Civil Construction and Quantity Estimation

EG 3102 GE
Year/Part: III/II
Diploma in Geometics Engineering (CTEVT)

Unit 1
Introduction

1.1 Definition of the Construction works

Construction Work means is to construct any project to fulfill the public needs and
demands like basic needs, entertainment, infrastructure within the safe, economical
and easy design with constraints of time and budget with uses of various resources.

Construction Work means all work performed under the Agreement in connection
with the erection, repair, renovation, maintenance, ornamentation or demolition of
buildings or structures, including the prefabrication of work performed in
plumbing workshops. Consult means more than one party telling another party
what it is that he or she is going to do. The word (or act) involves, at the very least,
the giving of information by the employer, the response to that information by
another other party (whether that party be the employees or the union) and the
consideration by the employer of that response. The right to be consulted is a
substantive right, it is not to be treated perfunctorily or as a mere formality.
Inherent in the obligation to consult is the requirement to provide a genuine
opportunity for the affected party to express a view about a proposed change in
order to seek to persuade the decision maker to adopt a different course of action.
contractor means a person, company or business and includes labour hire
companies and sub- contractors. Continuous service means a period of continuous
employment regardless of an employee’s absence from work for any of the
following reasons:

1. illness or accident up to a maximum of four (4) weeks after the expiration of

paid personal leave.
2. any paid leave entitlement taken (e.g. annual leave, jury service, public
holiday, personal leave, long service leave, etc.).
3. injury received during the course of employment and up to a maximum of
fifty-two (52) weeks for which the employee received workers’
compensation.
4. any other absence from work except where the employer notifies the
employee in writing that their service has been broken.
 5. for accrual of annual leave, see Clause 41 – Annual leave; and/or • any other
leave authorized by the employer or available under this Agreement.

1.2 Principle and Design of Construction works

1.2.1 The Five Construction Principles

1. Environmental Protection
Following the presented modern construction practice's environmental objectives,
one cultivated principle concentrates on protecting the environment against the
harsh impacts that a structure project can cause. The contractors are responsible for
ensuring their construction's minimal effect on the environment. In line with this,
here are some ways to make the project environmental-friendly:
 Cut down fuel consumption: Transporting building materials back and forth
and heavy machinery usage inside the construction site requires tons of fuel. As
many know, fossil fuel burning is one of the damaging causes of climate change.
Hence, whether small or big, contractors must badly consider a reduction. One
way to do it is by opting to use gas-electric powered trucks. Nowadays, there are
also electric vehicles that you optionally buy instead of diesel-driven and fume-
belching machinery.
 Design and build environmentally-conscious structures: Going green starts
early in the design stage. If the client is eager to build a sustainable building,
such as a modular home, the contractors' team can start presenting recycled or
natural building material options that produce less CO2 at the planning stage.
Considering the installation of energy-saving features, like solar panels and
windows for natural light, is also thought of at this phase. Furthermore, adding
intelligent appliances that help significantly reduce energy consumption in the
building, including thermostats or HVAC systems, should be considered.
Partnering these facilities with our HVAC access panels will help lessen energy
usage further and boost the structure's lasting value.
 Think of effective waste disposal methods: Based on the waste statistics
reported by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the construction and
engineering field significantly shares 530 million tons of waste every year.
Sadly, most of these are left piled up at the landfill. To help curtail these massive
numbers, project contractors must learn to reuse and recycle certain waste
materials, like concrete and steel.
 Always opt for sustainable building materials: Sustainable-produced materials
can make the entire structure eco-friendly. There are lots of environmentally
efficient materials that you can utilize as an alternative to harmful ones:
 Plastics
 Aluminum
 Steel
 Glass
 Concrete
 Timber
 Plaster
 Fiber glass
 Bamboo
 Clay

2. Safety
General contractors should equip the building team with the necessary gear and
tools to guarantee the safety of their workers and the whole construction site.
Contractors must make the proper wearing of Personal Protective Equipment
(PPE) a strict safety measures rule, including the following:
 Hard hats
 Safety glasses
 Hearing protection
 Safety gloves
 Safety boots
 Reflective clothing
Moreover, when climbing on elevated locations, they should be protectively
accompanied by ladders and safety rails to ensure safe task performance. Our
experts have developed special ladders and safety rail and gate systems as builder's
sturdy companions to access the highest point of the building project.

3. Speed
As much as possible, contractors should aim to finish the construction project on or
before the stated deadline. To accomplish this, general contractors should ensure
that the crew can complete tasks on time. However, certain circumstances will
challenge contractors in meeting the deadline, but with professional preparation,
they can surpass them beforehand. Some of the challenges you can anticipate are:
 Material and supply issues: Getting the exact quantity of materials needed in the
project as scheduled is honestly easier said than done, especially with statistics
showing that about 25% of all incomplete construction projects are due to late
material deliveries. Hence, contractors need to find the best supply or
manufacturer partner to do last-mile delivery so a reliable supplier can rescue
them and finish the task on time whenever the team's short of a specific material.
 Poor risk management: Contractors should anticipate and plan as a construction
project is a work surrounded with risks, such as:
 Construction errors
 Harsh weather conditions
 Changes in client demands and expectations
 4. Economy
Contractors have a budget to work on. Aside from materials and equipment
quality, they need to consider the cost of every item they purchase. Get a good
quality product at a low-cost price—this is the economic mentality of every
contractor. To ensure that the team is constantly working within the budget, you
must follow these tips:
 Identify project scope: The first step in ensuring you'll work within the proposed
budget is determining your project's range. This step will help you to calculate
precise initial cost estimates, allowing you to adjust or remove elements that
exceed the financial allocation.
 Establish consistent cost reporting: The contractors' team should schedule
regular cost reporting so everyone knows the current financial situation and
avoids overspending. When presenting cost reports, take note of these sections
specifically:
 Site maintenance
 Material orders
 Subcontractors
 Payroll
 Find cost-efficient alternatives: If a material is on-demand these days, causing its
price to surge, you should look for its cheaper but still highly functional option.
For instance, if buying heavy machinery is too much for your budget, you
should find a budget-friendly rental store that allows you to utilize the latest
models available.
Best Access Doors is your best source for finding supreme quality and budget-
friendly access doors and panels. Explore our 2023 Catalog to discover panel types
that work on your project's budget. Have certain products in mind? Submit
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5. Aesthetics
With the time spent planning, designing, and constructing, contractors should
guarantee clients that the finished structure appears architecturally pleasing.
Our aesthetic door with hidden flange is ideal for installation in establishments
with a clean, elegant, and professional look that can blend seamlessly with its
surroundings. What's catch is that it requires no mud and plaster, saving
contractors from further labor costs.

1.2.2 Design of Construction works

The design of construction is to construct the structure with cost savings and
optimized productivity, while also meeting functional requirements and style
preferences. The overall project vision is established during this phase, and
preliminary drawings are presented to the owner.
 Unit-2
Construction Materials

2.1 Types of Construction Materials

Construction materials can generally be classified into three main categories:
1. Structural
2. Non-structural
3. Specialty
Each of these categories plays a crucial role in the building process, serving
different functions and purposes. Understanding the supply chain is essential for
ensuring the availability and timely delivery of these materials, which is critical for
the success of any construction project.
So, let’s learn about these categories in detail:

1. Structural Materials
Structural materials form the backbone of every construction project, providing the
necessary support and stability to buildings and other structures. These materials
include concrete, steel bars, wood, and masonry, each possessing unique properties
and applications suited to different aspects of construction.

a. Concrete

Concrete is a fundamental construction material known for its strength and

versatility. It is widely used in various construction applications, including
building foundations. Due to its strength, concrete provides a solid and stable base
that is necessary to support the weight of the entire structure. It is also used in
constructing slabs, such as floors and driveways. Slabs are favoured for their
durability and ability to withstand heavy loads and traffic, which is essential in
areas subject to frequent use.

It is categorised into two primary types that are:

 Ready-mix: This concrete is prepared at a batch plant according to a set

recipe and then transported to a site in a rotating drum mixer. It’s used for
convenience and quality control and is ideal for large-scale construction
projects where consistency and timely delivery are critical.
  Precast Concrete: It is manufactured in a controlled environment and
transported as ready-to-install components. It is used for specific, repetitive
elements like floor slabs, staircases, or wall panels. This method ensures
faster construction times and better quality control.

b. Steel
Steel is a major structural material valued for its strength, flexibility, and fire
resistance. It is adaptable to various architectural designs and structural
requirements. It offers advantages, like high tensile strength and the ability to
withstand seismic forces, which make it indispensable in high-rise buildings,
bridges, and industrial structures.
There are different sections of steel bars, such as:

 Beams: Typically used to support floors or roofs.

 Columns: Employed to carry compressive loads, making up the vertical
supports of structures.

c. Wood

Wood is considered natural and renewable, as it offers a combination of

aesthetic appeal and structural capability. It is used for framing, roofing, and
adding aesthetic value to interiors and exteriors through finishes and
furnishings.

There are various types of wood used in construction, such as:

Lumber: Solid wood is commonly used for framing due to its strength and
flexibility.

Engineered Wood: These include products such as plywood, oriented strand

board (OSB), and glue-laminated timber (glulam), offering extra durability and
resistance to environmental factors.
 d. Masonry

Masonry construction involves assembling units of materials such as bricks and

blocks with mortar. It is valued for its durability, fire resistance, and thermal mass,
making it ideal for walls, chimneys, and decorative elements. All these materials
contribute to the diverse possibilities in construction, catering to different structural
needs and aesthetic preferences.

Masonry types include:

Bricks: Typically made of clay, they are used for their durability and aesthetic
appearance.

Concrete Blocks: Larger than bricks and are used in foundations and load-bearing
walls.
 2. Non-Structural Materials

Non-structural materials are vital for a building’s finishing, insulation, and

aesthetics, often contributing significantly to its energy efficiency and comfort.
These materials include a wide range of products suited for roofing, insulation,
interior finishes, and installing doors and windows.

There are various types of Non-Structural Materials, which include:

a. Roofing Materials

Roofing materials are critical for protecting a building from the elements and can
affect its aesthetic appeal and energy efficiency. There are various standard roofing
options, which include:

Asphalt Shingles: They are the most popular roofing material in many regions.
They are valued for their cost-effectiveness and straightforward installation. They
are suitable for various residential projects and come in various colours and styles.
Metal Roofing: Metal Roofing is mainly known for its durability and resistance to
extreme weather. It is the best choice for residential and commercial buildings. It
reflects solar radiant heat, which can help reduce cooling costs and is recyclable,
enhancing its environmental appeal.

Green Roofs: Green roofs are part of an eco-friendly approach to roofing, where
the roof is partially or completely covered with vegetation placed over a
waterproofing membrane. They are excellent for urban environments and provide
insulation, reduce stormwater runoff, and also help to combat the heat island effect.

b. Insulation Materials

Proper insulation is crucial for maintaining a building’s thermal efficiency,

comfort, and energy consumption. There are various types of insulation, such as:
Fibreglass: Comprising fine glass fibres, fibreglass is commonly used in batts,
rolls, and loose-fill insulation. It is non-flammable and effective at minimising heat
transfer, making it ideal for residential and commercial walls, attics, and floors.

