordinates.
 Fig.6.1 shows a skeleton diagram for a refrigerant.

 Below the critical point CP the saturated

liquid line（SL）and saturated vapor line
(SV) enclose a two-phase (‘wet’) region
between them.
 To the left of the saturated liquid line lie
states which have lower temperature than
the saturation temperature at a given
pressure.
 These are states of subcooled liquid.
 To the right of the saturated vapor line lie
states which have higher temperature
than the saturation temperature at a given
Fig.6.1, Diagrammatic representation of a pressure versus specific pressure.
enthalpy diagram with a logarithmic
 These are states of superheated vapor.
 The pressure-enthalpy diagram(2)

 The area to the left of the liquid line is called

the subcooled liquid region, and the area to
the right of the vapor line is called the
superheated vapor region.
 Within the two-phase region the horizontal
lines of constant pressure are also lines of
constant temperature.

 In the superheat region the lines of constant

temperature leave the saturation line as
indicated.
 As the pressure diminishes in the superheat
region, the lines of constant temperature tend
to become lines of constant enthalpy, i.e.
vertical on the diagram, indicating that the
Fig.6.1, Diagrammatic representation of a pressure versus specific
vapor is beginning to behave like an ideal gas
enthalpy diagram with a logarithmic with its enthalpy independent of pressure.
 Lines of constant specific entropy and lines of
constant specific volume , are shown in the
superheat region.

17
Temperature-Entropy(T-S) Diagram
Types of Vapour Compression Cycles

Though there are many cycles, yet the following are important:

1. Cycle with dry saturated vapour after compression

2. Cycle with wet vapour after compression
3. Cycle with superheated vapour after compression
4. Cycle with superheated vapour before compression, and
5. Cycle with subcooling or undercooling of refrigerent
 Theoretical vapour compression Cycle with
dry saturated vapour after compression(1)
• Process 1-2: Isentropic
compression of saturated
vapour in compressor
• Process 2-3: Isobaric heat
rejection in condenser
• Process 3-4: Isenthalpic
expansion of saturated
liquid in expansion device
• Process 4-1: Isobaric heat
extraction in the evaporator
Theoretical vapour compression Cycle with
dry saturated vapour after compression(2)
The refrigeration cycle is represented by the line 1-2-3-4-1.
• 1-2 represents the gas is compressed causing a rise in pressure and enthalpy
and all in the superheat region.
• the condensing takes place from 2-3 where latent heat is removed.
• 3-4 is where liquid / vapour is expanded and the pressure is reduced without
any enthalpy change.
• 4-1 is where the liquid / vapour is evaporated completely to a gas.

Refrigeration Effect at Evaporator: RE = m ref (h1 – h4)

Work done at Compressor: W comp = m ref (h2 - h1)

C.O.P. = Refrigeration Effect / Work Input

= RE / W comp
= (h1 – h4) / (h2 - h1)
Theoretical vapour compression Cycle with wet
vapour after compression

Refrigeration Effect at Evaporator: RE = m ref (h1 – h4)

Work done at Compressor: W comp =m ref (h2 - h1)

C.O.P.=Refrigeration Effect / Work Input

=RE / W comp
=(h1 – h4) / (h2 - h1)
Theoretical vapour compression Cycle with
Superheated vapour after compression(1)
 Theoretical vapour compression Cycle with Superheated
vapour after compression (2)
The refrigeration cycle is represented by the line 1-2-2’-3-4-1.
• 1-2 represents the gas is compressed causing a rise in pressure and enthalpy
and all in the superheat region.
• Line 2-2’ represents cooling of the superheated gas in the condenser down
to the saturated vapour temperature.
• The remainder of the condensing takes place from 2’-3 where latent heat is
removed.
• 3-4 is where liquid / vapour is expanded and the pressure is reduced without
any enthalpy change.
• 4-1 is where the liquid / vapour is evaporated completely to a gas.
Refrigeration Effect at Evaporator:
RE = m ref (h1 – h4)
Work done at Compressor:
W comp =m ref (h2 - h1)

C.O.P.=Refrigeration Effect / Work Input

=RE / W comp
=(h1 – h4) / (h2 - h1)
Theoretical vapour compression Cycle with
superheated vapour before compression

Refrigeration Effect at Evaporator: RE = m ref (h1 – h4)

Work done at Compressor: W comp =m ref (h2 - h1)