Spray Foam: This insulation forms an airtight seal and is excellent for filling gaps
and reducing air leakage. It comes in open-cell and closed-cell forms, the latter
providing higher R-value per inch for greater thermal resistance and strength.

c. Interior Finishes

Interior finishes enhance the aesthetic appeal and functionality of indoor spaces.
You can see various interior materials such as:

Walls: Drywall is widely used due to its quick installation and smooth finish,
which makes it suitable for painting or wallpapering. Plaster, though more labour-
intensive, provides a durable and high-quality finish.

Ceilings: Options include plaster for a seamless finish and suspended ceilings,
which allow easy access to ducts and wiring while providing sound dampening.

Flooring: Choices range from ceramic tiles and hardwood, which add elegance
and durability, to carpet, which offers warmth and comfort underfoot.
 d. Doors and Windows
The materials used for doors and windows impact a building’s energy efficiency,
security, and aesthetics, and there are different types of door and window materials
available, such as:

Wood: Offers natural beauty and insulation properties but requires maintenance to
prevent weathering.

Steel: Highly secure and durable, ideal for exterior doors.

Vinyl: Common for windows, it offers excellent thermal insulation and is resistant
to moisture and decay.

3. Speciality Materials

Specialty materials in construction include a variety of innovative and function-

specific products designed to enhance the performance, sustainability, and
aesthetics of buildings. These include advanced glass and glazing options,
geotechnical materials for soil and foundation stability, and sustainable materials
that support environmental conservation.

Glass and Glazing

Architectural glass is a critical material in modern construction. It is known for its

transparency and ability to admit natural light while providing insulation and
energy efficiency. Designers use it in a variety of ways, such as in windows, where
it offers beautiful views and light access, and in curtain walls, where it creates
striking glass facades.

Different types of glazing techniques are:

Double Glazing: Includes two layers of glass with an air or gas-filled space
between them, significantly improving thermal and acoustic insulation.

Low-Emissive (Low-E) Glazing: This glass has a microscopically thin coating that
reflects heat, keeping spaces warm in winter and cold in summer and reducing UV
light transmission.
 2.1 Characteristics of brick, stones, aggregates, cement, steel
and timber
A. Bricks

1. Size:- Ns Standard 230mm*115mm*57mm and Is Standard

190mm*90mm*90mm
2. Shape:- Proper Rectangular shape with sharp edges.
3. Color:- Good brick must possess uniform color which may be either deep red
or cherry. The uniformity in color of bricks represents uniformity in chemical
composition and homogeneous burning of brick.
4. Texture: The surface of the brick must not be too smooth. Excess
smoothness of the bricks result in slipping of mortar.
5. Compactness: The fractured surface of brick should not show fissures, holes
or lumps.
6. Compressive strength: The crushing strength of the brick must not be less
than 3.5 N/mm2. The compressive strength test of brick is determined using
Compression Testing Machine
7. Hardness Scratch the brick with a finer nail. The quality of the brick is
considered as good when no impression is to be left on its surface.
8. Soundness: Strike two bricks against each other. If a metallic ringing sound
is produced, then the bricks are of good quality. A good quality brick must be
able withstand severe weather condition.
9. Toughness: The brick should not break into pieces when dropped flat on
hard ground from a height of about 1 m or 1.2 m.
10. Water absorption: Water absorption of brick must be limited to 20% or 1/5
of the weight of the brick, whichever is lesser. Determine the water
absorption of brick by either 24 hours immersion cold water test or 5 hours
boiling water test.
11. Expansion: When wetted with water, the bricks should undergo minimum
change in volume.
12. Extent of burning during manufacturing: The bricks should neither
be under burnt nor be over burnt.
13. Thermal conductivity: The thermal conductivity of the bricks must be low
so that houses constructed using them are cool in summer and hot in winter.
14. Efflorescence: Soak the brick in water for 24 hours and dry it in shade. The
absence of white patches on brick surface indicates that the quality of brick is
good. The formation of white patches is due to the presence of excess soluble
salts (like sulphates of sodium, magnesium, calcium, potassium, etc.,).
Determine the formation of white patches by using Efflorescence Test.
15. Good brick earth: The earth used for manufacturing brick must be free
from pebbles, stones, organic matter and harmful chemicals.

B. Stones
There is no single stone which satisfies all the characteristics or qualities of
good building stones. The qualities of the stones which are used for different
purpose varies based on the nature of work for which the stones are selected.
Although a stone does not meet all the requirements of a good building stone,
the parameters for classifying it as a good building stone are as follows:

1. Appearance & Colour

 The stones which are to be used for face work must be decent in appearance.
 The stones used for architectural purposes must be capable of preserving the
uniformity of colour for a longer time.
 A good stone must be free from clay holes, bands or spots of colour.
 The stones should also have the ability to receive good polish.
 The stones used in exposed positions must be light coloured rather than dark
coloured as the durability of dark coloured stones are less than light coloured
stones.
 The red and brown shades of sedimentary rocks are due to the presence of
excess of oxides of iron. The presence of oxides of iron is responsible for
causing rust stains. This also results in disintegration. Hence, a good building
stone must possess less concentration of oxides of iron.
 2. Durability
 A good building stone must be durable. The durability of a stone depends
upon the structural formation, chemical composition and cementing material.
 A good building stone must be capable of resisting the adverse effects of
natural forces like wind, rain and heat.
 A stone is said to be durable if it is compact, homogeneous, free from any
material affected by hydrochloric and sulphuric acids and possess negligible
water absorption.
 The stones used in building possess good weathering quality if the sharp
edges and corners are preserved and if the chisel marks on the stone faces are
distinctly visible.
 Hardness
 The stones used in floors, pavements, aprons of bridges and weirs of rivers
must be able to resist abrasive forces caused by movement of men and
materials over them. Such stones are to be tested for hardness.
 A good building stone must be sufficiently hard. Mohs scale of hardness aids
in finding the hardness of the stone.
 For a good building stone, the percentage of wear must be less than 3%.
 The coefficient of hardness, determined using the hardness test (Dory’s
testing Machine), must be greater than 17 for a stone to be used in road work.
The stone is of medium hardness if its hardness value is between 14 and 17.
If the hardness value is less than 14, then the hardness of the stone is said to
be poor. The stone with poor hardness must not be used in road work.
 Crushing Strength
 Stones used in the structures are usually subjected to compressive load.
Hence, a good building stone must be strong in compression. A good
building stone must possess high strength to resist the load coming over it.
 Generally all the stones possess a considerable degree of strength to be used
for building construction. But for the construction of heavy structures, the
crushing strength of the stones are to be tested before use.
 Stones having compact fine crystalline texture are stronger. Igneous rocks are
more stronger than sedimentary rocks.
 The compressive strength of the most building stones lie between 60 and 200
N/mm2. For a good structural stone, the crushing strength must be greater
than 100 N/mm2.



 Stone  Crushing Strength (N/mm2)

 Basalt  150 to 185
 Stone  Crushing Strength (N/mm2)
 Diorite  90 to 150
 Granite  75 to 127
 Syenite  90 to 150
 Trap  330 to 380
 Laterite  1.8 to 3.1
 Limestone  54
 Sandstone  64
 Shale  0.2 to 0.6
 Gneiss  206 to 370
 Slate  75 to 207
 Toughness
 Toughness of the stones is the ability to resist impact forces.
 A good building stone must possess sufficient toughness to sustain stresses
developed due to vibrations. The vibrations in the structure may be due to the
presence of machineries or due to the moving loads.
 The road construction demands the use of tougher stone aggregates.
 The toughness of a stone is determined by impact test. Stones having
toughness index between 13 and 19 are medium tough while the stones with
toughness index less than 13 are poor stones.
 Specific Gravity
 The specific gravity of building stone depends on its weight and strength. The
heavier and stronger the stone, more is its specific gravity.
 The specific gravity of good building stone must be between 2.4 and 2.8.
Stones of specific gravity less than 2.4 are unsuitable for building
construction.
 The stones of higher specific gravity must be used for the construction of
dams, retaining walls, docks and harbours as they are more compact and less
porous. But, lighter stones are preferred for the construction of domes, roofs,
etc.,
 Dressing
 Dressing is the process of giving definite shape to the stones. The process of
dressing a good building stone must be easy and also the cost of dressing
must be low.
 A good stone must possess uniform texture and softness so that it can be
easily dressed.


 Seasoning
 Good stones must be free from quarry sap. This process of removing quarry
sap by the action of nature is termed as seasoning.
 Seasoning of stones is essential before use.
 Workability
 Stones are said to be workable if the work involved in cutting, dressing and
shaping of stones is economical and easy to conduct. But, the property of
workability is opposing to strength, durability and hardness.
 A good building stone must be readily workable.
 Cost
 A good building stone must be economical.
 The location of quarry site from the construction site influences the cost of
the stones. Hence, quarry site must be in a considerable distance from the
construction site.
 Fire Resistance
 A good building stone must be fire resistant. For a stone to be fire resistant, it
must be free from calcium carbonate, oxides of iron and minerals having
different coefficients of thermal expansion.
 Igneous rocks possess less fire resistance than sedimentary rocks due to the presence
of quartz. The sandstone containing silicates as binding material has better fire
 resisting property. The argillaceous stones have lesser strength, but they can
resist fire quite well.
 Structure
 A good stone must be such that when broken in any direction other than that
of cleavage, the appearance of the stone must not be dull and must possess
uniform texture.
 A good building stone must possess unstratified structure. Stratified rocks will split
up along the plane of stratification, if not properly placed.
 The stratifications in rocks, if present must not be visible to the naked eye.
 A good building stone must possess fine grained texture.

3. Heaviness
 Heavier stones are more compact, less porous and possess high specific
gravity.
 A good building stone must be heavy. This is because, the weight of stone
indirectly represents the porosity of the stone.
4. Porosity
 A good building stone must be less porous as lesser the porosity greater will
be the compactness.
 Stones with more pores are unsuitable for construction as the water seeping
into pores react with acids and fumes. This destroys the stone. Also, water
may freeze at colder climate and hence split the stone.
 5. Water Absorption
 The water absorption of a good building stone must be less than 0.6% by
weight.
C. Cement

Properties of Cement- Physical & Chemical

Cement, a popular binding material, is a very important civil engineering material.

This article concerns the physical and chemical properties of cement, as well as the
methods to test cement properties.

A. Physical Properties of Cement

Different blends of cement used in construction are characterized by their physical
properties. Some key parameters control the quality of cement. The physical
properties of good cement are based on:

 Fineness of cement
 Soundness
 Consistency
 Strength
 Setting time
 0Heat of hydration
 Loss of ignition
 Bulk density
  Specific gravity (Relative density)
These physical properties are discussed in details in the following segment. Also,
you will find the test names associated with these physical properties.

1. Fineness of Cement
The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required fineness of
good cement is achieved through grinding the clinker in the last step of
cement production process. As hydration rate of cement is directly related to
the cement particle size, fineness of cement is very important.

2. Soundness of Cement
Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening. Good
quality cement retains its volume after setting without delayed expansion, which is
caused by excessive free lime and magnesia.
Tests:
Unsoundness of cement may appear after several years, so tests for ensuring
soundness must be able to determine that potential.

 Le Chatelier Test
This method, done by using Le Chatelier Apparatus, tests the expansion of
cement due to lime. Cement paste (normal consistency) is taken between
glass slides and submerged in water for 24 hours at 20+1°C. It is taken out to
measure the distance between the indicators and then returned underwater,
brought to boil in 25-30 mins and boiled for an hour. After cooling the
device, the distance between indicator points is measured again. In a good
quality cement, the distance should not exceed 10 mm.

 Autoclave Test
Cement paste (of normal consistency) is placed in an autoclave (high-
pressure steam vessel) and slowly brought to 2.03 MPa, and then kept there
for 3 hours. The change in length of the specimen (after gradually bringing
the autoclave to room temperature and pressure) is measured and expressed
in percentage. The requirement for good quality cement is a maximum of
0.80% autoclave expansion.
Standard autoclave test: AASHTO T 107 and ASTM C 151: Autoclave
Expansion of Portland Cement.
 3. Consistency of Cement
The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency.
It is measured by Vicat Test.
In Vicat Test Cement paste of normal consistency is taken in the Vicat
Apparatus. The plunger of the apparatus is brought down to touch the top
surface of the cement. The plunger will penetrate the cement up to a certain
depth depending on the consistency. A cement is said to have a normal
consistency when the plunger penetrates 10±1 mm.

4. Strength of Cement
Three types of strength of cement are measured – compressive, tensile and
flexural. Various factors affect the strength, such as water-cement ratio, cement-
fine aggregate ratio, curing conditions, size and shape of a specimen, the manner of
molding and mixing, loading conditions and age. While testing the strength, the
following should be considered:

 Cement mortar strength and cement concrete strength are not directly
related. Cement strength is merely a quality control measure.
 The tests of strength are performed on cement mortar mix, not on cement
paste.
 Cement gains strength over time, so the specific time of performing the test
should be mentioned.

5. Compressive Strength
It is the most common strength test. A test specimen (50mm) is taken and
subjected to a compressive load until failure. The loading sequence must be within
20 seconds and 80 seconds.
Standard tests:

i. AASHTO T 106 and ASTM C 109: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement

Mortars (Using 50-mm or 2-in. Cube Specimens)
ii. ASTM C 349: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using
Portions of Prisms Broken in Flexure)

6. Tensile strength
Though this test used to be common during the early years of cement production,
now it does not offer any useful information about the properties of cement.
 7. Flexural strength
This is actually a measure of tensile strength in bending. The test is performed in a
40 x40 x 160 mm cement mortar beam, which is loaded at its center point until
failure.
Standard test:

i. ASTM C 348: Flexural Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars

8. Setting Time of Cement

Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time can vary
depending on multiple factors, such as fineness of cement, cement-water ratio,
chemical content, and admixtures. Cement used in construction should have an
initial setting time that is not too low and a final setting time not too high. Hence,
two setting times are measured:

 Initial set: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically occurs
within 30-45 minutes)
 Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load
(occurs below 10 hours)

Again, setting time can also be an indicator of hydration rate.

Standard Tests:

i. AASHTO T 131 and ASTM C 191: Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by

Vicat Needle
ii. AASHTO T 154: Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Gillmore Needles
iii. ASTM C 266: Time of Setting of Hydraulic-Cement Paste by Gillmore
Needles

9. Heat of Hydration
When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called hydration.
Hydration generates heat, which can affect the quality of the cement and also be
beneficial in maintaining curing temperature during cold weather. On the other
hand, when heat generation is high, especially in large structures, it may cause
undesired stress. The heat of hydration is affected most by C 3S and C3A present in
cement, and also by water-cement ratio, fineness and curing temperature. The heat
of hydration of Portland cement is calculated by determining the difference
between the dry and the partially hydrated cement (obtained by comparing these at
7th and 28th days).
Standard Test:
ASTM C 186: Heat of Hydration of Hydraulic Cement

10. Loss of Ignition

Heating a cement sample at 900 - 1000°C (that is, until a constant weight is
obtained) causes weight loss. This loss of weight upon heating is calculated as loss
of ignition. Improper and prolonged storage or adulteration during transport or
transfer may lead to pre-hydration and carbonation, both of which might be
indicated by increased loss of ignition.
Standard Test:
AASHTO T 105 and ASTM C 114: Chemical Analysis of Hydraulic Cement

11. Bulk density

When cement is mixed with water, the water replaces areas where there would
normally be air. Because of that, the bulk density of cement is not very important.
Cement has a varying range of density depending on the cement composition
percentage. The density of cement may be anywhere from 62 to 78 pounds per
cubic foot.

12. Specific Gravity (Relative Density)

Specific gravity is generally used in mixture proportioning calculations. Portland
cement has a specific gravity of 3.15, but other types of cement (for example,
portland-blast-furnace-slag and portland-pozzolan cement) may have specific
gravities of about 2.90.
Standard Test:
AASHTO T 133 and ASTM C 188: Density of Hydraulic Cement

B. Chemical Properties of Cement

The raw materials for cement production are limestone (calcium), sand or clay
(silicon), bauxite (aluminum) and iron ore, and may include shells, chalk, marl,
shale, clay, blast furnace slag, slate. Chemical analysis of cement raw materials
provides insight into the chemical properties of cement.

1. Tricalcium aluminate (C3A)

Low content of C3A makes the cement sulfate-resistant. Gypsum reduces
the hydration of C3A, which liberates a lot of heat in the early stages of
hydration. C3A does not provide any more than a little amount of strength.
 Type I cement: contains up to 3.5% SO3 (in cement having more than 8%
C3A)
Type II cement: contains up to 3% SO3 (in cement having less than 8% C3A)
2. Tricalcium silicate (C3S)
C3S causes rapid hydration as well as hardening and is responsible for the
cement’s early strength gain an initial setting.
3. Dicalcium silicate (C2S)
As opposed to tricalcium silicate, which helps early strength gain, dicalcium
silicate in cement helps the strength gain after one week.
4. Ferrite (C4AF)
Ferrite is a fluxing agent. It reduces the melting temperature of the raw
materials in the kiln from 3,000°F to 2,600°F. Though it hydrates rapidly, it
does not contribute much to the strength of the cement.
5. Magnesia (MgO)
The manufacturing process of Portland cement uses magnesia as a raw
material in dry process plants. An excess amount of magnesia may make
the cement unsound and expansive, but a little amount of it can add
strength to the cement. Production of MgO-based cement also causes less
CO2 emission. All cement is limited to a content of 6% MgO.
6. Sulphur trioxide
Sulfur trioxide in excess amount can make cement unsound.
7. Iron oxide/ Ferric oxide
Aside from adding strength and hardness, iron oxide or ferric oxide is
mainly responsible for the color of the cement.
8. Alkalis
The amounts of potassium oxide (K2O) and sodium oxide (Na2O) determine
the alkali content of the cement. Cement containing large amounts of alkali
can cause some difficulty in regulating the setting time of cement. Low
alkali cement, when used with calcium chloride in concrete, can cause
discoloration. In slag-lime cement, ground granulated blast furnace slag is
not hydraulic on its own but is "activated" by addition of alkalis. There is an
optional limit in total alkali content of 0.60%, calculated by the equation
Na2O + 0.658 K2O.
9. Free lime
Free lime, which is sometimes present in cement, may cause expansion.
10.Silica fumes
Silica fume is added to cement concrete in order to improve a variety of
properties, especially compressive strength, abrasion resistance and bond
strength. Though setting time is prolonged by the addition of silica fume, it
can grant exceptionally high strength. Hence, Portland cement containing
5-20% silica fume is usually produced for Portland cement projects that
require high strength.
 11.Alumina
Cement containing high alumina has the ability to withstand frigid
temperatures since alumina is chemical-resistant. It also quickens the
setting but weakens the cement.

D. Steel
The Key Properties of Abrasion Resistant Steel are as follows:-

1. Hardness
Hardness, the measure of a material’s ability to withstand friction and abrasion, is
the cornerstone of wear resistance. It defines the material’s resilience to wear and
tear. It’s worth noting that hardness might seem synonymous with strength and
toughness, but in the context of abrasion resistant steel, they differ significantly.
2. Toughness
Toughness is generally defined as the ability to absorb energy without fracturing or
rupturing. It also signifies a material’s resistance to fracture when stressed.
Measured in foot pounds per square inch or Joules per square centimeter,
toughness is a critical aspect to consider. It’s important to differentiate toughness
from hardness; a material that deforms significantly without breaking might be
extremely tough but not necessarily hard.
3. Yield Strength
Yield strength is the measure of force required to initiate the deformation of the
material, such as bending or warping. It signifies the point at which the material
transitions from elastic to plastic deformation.
4. Tensile Strength
Tensile strength is the measure of force required to break the material. It provides
insights into the overall durability and tensile capacity of the steel.
5. Elongation (or Ductility)
Elongation, or ductility, quantifies the degree to which the material can be
stretched or compressed before reaching its breaking point. Expressed as a
percentage, it falls between the tensile strength and yield strength, indicating the
material’s flexibility before failure. Its value is of minimum of 14 percent.
 E. Timber
Timber is a naturally occurring material and is used for several engineering

purposes. From tall tower blocks and bridges to doors and windows and interior
decoration- timber structures find their application everywhere. What becomes

extremely essential is the choice of good quality timber for construction. Here in
this article, we discuss some factors based on which good timber is characterized.

Characteristics of Good Timber

A timber is said to be good based on the following characteristics:

1. Durability
2. Strength
3. Permeability
4. Hardness
5. Toughness
6. Elasticity
7. Workability
8. Weight
9. Structure
10.Defects
11.Fire resistance
12.Mechanical wear
13.Appearance
14.Colour
15.Shape
16.Smell
17.Sound
1. Durability

Durability is the first priority for any kind of engineering material. A good timber

should be durable enough to resist the actions of chemical agents, biological

agents, physical agencies, etc. However, wood is weak against the actions of strong
acids and alkalis but it can withstand weak acids and alkali solution.

2. Strength

Strength is the resistance against failure. A good timber should not fail easily and it

should be strong enough to take loads acting on it. The strength of timber varies
depending on the direction (transverse or direct) it is loaded. Strength is considered
as an important property while designing structural wood members such as wooden

beams, joists, rafters, etc.

Fig 1: Wood Trusses

3. Permeability

The permeability of timber should be less. A good timber should not absorb more

than 8 to 12% of water by its weight when placed in water. The water permeability

of timber depends upon various factors such as moisture content of timber, age of
timber, type of timber, type of cut, etc.

Fig 2: Timber Logs in Water

4. Hardness

Hardness is the resistance against penetration. Good timber should be hard and

workable. The hardness of timber depends upon its density and heartwood

properties. Stronger is the heartwood higher is the hardness of timber.

 Fig 3: Driving Nail into Timber

5. Toughness

Toughness is the resistance against sudden shocks and vibrations. A good timber
should be tough enough to resist sudden impact loads and vibrations. The
toughness of timber is improved by the good interlocking of grains in its structure.

A good tough timber is used to make handles of different tools, parts of

automobiles, etc.