C.O.P.=Refrigeration Effect / Work Input

=RE / W comp =(h1 – h4) / (h2 - h1)

Here Refrigerant effect increased and hence COP also increased

Theoretical vapour compression Cycle with
subcooling or undercooling of refrigerent (1)
 Theoretical vapour compression Cycle with
subcooling or undercooling of refrigerent(2)
In this case , the Refrigeration Effect or
heat absorbed or extracted at Evaporator:
RE= m ref (h1 – h4)= m ref (h1 – h3)

 Work done at Compressor:

W comp =m ref (h2 - h1)

C.O.P.=Refrigeration Effect / Work Done

=RE / W comp
=(h1 – h3) / (h2 - h1)

Here Refrigerant effect is increased due to

subcooling and hence COP also
increased.

The value h3 may be found as;

h3=h3’ – Cp *(Degree of subcooling)
Refrigerating Systems: Superheating and
Subcooling (1)
Overheating (referring to the overheating of refrigerant vapour at the
outlet of the evaporator) and hypothermia (referring to the
refrigerant sub-cooling liquid leaving the condenser) are, apparently,
two important processes in practical steam-compression refrigeration
system and are used to ensure maximum performance (COP) and to
avoid some technical problems, as will be described below.
Refrigerating Systems: Superheating and
Subcooling(2)

Refrigeration Effect or heat absorbed or extracted at Evaporator:

RE= m ref (h1 – h4)= m ref (h1 – h3)
 Work done at Compressor: W comp =m ref (h2 - h1)

C.O.P.=Refrigeration Effect / Work Done

=RE / W comp
=(h1 – h3) / (h2 - h1)

Here Refrigerant effect is increased due to subcooling & superheating and

hence COP also increased.
Presentation of Processes on P-h Diagram
Presentation of Processes on P-h Diagram
 Actual vapor compression cycle(1)
 Fig.6.8 shows an actual vapor compression cycle compared with a basic cycle.
There are several differences between them.
 As shown in Fig.6.8, there are frictional
effects that result in pressure drops as the
refrigerant flows through the condenser,
evaporator, and the piping connecting various
components in the actual cycle.
 The actual compression process (process 1-2)
starts in superheated vapor region, not on
the saturated vapor line.
 The actual compression process is
irreversible (not isentropic) and goes in the
Fig.6.8 Actual vapor compression p-h diagram
direction of increase of entropy (S2>S1 ).

 The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is used to evaluate the

performance of the compressor and define enthalpy at the exit of the actual
compressor (point 2).
 And at the end of the actual heat rejection process in the condenser (process
2-3) the liquid is subcooled, not saturated.
Advantages and Disadvantages of vapour Compression
Refrigeration System(VCR) overAir Refrigeration System

Advantages:
1. It has smaller size for the given capacity of
refrigeration.
2. It has less running cost.
3. It can be employed over a large range of
temperatures.
4. The co-efficiency of performance is quite high.

Disadvantages:
1. The initial cost is high
2. The prevention of leakage of the refrigeration is the major
problem in vapour compressor system
 Vapor Absorption Refrigeration System (1):
Some liquids like water have great affinity for absorbing large
quantities of certain vapors (NH3) and reduce the total volume
greatly. The absorption refrigeration system differs fundamentally
from vapor compression system only in the method of compressing
the refrigerant. An absorber, generator and pump in the
absorption refrigerating system replace the compressor of a vapor
compression system.

Figure shows the schematic diagram of a vapor absorption system.

Ammonia vapor is produced in the generator at high pressure
from the strong solution of NH3 by an external heating source.
The water vapor carried with ammonia is removed in the
rectifier and only the dehydrated ammonia gas enters into the
condenser. High pressure NH3 vapor is condensed in the
condenser.
Vapor Absorption Refrigeration System (2):

Fig. : VAR system

 Vapor Absorption Refrigeration System (3):
The cooled NH3 solution is passed through a throttle or
expansion valve and the pressure and temperature of the
refrigerant are reduced below the temperature to be maintained in
the evaporator.
The low temperature refrigerant enters the evaporator and
absorbs the required heat from the evaporator and leaves the
evaporator as saturated vapor.
Slightly superheated, low pressure NH3 vapor is absorbed by the
weak solution of NH3 which is sprayed in the absorber.
Weak NH3 solution (aqua–ammonia) entering the absorber
becomes strong solution after absorbing NH3 vapor and then it is
pumped to the generator through the heat exchanger or
regenerator. The pump increases the pressure of the strong
solution to generator pressure.
 Vapor Absorption Refrigeration System (4):

The strong NH3 solution coming from the absorber absorbs

heat form high temperature weak NH3 solution in the heat
exchanger.