Fig 4: Tools with Wood Handles

6. Elasticity

A good timber should be elastic. Elasticity is the property of regaining its original

shape after deformation causing loads are removed. A good elastic timber is used

to make sports items, shafts, bows, etc.

Fig 5: Wooden Baseball Bat

7. Workability

Workability of timber is the ease with which it can cut into the required shape. A
good timber is easily workable. It should not damage or block the teeth of the saw

during cutting.
 Fig 6: Cutting of Timber

8. Weight

The timber should be heavy as much as it looks. A timber is said to be good if it

weighs heavy. Lightweight timbers are less in strength and unsound.

Fig 7: Heavy Timber Logs

9. Structure

A timber with uniform structure is said to be a good timber. The fibers of timber

should be straight and firm. The annual rings of timber should be closely located

indicating the fact that the tree is mature enough to use it for making timber
products. The medullary rays should be hard and compact. In general, an age of 50

to 100 years is considered a good age for felling of trees.

Fig 8: Structure of Timber

10. Defects

A timber is said to be good when it is free from defects caused by natural forces

such as burls, knots, shakes, etc. and also it should be free from various fungal
defects such as blue stain, dry rot, wet rot. etc.
 Fig 9: Blue Stain of Timber due to Fungi Attack

11. Fire resistance

Fire-resistance of timber is very low. Of all the timber types, dense wood offers the
most resistance against fire but up to certain limit only. The thermal conductivity

of timber depends upon various factors such as moisture content, density, porosity,

etc.

Fig 10: Burnt Wood

12. Mechanical Wear

Wooden floors, pavements, etc. made of timber are continuously subjected to

traffic loads. Hence, good timber should not deteriorate easily against mechanical

wear or abrasion.

Fig 11: Wood Flooring

13. Appearance

The appearance of a good timber should be shiny when it is freshly sawed. This
shining appearance is due to resinous matter present in the timber. The appearance
of timber depends upon the arrangement of cells in its structure. If they are

arranged in a uniform manner, the uniform appearance will be obtained after

cutting. Fungal defects such as blue stain, sap stain, etc. damage the appearance of
timber.
14. Color

The strength of timber can be estimated by looking at its color. Light color

designates low strength timber while dark color indicates high strength timber.

Hence, dark-colored timber is preferable for engineering works.

Fig 12: Color of Timber

15. Shape

The shape of timber should not be disturbed while cutting and seasoning. A bad
timber may bow or warp or split during conversion.

Fig 13: Warped Wood

16. Smell

The smell of a good timber is sweet. Bad or unpleasant smell indicates decayed

timber.

17. Sound

The velocity of sound in timber (hardwood) is approximately 12 times more than

that in the air. Hence, a good timber should produce clear ringing sound when

struck. This is the reason why many musical instruments are made of wood. A dull

heavy sound designates decayed timber.

 Unit 3

Building Construction

3.1 Building Elements (Foundation & Superstructure (walls, flooring,

roofing, doors and
windows)

The following are the

basic elements of a
building:
1. Foundation
2. Plinth
3. Walls and columns
4. Sills, lintels and chejjas
5. Doors and windows
6. Floors
7. Roofs
8. Steps, stairs and lifts
9. Finishing work
10. Building services.

The functions of these

elements and the main
requirement of them is
presented in this article.

1. Foundation: Foundation
is the most important part of
the building. Building
activity starts with digging
the ground for foundation
and then building it. It is the
lower most part of the
building. It transfers the load
of the building to the ground.
Its main functions and
requirements are:
(a) Distribute the load from the structure to soil evenly and safely.
(b) To anchor the building to the ground so that under lateral loads building will
not move.
(c) It prevents the building from overturning due to lateral forces.
(d) It gives level surface for the construction of super structure.

2. Plinth: The portion of the wall between the ground level and the ground floor
level is called plinth. It is usually of stone masonry. If the foundation is on piles, a
plinth beam is cast to support wall above floor level. At the top of plinth a damp
proof course is provided. It is usually 75 mm thick plain concrete course.
The function of the plinth is to keep the ground floor above ground level, free of
dampness. Its height is not less than 450 mm. It is required that plinth level is at
least 150 mm above the road level, so that connections to underground drainage
system can be made.

3. Walls and Columns: The function of walls and columns is to transfer the load
of the structure vertically downwards to transfer it to foundation. Apart from this
wall performs the following functions
also:
(a) It encloses building area into different compartments and provides privacy.
(b) It provides safety from burglary and insects.
(c) It keeps the building warm in winter and cool in summer.

4. Sills, Lintels and Chejjas: A window frame should not be directly placed over
masonry. It is placed over 50 mm to 75 mm thick plain concrete course provided
over the masonry. This course is called as sill. Lintels are the R.C.C. or stone
beams provided over the door and window openings to transfer the load
transversely so as to see that door or window frame is not stressed unduly. The
width of lintels is equal to the width of wall while thickness to be provided
depends upon the opening size.
Chejja is the projection given outside the wall to protect doors and windows from
the rain. They are usually made with R.C.C. In low cost houses stone slabs are
provided as chejjas. The projection of
chejja varies from 600 mm to 800 mm. Sometimes drops are also provided to
chejjas to improve acsethetic look and also to get additional protection from sun
and rain.

5. Doors and Windows: The function of a door is to give access to different

rooms in the building and to deny the access whenever necessary. Number of doors
should be minimum possible.
The size of the door should be of such dimension as will facilitate the movement of
the largest object likely to use the door.
Windows are provided to get light and ventilation in the building. They are located
at a height of 0.75 m to 0.9 m from the floor level. In hot and humid regions, the
window area should be 15 to 20 per cent of the floor area. Another thumb rule used
to determine the size and the number of windows is for every 30 m3 of inside
volume there should be 1 m2 window opening.

6. Floors: Floors are the important component of a building. They give

working/useful area for the occupants. The ground floor is prepared by filling brick
bats, waste stones, gravel and well compacted with not less than 100 mm sand
layer on its top. A lean concrete of 1 : 4 : 8, 100 mm thick is laid. On this a damp
proof course may be provided. Then floor finishing is done as per the requirement
of the owner.
Cheapest floor finish for a moderate house is with 20 to 25 mm rich mortar course
finished with red oxide. The costliest floor finish is mossaic or marble finishing.

7. Roof: Roof is the top most portion of the building which provide top cover to
the building. It should be leak proof.
Sloping roof like tiled and A.C. sheet give leak proof cover easily. But they do not
give provision for the construction of additional floor. Tiled roof give good thermal
protection.
Flat roofs give provision for additional floors. Terrace adds to the comfort of
occupants. Water tanks can be easily placed over the flat roofs.

8. Step, Stairs and Lifts: Steps give convenient access from ground level to
ground floor level.
They are required at doors in the outer wall. 250 to 300 mm wide and 150 mm rise
is ideal size for steps. In no case the size of two consecutive steps be different.
Number of steps required depends upon the difference in the levels of the ground
and the floor. Stairs give access from floor to floor. They
should consists of steps of uniform sizes.
In hostels G + 3 floors can be built without lifts, but in residential flats maximum
floors permitted without lifts is only G + 2. Lift is to be located near the entrance.
Size of the lift is decided by the number of users in peak hours. Lifts are available
with capacity 4 to 20 persons.

9. Finishing: Bottom portion of slab (ceiling), walls and top of floor need smooth
finishing with plaster. Then they are provided with white wash, distemper or paints
or tiles. The function of finishing work is:
(a) Give protective cover
(b) Improve aesthetic view
(c) Rectify defective workmanship
(d) Finishing work for plinth consists in pointing while for floor it consists in
polishing.
10. Building Services: Water supply, sanitation and drainage works, electric
supply work and construction of cupboards and show cases constitute major
building services.
For storing water from municipal supply or from tanker a sump is built in the
house property near street. From the sump water is pumped to over head tanks
placed on or above roof level so as to get water all the 24 hours. Plumbing work is
made so as to get water in kitchen, bathrooms, water closets, sinks and garden taps.
For draining rain water from roofs, down take pipes of at least 100 mm diameters
should be used. Proper slopes should be given to roof towards down take pipe.
These pipes should be fixed at 10 to 15 mm below the roof surface so that rain
water is directed to the down take pipe easily.
The sanitary fittings are to be connected to stone ware pipes with suitable traps and
chambers.
Stone ware pipes are then connected to underground drainage of municipal lines or
to the septic tank.
Many carpentry works are required for building service. They are in the form of
showcases, cupboards, racks etc.
Electric supply is essential part of building services. The building should be
provided with sufficient points for supply of lights, fans and other electric gadgets.

3.2 Stone Masonary (Coursed/Uncoursed, Random Rubble and

Ashlar)
When stones are used as building units, the masonry is called stone masonry. This
article is about stone masonry, types of stone used in stone masonry, specifications
of stone masonry, etc.

Stone is a natural material derived from rocks. It has no definite shape but is a
mixture of two or more minerals. Masonry is the construction of building units
bonded together with mortar.

Types of stone masonry

a) Rubble masonry
In rubble masonry, the blocks of stones that are used are either undressed or
comparatively roughly dressed. The masonry has wide joints since stones of
irregular size are used.
i) Random rubble
• Un-coursed

It is the roughest and the cheapest form of stonewalling. Since stones are not of
uniform shape and size, they are arranged with great care so as to distribute
pressure over the maximum area and at the same time avoid long vertical joints.

Fig. Stone masonry wall

• Built to course

It is similar to un-coursed except that the work is roughly leveled up to form

courses 30 to 45 cm thick.

Fig.1. Uncoursed and Built to course

ii) Square rubble

• Un-coursed

Stones having straight beds and sides are arranged in an irregular pattern to give a
good appearance and avoid the formation of long, continuous joints.
• Built to course

Stones having straight beds and sides are leveled up to form courses of varying
depth.

• Regular course

Stones having straight beds and sides are leveled up to form courses of varying
depth but the height of stones in each course is the same.

Fig2. Unsourced built on course Regular coursed

iii) Miscellaneous type rubble

. Polygonal rubble masonry
In this type, stones are hammer-finished on the face to an irregular polygonal
shape.

If stones are roughly shaped to form rough fitting, such a work is called rough
picked work. If stones are carefully shaped to form close fitting such a work is
called close-picked work.

• Flint rubble masonry

In this type, the main material is ―flints or cobbles‖ and is used that have varied in
width and thickness from 7.5 cm to 15 cm and length from 15 cm to 30cm. The
stones are extremely bard but brittle.

The strength of such walls can be increased using a lacing course of thin long
stones or bricks at 1 to 2m vertical intervals.

Fig3. Polygonal Rubble Flint Rubble masonry

iv) Dry rubble masonry
In this masonry, as the name suggests the mortar is not used in the joints, therefore
it is the cheapest but more skilled manpower is required in construction. The use of
dry rubble masonry is for non-load-bearing walls like compound walls.

b) Ashlar masonry
In ashlar masonry, square or rectangular blocks that are used are dressed and have
extremely fine bed and end joints.

i) Ashlar fine tooled

It is the finest stone masonry. The beds, joints, and faces of the stones are chisel-
dressed to remove all unevenness and obtain perfectly horizontal and vertical
joints.