The solution in the generator becomes weak as NH3 vapor

comes out of it.

The weak high temperature ammonia solution from the

generator is passed to the heat exchanger through the
throttle valve. The pressure of the liquid is reduced to the
absorber pressure by the throttle valve.
Comparison between Vapor Compression and Absorption system:
The comparison between VCR and VAR system are given below -

Absorption system (VAR) Compression System(VCR)

a) Uses low grade energy like heat. a) Using high-grade energy like mechanical
Therefore, may be worked on exhaust work.
systems from I.C engines, etc.
b) Moving parts are only in the pump, which b) Moving parts are in the compressor.
is a small element of the system. Hence Therefore, more wear, tear and noise.
operation is smooth.
c) The system can work on lower evaporator c) The COP decreases considerably with
pressures also without affecting the COP. decrease in evaporator pressure.
d) No effect of reducing the load on d) Performance is adversely affected at
performance. partial loads.
e) Liquid traces of refrigerant present in e) Liquid traces in suction line may damage
piping at the exit of evaporator constitute no the compressor.
danger.
f) Automatic operation for controlling the f) It is difficult.
capacity is easy.

Textile Engineering, KUET

Advantages of Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System(VAR)
over Vapour Compression Refrigeration System(VCR)
Advantages:
(1) In VAR, Uses low grade energy like heat. Therefore, may be worked on exhaust systems from
I.C engines, etc.
In VCR, Using high-grade energy like mechanical work.

(2)In VAR, Moving parts are only in the pump, which is a small element of the system. Hence
operation is smooth.
In VCR, Moving parts are in the compressor. Therefore, more wear, tear and noise.

(3) In VAR, The system can work on lower evaporator pressures also without affecting the COP.
In VCR, The COP decreases considerably with decrease in evaporator pressure.

(4)In VAR, No effect of reducing the load on performance.

In VCR, Performance is adversely affected at partial loads.

(5) In VAR, Liquid traces of refrigerant present in piping at the exit of evaporator constitute no
danger.
In VCR, Liquid traces in suction line may damage the compressor.

(6)In VAR,Automatic operation for controlling the capacity is easy.

In VCR, It is difficult to operate automatically.
 Air Conditioning system(1) :
Air Conditioning:

Air conditioning is the process of treating air

to control simultaneously its temperature ,
humidity, cleanliness and distribution to meet
design criteria for any space within a building.
Air conditioning may be applied to rise the
temperature of the space by heating or to lower
the temperature by cooling.
 Air Conditioning system(2) :
The air conditioning is the branch of engineering science which
deals with the study of conditioning of air for human comfort, in
its broad sense, also deals with the conditioning of air for
industrial purposes, food processing, storage of food and other
materials.

Human Comfort: By ASHRAE “ human comfort is that

condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment.”

ASHRAE: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-

Conditioning Engineers.
 Factors affecting Comfort Air Conditioning(1):
The four important factors for comfort air conditioning are discussed
below:
1. Temperature of air: In air Conditioning , the control of temperature
means the maintenance of any desired temperature within an
enclosed space even though the temperature of outside air is above
or below the desired room temperature. This is accomplished either
by addition or removal of heat from the enclosed space as and when
demanded. It may be noted that a human being feels comfortable
when the air is at 210C with 56% relative humidity.

2. Humidity of air: The control of air means the increasing or

decreasing of moisture contents of air during summer or winter
respectively in order to produce comfortable and healthy conditions.
The control of humidity is not only necessary for human comfort but
also increases the efficiency of workers. In general for summer AC
the relative humidity should be not less than 60% whereas for winter
AC it should not be more than 40%.
Summer: RH/< 60% and Winter: RH/> 40%.
 Factors affecting Comfort Air Conditioning(2):

3. Purity of air: It is an important factor for the comfort of a

human body. It has been noticed that people do not feel
comfortable when breathing contaminated air, even if it is
within acceptable temperature and humidity ranges. It is
thus obvious that proper filtration, cleaning and
purification of air is essential to keep it free from dust and
other impurities.

4. Motion of air : The motion or circulation of air is another

important factor which should be controlled, in order to
keep constant temperature throughout the conditioned
space. It is therefore necessary that there should be equi-
distribution of air throughout the space to be air
conditioned.
 Comfort Air Conditioning System:

It is concluded that:

 human being feels comfortable when the air is at 210C dry

bulb temperature with 56% (50% sometimes) relative
humidity.

 Humidity: Summer--- RH/< 60% and Winter---RH/> 40%.

 Air Conditioning System:

 The system which effectively controls the comfort conditions to

produce the desired effects upon the occupants of the space, is
known as an air conditioning system.

Equipments used in an air conditioning system:

Following are the main equipments or parts used in AC system-
1. Circulating Fan: to move air to and from the room
2. Air Conditioning units: consists of cooling and dehumidifying
processes for summer AC or heating and humidifying for winter AC.
3. Supply duct: directs the conditioned air from the circulating fan to the
space to be air conditioned at proper point.
4. Supply outlets: grills which distribute the conditioned air evenly in the
room.
5. Return outlets: the openings in a room surface which allow the room
air to enter the return duct.
6. Filters: to remove the dust, dirt and other harmful bacteria from the air.
 Classification of Air Conditioning System:

The air conditioning system may be broadly classified as follows:

1. According to the purpose-

(a) Comfort air conditioning system
(b) Industrial air conditioning system

2. According to season of the year-

(a) Winter air conditioning system
(b) Summer air conditioning system
(c) Year-round air conditioning system

3. According to the arrangement of equipment-

(a) Unitary air conditioning system
(b) Central air conditioning system
Summer Air conditioning System(1):
Summer Air conditioning System(2):

Fig. : Summer Air Conditioning System

Summer Air conditioning System(3):

Fig. : Summer Air Conditioning System

Winter Air Conditioning System(1):
Winter Air Conditioning System(2):

Fig.: Winter Air Conditioning System

Winter Air Conditioning System(3):

Fig.: Winter Air Conditioning System

Winter Air Conditioning System(Without Fan /Blower):
 Year Round Air Conditioning System

An year round air conditioning system should have

equipment for both the summer and winter air
conditioning. There can be so many combinations for
providing year round air conditioning. The arrangement
of the combination should such that one part is working
in winter and the other in summer. For example, heating
and humidification is needed in winter, where as cooling
and dehumidification is needed in summer.
(All year (complete) air conditioning systems: )Combined
Summer & Winter Air conditioning System:
 (All year (complete) air conditioning systems: )Combined
Summer & Winter Air conditioning System:
Figure 30.6 shows a complete air conditioning system that can be used for
providing air conditioning throughout the year, i.e., during summer as well as
winter. As shown in the figure, the system consists of a filter, a heating coil, a
cooling & dehumidifying coil, a re-heating coil, a humidifier and a blower. In
addition to these, actual systems consist of several other accessories such as
dampers for controlling flow rates of re-circulated and outdoor (OD) air, control
systems for controlling the space conditions, safety devices etc. Large air
conditioning systems use blowers in the return air stream also. Generally, during
summer the heating and humidifying coils remain inactive, while during winter
the cooling and dehumidifying coil remains inactive. However, in some
applications for precise control of conditions in the conditioned space all the coils
may have to be made active. The blowers will remain active throughout the year,
as air has to be circulated during summer as well as during winter. When the
outdoor conditions are favorable, it is possible to maintain comfort conditions by
using filtered outdoor air alone, in which case only the blowers will be running
and all the coils will be inactive leading to significant savings in energy
consumption. A control system is required which changes-over the system from
winter operation to summer operation or vice versa depending upon the outdoor
conditions.
Air Conditioning Plant:
Unitary Air Conditioner System: (Page 830 _Khurmi & Gupta_ Thermal Engg.)
Central Air Conditioning System:
Types:

(1) Split-system
An outdoor metal cabinet contains the condenser and
compressor, and an indoor cabinet contains the evaporator
(2) Packaged
The evaporator, condenser, and compressor are all located in
one cabinet

In another way -

(i) All water system

(ii) All Air system
(iii)Air-Water system
 Mathematics OR Problems:

Mathematics OR Problems:
Thermal Engineering By R.S. Khurmi and J.K. Gupta
Example 38.1 to 38.6
Chapter: 38
Page: 824 to 833
The End