Fig4. Ashlar Fined tools

ii) Ashlar rough tooled

The beds and sides are finely chisel-dressed but the exposed face is dressed by
rough tooling.

iii) Ashlar rock faced.

The exposed face of the stones is not dressed but is kept as such to give a rough
facing.

iv) Ashlar chamfered

It is a special type of ashlar rock-faced in which the strip provided around the
perimeter of the exposed face is chamfered at an angle of 45° to a depth of 25 mm.
 Fig. 5. Ashlar Chamfered

v) Ashlar block in course

It is immediately between ashlar and rubble masonry. The faces of each stone are
hammer-dressed but the vertical joints are not as straight and fine as in ashlar
masonry.

Vi) Ashlar facing

It is provided along with brick or concrete blocks to give a better appearance. The
outer faces of the stone are rough-tooled and chamfered.

3.3 Brick Masonary (English Bond, Flemish Bond, Stretcher Bond)

Brick masonry is a construction technique that involves the use of different types
of bricks and mortar to create structures. It is one of the oldest and most popular
building methods, known for its strength, durability, and aesthetic appeal. In brick
masonry, bricks are carefully laid in a specific pattern and bonded together with
mortar, creating a strong and stable structure.
Bricks, made from clay and other materials, are rectangular in shape and come in
different sizes, colours, and textures. They are arranged in various patterns, known
as bond patterns, which determine the strength and stability of the structure. The
bond patterns include stretcher bond, header bond, Flemish bond, English bond,
and more. Each bond pattern has its own unique arrangement of bricks and offers
different aesthetic effects.
To enhance the strength and durability of brick masonry, mortar is used as the
binding agent. Mortar is made from a mixture of cement, sand, and water, and its
composition varies depending on the requirements of the project. It fills the gaps
between bricks, providing stability and preventing moisture penetration. Now that
we understand the basics of brick masonry, let's explore the different types of brick
masonry techniques.
The most commonly used types of bonds in brick masonry are:

1. Stretcher bond
2. Header bond
3. English bond and
4. Flemish bond

1. Stretcher bond
Longer narrow face of the brick is called as stretcher as shown in the elevation of
figure below. Stretcher bond, also called as running bond, is created when bricks
are laid with only their stretchers showing, overlapping midway with the courses of
bricks below and above. Stretcher bond in the brick is the simplest repeating
pattern. But the limitation of stretcher bond is that it cannot make effective
bonding with adjacent bricks in full width thick brick walls. They are suitably used
only for one-half brick thick walls such as for the construction half brick thick
partition wall. Walls constructed with stretcher bonds are not stable enough to
stand alone in case of longer span and height. Thus they Then need supporting
structure such as brick masonry columns at regular intervals. Stretcher bonds are
commonly used in the steel or reinforced concrete framed structures as the outer
facing. These are also used as the outer facing of cavity walls. Other common
applications of such walls are the boundary walls, gardens etc.

Fig-1: Stretcher Bond

 2. Header bond
Header is the shorter square face of the brick which measures 9cm x 9cm. Header
bond is also known as heading bond. In header bonds, all bricks in each course are
placed as headers on the faces of the walls. While Stretcher bond is used for the
construction of walls of half brick thickness whereas header bond is used for the
construction of walls with full brick thickness which measures 18cm. In header
bonds, the overlap is kept equal to half width of the brick. To achieve this, three
quarter brick bats are used in alternate courses as quoins.

Fig-2: Header Bond

Fig-3: Header Bond Isometric View

 3. English Bond
English bond in brick masonry has one course of stretcher only and a course of
header above it, i.e. it has two alternating courses of stretchers and headers.
Headers are laid centered on the stretchers in course below and each alternate row
is vertically aligned. To break the continuity of vertical joints, quoin closer is used
in the beginning and end of a wall after first header. A quoin close is a brick cut
lengthwise into two halves and used at corners in brick walls.

Fig-4: English Bond

Fig-4: English Bond – Isometric View

 4. Flemish Bond
For the breaking of vertical joints in the successive courses, closers are inserted in
alternate courses next to the quoin header. In walls having their thickness equal to
odd number of half bricks, bats are essentially used to achieve the bond. Flemish
bond, also known as Dutch bond, is created by laying alternate headers and
stretchers in a single course. The next course of brick is laid such that header lies in
the middle of the stretcher in the course below, i.e. the alternate headers of each
course are centered on the stretcher of course below. Every alternate course of
Flemish bond starts with header at the corner. The thickness of Flemish bond is
minimum one full brick. The disadvantage of using Flemish bond is that
construction of Flemish bond is difficult and requires greater skill to lay it properly
as all vertical mortar joints need to be aligned vertically for best effects. For the
breaking of vertical joints in the successive courses, closers are inserted in alternate
courses next to the quoin header. In walls having their thickness equal to odd
number of half bricks, bats are used to achieve the bond. Flemish bonds have better
appearance but are weaker than English bonds for load bearing wall construction.
Thus, if the pointing has to be done for brick masonry walls, then Flemish bond
may be used for better aesthetic view. If the walls have to be plastered, then it is
better to use English bond.

Fig-5: Flemish Bond

Flemish bonds are classified as:
 Single Flemish Bond
 Double Flemish Bond

Single Flemish bond is a combination of

English bond and Flemish bond. In this
type of construction, the front exposed
surface of wall consists of Flemish bond
and the back surface of the wall consists of
English bond in each course. Minimum
thickness required for single Flemish bond
is one and a half brick thickness. The main
purpose of using single Flemish bond is to
provide greater aesthetic appearance on the
front surface with required strength in the
brickwork with English bond. Double
Flemish Bond has the same appearance
both in the front and back elevations, i.e.
each course consists of alternate header and
stretcher. This type of bonding is
comparatively weaker than English bond. Fig-6: Flemish Bond Front Appearance

3.4 Cement Concrete- PCC, RCC

PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE (PCC): – It is also called Plain Cement

Concrete (PCC) or Binding Concrete.

This is a construction material which consists of Cement, Sand, Aggregate (Coarse

and Fine) , Water and Admixtures without steel reinforcement.
· It is used for providing a rigid, level space and impervious bed to RCC in
foundation.
· It is also used under flooring (stone, tile, wooden flooring etc., ).
· It is good at resisting compression.
· It can be used over Brick flat soiling or without Brick flat soiling.
· It is also used as filler like lump concrete which is mixer of Boulder and PCC.
Thickness: PCC is normally between 50 to 75 mm
Concrete Ratio: Normally used proportions are 1:2:4, 1:3:6, 1:4:8
Unit: Cubic Meter (Cum)
REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (RCC) :-
Concrete is material with a mix of Cement, Sand, Aggregate and Water, that is
good for Compression not in Tension….

To resolve this critical issue by reinforcing steel, by casting wet concrete around
strong steel bars. When the concrete set and hardens around the bars, we get a new
composite material, REINFORCED CONCRETE (RCC). So it is a good
material which works good either in Compression or Tension.

Concrete resists squeezing due to compressive strength and Steel resists bending
and stretching due to tensile strength. This enhance ductility, reduce long term
deflections or increase the flexural capacity for beams.

Reinforced concrete acts as a composite material inside another where steel bars
provide the reinforcement to the concrete.

Usually TMT Steel bars are used which are firmly anchored inside the concrete
without the risk of slipping. We use steel because it prevents excessive cracking
resulting from shrinkage or temperature variation (hot and cold temperature) .
Lateral reinforcement as ties and stirrups are used to provide resistance to principal
tensile stresses resulting from shear resistance.

Thickness: RCC thickness depends as per design requirements.

3.5 Formwork

What is Formwork?

The construction of formwork takes time and involves the expenditure of up to 20

to 25% of the cost of the structure or even more. The design of these temporary
structures is made for economic expenditure. The operation of removing the
formwork is known as stripping. Stripped formwork can be reused. Reusable forms
are known as panel forms and non-usable forms are called stationary forms.

Timber is the most common material used for formwork. The disadvantage of
timber formwork is that it will warp, swell, and shrink. The application of water-
impermeable cost to the surface of wood mitigates these defects.
Formwork Importance

1. No doubt formwork is essential for any construction; its main advantage is

that it can’t be replaced with any other technology.
2. Using formwork, concrete structures can be constructed quickly and in the
most affordable way.
3. During all construction work periods, a formwork offers appropriate access
and working platforms that considerably enhance workers’ scaffold safety.
4. Formwork helps in lowering the timeline and costs of the project by
lowering the floor-to-floor construction cycle time, which means more
projects can fulfil their budgetary demands.
5. Formwork facilitates construction managers to offer exact on-time shuttering
and de–shuttering of formwork resources, which results in improving project
effectiveness and resource usage.
6. Formwork is mainly associated with concrete. It helps in producing a
smooth finished surface of the concrete.
7. It provides good structural safety by offering solutions against all overlay
loads, producing exceptionally safe and practical structures.

Components of Formwork

The various components of formwork are shown in the figure below, and let us
study them one by one.
Fig.1. Components of Formwork

1. Ties: A tie is a tensile unit used to connect opposite sides of formwork. It

serves as a balanced connection or is used to resist the effective pressure of
fresh concrete.
2. Braces: Braces are used to keep the formwork upright by deterring form
deflection under lateral pressure.
3. Studs: Studs in the formwork are used to support sheathing panels and make
a framework to keep them in position.
4. Sheathing: Sheathing panel is used to keep the concrete in its required
shape and position until it sets and hardens.
5. Wales: Wales are horizontal propping members that are placed against
sheathing to directly resist sheathing pressure.
6. Battens: Battens are vertical members in the formwork which keep cleats
and wales uptight and in position.
7. Footing: Footing is the bottommost member which supports the entire
formwork.

Requirements of a Good Formwork

1. It is very important that the formwork is well supported and strong enough
to bear all loads applied to it.
2. Formwork must be aligned and braced well from all sides to keep its original
shape.
3. It should be watertight to prevent the leakage of cement grout.
4. It should be constructed in a proper way so that at the removal stage
concrete can be safe.
5. The form-work material must be available locally, cheap, and can be used
more than one time.
6. Try to keep it lightweight as possible to prevent the extra load on supports.
Especially in horizontal shuttering, lightweight formwork also can help to
reduce labour costs or effort.
7. It must be fixed in line and levels as per the drawing.
8. Form-work material should not be damaged or rusted, which affects the
quality of concrete finishing.

Types of Formwork

There are several types of formwork used in construction. They are discussed
below in detail.

Timber Formwork
Timber formwork is the most common type of formwork among all others. Timber
forms are extensively used in construction since the ancient period. Timber
formwork is the oldest type of form used in construction.

Timber formwork is one most used in construction among all other types of
formwork. It offers onsite fabrication of the required shape and size. It is easily
used in any construction but it may prove time–consuming for large projects.
Plywood formwork material has a short lifespan. Timber Shuttering is low-cost
and easily workable shuttering. It can be cut and joined in any shape and size.

Fig.2. Timber Formwork

Requirement of Timber Formwork

a. Light in weight
b. Properly seasoned
c. Free from any termite attacks
d. Easily workable

Advantages of Timber Formwork

a. Timber Shuttering is easy to form any shape, size, and height.

b. It is proven economical for small projects.
c. It can be made using locally available timber.
d. Timber is light–weighted compared to steel or aluminium shuttering.

Steel Formwork

Steel formwork has become more popular due to its strength, durability, and
repetitive reuse for a long period. Steel formwork is costly for small work but can
be used for a large number of projects. Steel shuttering offers a smooth surface
finish to concrete compared to timber formwork. It can be used for circular or
curved structures such as tanks, columns, chimneys, sewers, tunnels, and retaining
walls.

Fig.3. Steel Formwork

Advantages of Steel Formwork

i. Strong, durable and longer life

ii. It offers a smooth finish to the surface of the member.
iii. It is completely waterproof or moisture–proof and minimises the
honeycombing effect.
iv. It can be reused more than 100 times.
v. Steel formwork can be fixed and removed with greater ease.

Aluminium Formwork

As we know the density of aluminium is less compared to steel and that makes it
light-weighted than steel. This is the main advantage when compared to steel.
Aluminium formwork is almost the same as formwork made from steel. Shuttering
down with aluminium form is proven economical if large numbers of repeating
usage are made in construction. Its major drawback is that no alteration is possible
once the formwork is constructed.
 Fig.4. Aluminium Formwork

Plywood Formwork

Plywood formwork is one of re-moulded timber resin-bonded plywood sheets

attached to timber frames to make up panels of the required sizes. It is strong,
flexible, and easy to handle. Its life is too short compared to other materials.

Fig.5. Plywood Formwork

3.6 Plastering/Painting

Plastering

Plastering is a process of providing decorative and protective layers on the interior

and exterior walls. It should be noted that plaster shows both stiffness and
workability for attaining required strength and easy placement. The primary goal
behind plastering is to protect the surface from atmospheric influences such as
chemical attacks, to conceal defective masonry workmanship, to conceal porous
materials, and to provide a suitable surface for painting. It should be noted that the
properties of mortar are the most essential factor while doing the plastering work.
Hence, the requirement of good mortar is a must.
What is Plastering Process?

The plastering process involves several steps to create a smooth and finished
surface on walls and ceilings. Let me break it down for you:

1. Preparation: Clean the surface and repair any cracks or holes.

2. Mixing the plaster: Combine plaster powder and water to create a smooth
paste.
3. Applying the base coat: Spread the first layer of plaster evenly and roughen
the surface.
4. Applying the finish coat: Apply a thinner, smoother layer of plaster for the
desired finish.
5. Curing and drying: Allow the plaster to cure and dry completely.
6. Finishing touches: Smooth out imperfections, prime, and paint or decorate
the surface.

Purpose of Plastering

The purpose of plastering is to achieve several important objectives in construction

and finishing projects:

1. Smoothing and leveling: Achieve a smooth and even surface on walls

and ceilings.
2. Protection and durability: Provide a protective layer and enhance the
structural integrity of the substrate.
3. Aesthetic enhancement: Enhance the visual appeal with various textures,
patterns, and decorative finishes.
4. Soundproofing and insulation: Contribute to soundproofing and provide
some thermal insulation.
5. Fire resistance: Act as a barrier against the spread of flames and offer fire
resistance properties.

Types of Plastering

Depending on where the plastering is being done, plastering is classified into two
major components:

1. Internal Plastering
2. External Plastering
Painting
Painting is a process of applying a coating of paint or other similar materials on
the surface of a building structure to enhance its aesthetic appeal, protect it
from damage caused by weather and environmental factors, and improve
its durability. Painting involves the use of various tools such as brushes, rollers,
sprayers, and other equipment to apply the paint evenly
on walls, ceilings, floors, doors, windows, and other surfaces.

The primary purpose of painting in the construction and building industry is to

provide protection against moisture, ultraviolet rays, corrosion, and other types
of damage that can affect the structural integrity of buildings. Paints also help to
prevent the growth of mold and mildew which can cause health issues for
occupants.

In addition to providing protection against damage and

improving durability, painting also plays an essential role in enhancing the visual
appeal of buildings. It allows architects and designers to add color schemes that
complement the building's design while creating an attractive finish that
adds value to the property.

Overall, painting is an integral part of construction and building industry as it not

only protects structures but also enhances their aesthetic appeal thereby increasing
their value.

The basic types of Paints used in Buildings are as follows:-

1. Exterior weather coat

2. Interior Emulsion
3. Interior Distemper
4. Enamel
5. Aluminum paint
6. Damp Proof paint
7. White washing paint
 Unit 4

Road Construction
4.1 Classification of Roads- National Highway, Feeder Roads, District
roads/Village roads, City roads or streets

Roads in Nepal are classified as follows:

A. Administrative Classification

Administrative classification of roads is intended for assigning national

importance and level of government responsible for overall management and
methods of financing.

According to this classification roads are classified into:

1. National Highways
2. Feeder Roads
3. District Roads
4. Urban Roads

1. National Highways

National Highways are main roads connecting East to West and North to South of
the Nation. These serve directly the greater portion of the longer distance travel,
provide consistently higher level of service in terms of travel speeds, and bear the
inter-community mobility. These roads shall be the main arterial routes passing
through the length and breadth of the country as a whole. They are designated by
letter ―H‖ followed by a two-digit number. For example:- Mahendra Highway,
Mid-Mountainous Highway

2. Feeder Roads

Feeder roads are important roads of localized nature. These serve the community's
wide interest and connect District Headquarters, Major economic centres, Tourism
centres to National Highways or other feeder roads. They are designated by letter
―F‖ followed by 3-digit number. For example:- Tribhuwan Highway, Arniko
Highway

3. District Roads

District Roads are important roads within a district serving areas of production
and markets, and connecting with each other or with the main highways. For
Example: Taulihawa jitpur Road, Bhairahawa Taulihawa Road.
4. Urban Roads

Urban Roads are the roads serving within the urban municipalities. In Nepal the
overall management of National Highways and Feeder Roads comes within the
responsibility of the Department of Roads (DOR). These roads are collectively
called Strategic Roads Network (SRN) roads. District Roads and Urban Roads are
managed by Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural
Roads (DOLIDAR). These roads are collectively called Local Roads Network
(LRN) road. For example: - Hasti Path, Darsan Path etc.

4.2 Road Geometry- Horizontal and Vertical Alignments, Cross Sectional

Elements(Camber, Super elevation etc), Sight Distance Characteristics
(Stopping, overtaking Sight Distance)

Camber
a. All straight sections of roads shall have a camber or crossfall as given on the
Table 11-3.

b. On roads with undivided carriageways the camber shall be on both directions

from the center line of the road. On roads with divided carriageways unidirectional
camber can be provided.

c. However on some sections of hill roads with undivided carriageway a

unidirectional camber can be adopted. In this case the adverse effect of negative
camber on movement of vehicles on curves should be properly checked.

Table 11-3

Pavement type Cement Bituminous Gravel Earthen

Concrete
Camber, % 1.5 to 2.0 2.5 4.0 5.0

d. On straight sections of roads, shoulders should have a higher crossfall than that
of the carriageway by 0.5%.

Superelevation
a. Superelevation is provided on horizontal curves. Value of
superelevation is calculated using following formula:

e - f ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 11-1

 Where,

e- value of super elevation, m/m

R-Radius of horizontal curve

V-Design Speed, km/h

f- co-efficient of lateral friction, depends on the vehicle speed and taken

as in Table 24-4

b. Maximum superelevation to be provided is limited to:

 In plain and rolling terrain 7%

 In snow bound areas 7%

 In hilly areas not bound by snows 10%

c. Minimum value of superelevation should be equal to the rate of camber of the

pavement.

d. The rate of introduction of superelevation (i.e. longitudinal grade developed at

the pavement edge compared to through grade along the centre line) should be
such as not to cause discomfort to travelers or to make the road unsightly.

e. Rate of change of the outer edge of the pavement should not be steeper than 1 in
150 in plain and rolling terrain and 1 in 60 in mountainous and steep terrain in
comparison with the grade of the centre line.

Sight Distance

For safety it is necessary that sight distance of adequate length should be available
to permit drivers enough time and distance to control their vehicles. Sight distances
are usually governed by the distance required for stopping (stopping distance) and
overtaking (overtaking distance).

Stopping Sight Distance

a. Stopping distance is the distance ahead needed by a driver to bring his

vehicle to a complete stop before meeting a stationary object in his
path.
b. Stopping distance for various speeds are given in Table 8-1
Table 8-1: Stopping distance

Speed, 20 30 40 60 80 100 120

km/h
Stopping 20 30 50 80 130 190 260
Distance,
m

Stopping Distance Stopping distance is calculated as a sum of the

a) distance travelled by the vehicle during perception and brake reaction time(first
term in equation 24.1) and

b) the braking distance(second term in equation 24.1)

S ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 24-1

Where,

V-design speed

t-perception and brake reaction time, taken as 2.5 s

 - co-efficient of longitudinal friction, depends on the speed (taken as per Table

24-2)

Table 24-2 : Coefficient of longitudinal friction

Speed(km/h) 
20 0.4
30 0.39
40 0.39
60 0.38
80 0.36
100 0.35
120 0.34

Overtaking Sight Distance

Overtaking distance is the minimum distance that should be available to the driver
to overtake another vehicle safely. Overtaking distances for various design speeds
are given in Table 8-2
Table 8-2: Overtaking distance

Speed, km/h 40 60 80 100 120

Overtaking 165 300 470 640 880
Distance, m

a. Overtaking distance is calculated considering the optimum condition in which

the overtaking driver can follow the vehicle ahead for a short time while he
assesses his chances for overtaking, pulls out his vehicle, overtakes the other
vehicle at design speed of the highway, and returns to his own lane before
meeting any oncoming vehicle from the opposite direction travelling at the
same speed.
b. Time components for various maneuvers and corresponding overtaking
distances are given below in Table 24-3
Table 24-3: Overtaking Distance Calculations

Speed, km/h Time Components, s Overtaking

For For Opposing Total Distance, m
Overtaking Vehicle
Maneuvers
40 9 6 15 165
60 10.8 7.2 18 300
80 12.5 8.5 21 470
100 14 9 23 640
120 16 10 26 880

4.3 Road Pavement- Sub- Grade, Sub- Base, Base, wearing Course

4.4 Structures- Bridge, Culvert, Retaining wall, Breast walls

 Unit-5
Irrigation System

4.1 Concept of irrigation system

Irrigation is the process of applying water to the crops artificially to fulfill their
water requirements. Nutrients may also be provided to the crops through irrigation.
The various sources of water for irrigation are wells, ponds, lakes, canals, tube-
wells and even dams. Irrigation offers moisture required for growth and
development, germination and other related functions. The frequency, rate, amount
and time of irrigation are different for different crops and also vary according to
the types of soil and seasons. For example, summer crops require a higher amount
of water as compared to winter crops.

4.2 Types of Irrigation System

There are different types of irrigation practiced for improving crop yield. These
types of irrigation systems are practiced based on the different types of soils,
climates, crops and resources. The main types of irrigation followed by farmers
include:

b) Surface Irrigation

In this system, no irrigation pump is involved. Here, water is distributed across the
land by gravity.

c) Localized Irrigation

In this system, water is applied to each plant through a network of pipes under low
pressure.

d) Sprinkler Irrigation

Water is distributed from a central location by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or

from sprinklers from the moving platform.

e) Drip Irrigation

In this type, drops of water are delivered near the roots of the plants. This type of
irrigation is rarely used as it requires more maintenance.

f) Centre Pivot Irrigation

In this, the water is distributed by a sprinkler system moving in a circular pattern.

g) Sub Irrigation

Water is distributed through a system of pumping stations gates, ditches and canals
by raising the water table. 7. Manual Irrigation This a labour intensive and time-
consuming system of irrigation. Here, the water is distributed through watering
cans by manual labour.

a. Components of Small Irrigation System

1. Water source: This could be a well, irrigation pond, irrigation ditch, river,
etc.
2. Pump: Depending on location and volume/pressure requirements, this can
vary.
3. Backflow prevention: This prevents any foreign material, fertilizer or
contaminants from flowing back into the water source.
4. Pressure regulator: Depending on the type of emitters, the pressure that this
device regulates to can vary widely. This not only reduces the pressure, but
can work to keep pressure consistent.
5. Filter: There are varying types of filters, but all serve to remove particulates
from the water that could plug emitters.
6. Injector: These are used to apply water-soluble fertilizers through the
irrigation kit.
7. Adapters: These vary, but are used to connect various different types of
equipment and irrigation lines.
8. Distribution lines: These move water from the water source to the location
of application.
9. Sub-Main lines/headers: These water lines enter the field and distribute
water to the emitters.
10. Emitters: Drip tape or overhead sprinklers apply the water to the crop.

b. Water Distribution Management

Irrigation Management

Irrigation management refers to a set of technical decisions involving the

characteristics of the crop, climate, water, soil, and irrigation system. The adequate
management of irrigation, associated with the other cultivation techniques, allows
the producer to reach elevated productivity levels, saving water and energy,
besides contributing to the preservation of the environment. Well-conducted
management consists of defining the adequate moment to start irrigation and of
determining the necessary amount of water for the crop, utilizing knowledge for
the time of water application or the displacement speed of the irrigation equipment.
To irrigate sugarcane efficiently, it is necessary to know some parameters related
to the soil, climate, water, plant, and irrigation system which will allow
quantification of the water which must be applied.
Important Parameters in Irrigation Management

The soil is a natural reservoir of water for plants. The water stored in the soil and
available to the plants is comprehended between the field capacity and the
permanent wilting point. Field capacity Field capacity (Cc) corresponds to the
superior limit of available water and represents the moisture of the soil after
drainage of the water contained in the macropores by gravity action. This moisture
condition favors higher absorption of water and nutrients by the plants. Usually,
field capacity is determined in the laboratory, by the retention curve method. In
this method, the value of the field capacity moisture is represented by the balance
moisture with tension of 6–33 kPa, depending on the texture, structure and content
of organic matter in the soil.
 Unit 6

River Training Works

Definition of River Training

The process of controlling the flow in river & river bed configuration is called
river training works. These are the structural measures adopted in rivers to avoid
outflanking & shifting its thawing due to geomorphologic changes in the river. So,
the river training works stabilize the river channel along a certain alignment.

6.1 Purpose of River Training

To prevent the river from changing its course & to avoid outflanking of hydraulic
structures like a bridge, weir, aqueducts, etc. To prevent flooding of surrounding
countries by providing a safe passage of floodwaters without overtopping the
banks. To protect the river banks by deflecting the river away from the attacked
banks. To ensure effective disposal of sediment loads. To provide minimum river
water depth required for navigation. To prevent additional areas to be submerged
due to afflux.

6.2 Methods of River Training

Different methods employed for the purpose of river training are as follows:

1. Marginal Bunds/Marginal Embankment/Levees

2. Guide Bund/Bell's Bund
3. Spurs/Groynes
4. Artificial Cutoffs
5. Pitching of Banks & Provision of Launching Aprons
6. Pitched Islands

1) Marginal Bund / Marginal Embankment / Levees

These are the earthen embankments running parallel to the river & at some
distance from the river. These are the flood embankments in continuation of
guide bunds designed to contain the floodwater within the flood plains of the
river.

2) Guide Bund / Bell's Bund

These are the bell mouth-shaped bunds constructed on either side of a river in
order to restrict the width of the waterway across the hydraulic structures. It
was first introduced by Mr Bell so-called Bell's Bund. These are also earthen
embankments with stone pitching on the slopes facing the river water.
3) Spurs / Groynes

These are embankment-type structures constructed transverse to the direction of

flow. It extends from the bank into the river. These are also called transverse
dykes. These are constructed to attract or deflect the river water from the river
banks. Spurs or Groynes are of the following types based on their alignments. a.
Ordinary Groyne b. Repelling Groyne c. Attracting Groyne

4) Artificial Cutoffs

Meandering rivers are induced to flow in a straight path by constructing the

artificial cutoffs. A pilot cut is excavated in case of a river in an erodible bed &
the flood water gradually enlarges the pilot cut while shifting its path.

5) Pitching Of Banks & Provision Of Launching Aprons

The river banks are protected by stone pitching, brick laying, vegetative growth,
etc at the bank of the river. In order to protect the toe of the river bank, the
launching apron is extended from the toe of the bank into the river bed.

6) Pitched Islands

These are the artificial islands constructed at the river bed. It consists of a sand
core protected by stone pitching. It obstructs the flow of the river & turbulence
is created around it. Due to the turbulence generated, the river bed gets
deepened at the vicinity of the island & holds the flow permanently thus
attracting the flow away from the attacked bank.
 Unit-7

Water Supply System

a. Sources of Water Source

Water refers to bodies of water (such as rivers, streams, lakes, reservoirs,

springs, and ground water) that provide water to public drinking-water supplies
and private wells. Water sources can include:

1) Surface water (for example, a lake, river, or reservoir)

2) Ground water (for example, an aquifer)

b. Discharge Measurement by Velocity Area Method and Bucket

stopwatch method
1) Velocity Area Method

The velocity–area method for the determination of discharge in open channels

consists of measurements of stream velocity, depth of flow and distance across
the channel between observation verticals. The velocity is measured at one or
more points in each vertical by current meter and an average velocity
determined in each vertical. The discharge is derived from the sum of the
product of mean velocity, depth and width between verticals. The discharge so
obtained is normally used to establish a relation between water level (stage) and
stream flow. Once established, this stage-discharge relation is used to derive
discharge values from records of stage at the gauging station.

2) Bucket Stop Watch

Method In this method, all the flow from a spring or small stream is collected in
a container whose volume is known (e.g. a bucket, jerrycan, 200-litre drum) and
the time to fill the container is measured. The filling time should be more than
five seconds, to give reasonable accuracy.

c. Introduction to and types of water supply system

Water supply system

Infrastructure for the collection, transmission, treatment, storage, and

distribution of water for homes, commercial establishments, industry,
and irrigation, as well as for such public needs
as firefighting and street flushing. Of all municipal services, provision of
potable water is perhaps the most vital. People depend on water for drinking,
cooking, washing, carrying away wastes, and other domestic needs. Water
supply systems must also meet requirements for public, commercial, and
 industrial activities. In all cases, the water must fulfill both quality and quantity
requirements.

What are the types of water supply systems?

The water distributed via municipal water supply systems should reach the end-
user with sufficient pressure and flow rates. In order to achieve this, four
main water distribution system types are used:

1. Gridiron systems

In gridiron systems, the main water supply line goes through the central part of the
area, while sub mains branch out perpendicular to the main line. This system has
no dead-ends, as all of the individual pipes are interconnected. This type of water
supply system is great for cities that have a rectangular layout that resembles a
gridiron.

2. Ring systems

Circular or ring systems feature a supply main that forms a circle or ring around
the area of distribution. In this system, the branches are cross-connected to the
supply mains and each other. This type of system has similar advantages and
disadvantages to gridiron systems and is suitable for towns and cities with well-
planned roads and streets.

3. Radial systems

In radial systems, the distribution area is divided into different distribution districts
or zones. Each zone has an elevated distribution reservoir in the middle from
which supply lines run in a radial pattern towards the distribution district
periphery. Radial systems offer swift distribution and allow for simpler design
calculations.

4. Dead-end systems

Dead-end water supply systems are the best choice for cities and towns without
definite road patterns. In this type of system, there is one main line that runs
through the town or city with sub-mains branching off from left and right. These
sub-mains then divide into a number of branch lines that provide service
connections.
d. Gravity flow water supply system- Intake, pipeline transmission,
distribution, Interruption/break pressure tank, Valve chambers,
Distribution chambers, Reservoir Tank, Stand posts

Natural water sources are not always in a convenient place for collecting water.
Gravity water systems use gravity to transport water from the source to the user
through a pipe network. Bringing water closer to people reduces time, effort
and risk – especially for women and girls – and protecting water as it is
transported prevents it from being contaminated.

A gravity-flow water system starts above the intake, with a protected catchment
area. Activities must be controlled in this area to keep the water source clean.

Fig: Gravity water supply system

The intake

The intake can be a protected spring or clean stream. The stream may have a
small dam that raises the water level locally. A screen can prevent leaves being
washed into the system. If the water is silty, especially in the wetter season,
then a settlement tank may be needed. This keeps the water still for a while,
allowing solids to fall to the bottom of the tank. The Intake also needs to
withstand floods.

Pipeline Transmission

The water transmission works, form the connection between the water works
and the distribution system. Water transmission is usually achieved through
canals, aqueducts, tunnels and pipelines.
Distribution

Whereby water distribution

systems is all about the distribution
of water from treatment plants to
industries, houses, offices and
other users. It includes different
facilities for storage of water,
water measuring meter (To check
water use) as well as other
firefighting equipment like
hydrants. Water distribution
systems are made up of pipes,
valves, and pumps.

Interruption/ Break Pressure

Tank (BPT)

A break pressure tank is a

component used in water supply
systems to help maintain consistent
water pressure. It is typically
installed in areas where the
elevation changes significantly, such as hilly or mountainous regions.

The purpose of a break pressure tank is to prevent excessive water pressure

from building up in the distribution system due to changes in elevation. Without
a break pressure tank, the water pressure could become dangerously high,
potentially leading to burst pipes or other damage.

The break pressure tank works by creating a small atmospheric air gap between
the incoming water and the outgoing water. This gap allows the water pressure
to be "broken" or reduced before it continues through the distribution system.
The tank is sized to accommodate the expected flow rate and pressure
requirements of the system.

Valve Chambers

The valve chamber is designed such that valve maintenance may be easily
undertaken. It is used in pipe networks for water supply, general water,
sewerage, and agricultural water. The square valve chamber is a steel
fabrication of bulkhead structure to be durable and resistant to ground shaking
and earthquakes with excellent waterproof function.
MODELS OF APPLICATION
Circular Valve Chamber
1. Air Valve
2. Agricultural road type
3. Gate Valve
4. Integrated
5. Blow off Valve (Drain Valve)
6. Flow meter
7. T Shape pipe type Valve

Square Valve Chamber

1. Air Valve
2. Gate Valve
3. Integrated Valve
4. Flow meter
5. Pressure reducing Valve
6. Pressure pump

Distribution Chamber

It is a tank provided at the junction of the pipeline when water has to be

conveyed in more than one direction at atmospheric pressure. Interruption
Chamber: It is a tank present in the transmission main to break the excessive
internal water pressure built in the pipeline.
The distribution chambers are installed upstream and downstream of a
treatment system laid out in two parallel lines. The upstream chamber divides
the effluent into two equal flows, while the downstream chamber combines the
two treatment flow lines into one outlet. This latter chamber can also function
as a sampling point.

Reservoir Tank

Underground water tanks are structures which act as a reservoir for small
domestic or commercial buildings. Some of the basic components of
underground water tanks are:
• Base slab
• Side walls
• Roof slab

These water tanks are too ductile, which enables them to withstand seismic
forces and varying water backfill. Tanks utilize material efficiently – steel in
tension, concrete in compression. Underground water tanks have very low
maintenance cost as it is constructed with concrete, which is a durable material
and it never corrodes. It also does not require coatings when in contact with
water or the environment. One of the main advantages of Underground water
tank over the surface water tank is that temperature inside underground water
tank is lower than that of surface tanks which causes lesser loss of water due to
evaporation.

Underground water tank faces different type of loads compared to other

structures. These loads are mainly horizontal (lateral) loads due to earth and
water pressure.
The pressure loads at side walls are greater at the bottom and it linearly
decreases as we move towards the top. The inside water pressure is not the only
load the tank bears; it also has to bear the surcharge above the ground level. So
the roof slab of the underground tank should have enough strength to with stand
the surcharge.

Stand Posts

Public stand posts provide points where a local community may draw water
from a piped water distribution system. They usually comprise a connection to
the water main, a suitably supported riser pipe and a tap. Their design and
construction has a major influence on their durability, effectiveness and
hygiene. However, stand posts often receive inadequate attention and failures
are frequent. This affects many people, both in rural and urban areas, as stand
posts often represent the only feasible and affordable means of access to water.

Fig: Stand Post

A well-designed stand post must:

a. provide sufficient quantities of water to all users when it is needed;

b. be durable and reflect local customs;
c. Contribute towards improvements in public health.

Storing the water

Generally, as the water source flows constantly day and night, service reservoirs
are installed at the end of the main pipe to balance the volume produced with
the varying demand. From the reservoir, the water is piped to stand posts (tap
stands) and household connections.
Treating water

The water should not need treating if the water quality of the source is good and
adequate source protection HYPERLINK is in place, especially for springs.
Any protection is only as good as the weakest part of the system, as
contamination at one point could lead to contamination throughout the entire
network. The collection of water from stand posts in containers is another likely
point of contamination. If water quality is not good (perhaps only in the wetter
months) or the water will be used by people particularly vulnerable to infection,
then some additional household-level water treatment may be needed. For large
systems and those serving health centers, you may want to consider residual
chlorination at the inlet to the service reservoir.
 Unit 8

Estimation
8.1 Estimate and its Types

Estimation in civil engineering is the process of determining the quantity of

materials, resources, and especially project costs needed to operate during a
construction project. This is usually done before the start of the project, so you
can procure estimated materials and gather the funds as the project progresses.
It’s pretty close to the actual cost of your project requirement.

Cost estimation in civil engineering is one of the most important aspects of

construction management, so great care should be taken when calculating costs.
Future quote engineers need to show their skills. It may seem like a trivial task,
but it requires careful analysis, proper procedures, and the most appropriate
method.

Without estimation in civil engineering, it is impossible to complete a

construction project at actual operating costs. The client or project manager
cannot keep the project cost within reasonable limits unless the project cost has
already been estimated.

Each owner can decide whether or not to proceed with the proposed project
based on the estimated cost of the project. Depending on the funds available
and the value of the product, the client can proceed with the project or carefully
consider the details of the quote and then abandon the project.

Fig: Importance of Estimation

Types of Estimate

1. Preliminary or approximate estimate

2. Plinth Area
3. Cubic Rate Estimate
4. Approximate quantity Estimate
5. Detailed Estimate
6. Annual Repair and Maintenance Estimate
7. Complete Estimate
8. Supplementary estimate
9. Revised estimate
1. Preliminary or Approximate Estimate
 This estimate is prepared to decide financial aspect, policy and to give idea of
the cost of the proposal to the component sanctioning authority.
 It should clearly show the necessity of the proposal and how the cost has been
arrived at.
 The estimate which is prepared using any rough method to get approximate cost
of the construction anticipate in a project is called approximate estimate.
Preliminary Estimate
S.N. Description No. Qty Unit Rate Amount Remarks

1 OPD Truss 1 5000 Sqft. 2500 12500000.00

Building
2 RCC Admin 2 1600 Sqft. 4200 6720000.00 2 storey
Building
3 Asphalt 7m. 1 250 Rm. 25000 6250000.00
wide Road
Sub- Total Amount NRs. 25470000.00
VAT @13% 3311100.00
Sub- Total Amount NRs. 28781100.00

2. Plinth area
 Plinth area of a building means Length x breadth excluding plinth offsets.
 The estimates are prepared on the basis of plinth areas of the various buildings
proposed to be constructed.
 The rates are being arrived at the dividing the total cost of construction with its
plinth area.
3. Cubic Rate Estimate
 The cubic contents of a building means plinth area x height of the building.
 The height is taken from top of floor level to top of roof.
 The cubic contents of the proposed building are multiplied with cubic rates
arrived at for the similar construction i.e. total cost of construction divided by
cubic contents=cost per cubic meter.

4. Approximate Quantity Estimate

 This estimate is prepared to decide quantity of materials, labor, tools and
equipment required for any projects.
 The estimate which is prepared using any rough method to get approximate
quantity of the construction anticipate in a project is called approximate
quantity estimate.

5. Detailed Estimate
 After getting administrative approval on rough cost estimate, detailed estimates
are prepared.
 In this, the estimate is divided in to sub-heads and quantities of various items
are calculated individually.
 The detailed estimate shall also provide for the cost of approach road, water
supply, electric installation and acquisition of land etc., so as to call it a
comprehensive estimate.

Details Estimate
S.N. Item of No. L B H Qty Unit Rate Amount Remarks
Works

1 Site
Clearance
2 E/W in
excavation
3 PCC
4 RCC
5 Plaster
6 Painting
Sub- Total Amount NRs.
VAT @ 13%
Grand- Total Amount NRs.
6. Annual Repair and maintenance estimate
 Annual maintenance estimates are being prepared by the concerned department
for getting allocation of funds made in the annual budgets.
 In order to keep building and roads in perfect condition, annual repairs should
be carried in case of a building as well as a road.
 If the work cannot be carried out of the annual repair funds due to certain
reasons resulting in the genuine increase in cost, then special repairs estimate is
to be prepared.
 The reason of increase may be case of building as well as roads.

7. Complete Estimate
 The estimate which includes, in addition to the cost of construction, the cost of
land, the expenses towards surveying, preparation of plans and estimates, legal
assistance, registration of documents, payment of taxes and service charges, etc.
is called complete estimate.

8. Supplementary Estimate
 This is fresh detailed estimate in addition to the original sanctioned estimate
prepared when additional works are deemed necessary during the progress of a
work to supplement the original works.
 The abstract of cost should show the amount of the original sanctioned estimate
as well as the supplementary amount of the original sanctioned estimate as well
as the supplementary amount for which sanctioned is required.

9. Revised estimate
 When the sanctioned estimate exceeds by 5% either due to the rate being found
insufficient or due to some other reasons, a fresh estimate is prepared which is
called a revised estimate.
 A comparative statement on the last page of the estimate is attached giving
there in the reasons of the increase of cost in case of each item.

8.2 System of units of Measurement

 A system of units of measurement, also known as a system of units or system of

measurement, is a collection of units of measurement and rules relating them to
each other. Systems of measurement have historically been important, regulated
and defined for the purposes of science and commerce. Instances in use include
the International System of Units or SI (the modern form of the metric system),
the British imperial system, and the United States customary system.
The SI rests on a foundation of seven (7) defining constants: the cesium hyperfine
splitting frequency, the speed of light in vacuum, the Planck constant, the
elementary charge (i.e. the charge on a proton), the Boltzmann constant, the
Avogadro constant, and the luminous efficacy of a specified monochromatic
source. NIST provides values and a searchable bibliography for the fundamental
physical constants. Definitions of all seven (7) SI base units are expressed using an
explicit-constant formulation and experimentally realized using a specific mises en
pratique (practical technique).

Credit: E.. Newell/NIST

The seven SI base units, which are comprised of:

1. Length - meter (m)

2. Time - second (s)
3. Amount of substance - mole (mol)
4. Electric current - ampere (A)
5. Temperature - kelvin (K)
6. Luminous intensity - candela (cd)
7. Mass - kilogram (kg)

The Various systems of units of measurement:

1. SI
2. MKS
3. CGS
4. FPS

The Various systems of units of measurement in Civil Engineering Estimation are

as follows:

1. Cubic Meter (Cu. M.)

2. Square Meter (Sq. M.)
3. Running Meter (R. M.)
4. Metric Tone / Kilogram (Mt./KG)
5. Piece/Number/Set (Pcs /No./Set)

8.3 Analysis of Rates- Brickwork, Cement Plastering, PCC, PCC for RCC

Rate analysis is the basis for arriving at a correct rate per unit work or supply
of work specifications such as labor, materials, and equipment. It can also be
defined as the analytical study that leads to the definition of unit rates of
work by identifying the basic requirements.
Benefits of rate analysis

 There are two significant benefits for carrying out rate analysis of an item.
 The first is determining the cost per unit item, while the second determines its
economic processes and uses.

Importance of rate analysis

 Rate analysis gives a well-defined picture of tools, services, and machinery

involved in the construction of a project.
 Rate analysis helps in proportioning the effect of the market on the payments
made for construction work.
 It also helps in determining the construction costs per unit as stipulated in
the specifications.
 The use of rate analysis makes it possible to come up with uniform standards
for construction works.

How do you calculate rate analysis?

Five factors play a pivotal role when calculating rate analysis. These are

 Material costs
 Labor costs
 Equipment costs
 Overheads
 Contractor profits

Material costs

When determining the material costs, you need to determine purchase prices,
storage prices, transportation costs, and wastages due to excesses. These rates are
resolved from the current market rates.

Labor costs

When determining the labor costs, we determine the amount of labor required per
unit measurement of a construction project. The numbers are then multiplied by the
relevant applicable wages to get the labor costs per unit.
Equipment costs

There are different machinery employed in construction work. If machinery is used

for construction work, the cost will be added to the activity cost involved. For
instance, we will add a concrete mixer to the cost of preparation of concrete.
However, if a machine is used for different types of work, a separate budget is
reserved for them.

Overheads

The costs of overheads are also inclusive during rate analysis. These include office,
rent, furniture, wages, and contingencies. The charges are about 5% of the overall
costs. Taxes are also included in overheads as 6% of taxes have to be paid prior.

Contractor’s profit

A contractor’s profit of about 10% is included in the overall costs in overall project
cost. The profit is about 8% in big projects and 15% in small projects.

 Rate Analysis of Brickwork

The rate analysis of 1 m3 Brickwork in ground floor with 1:4 cement sand
mortar including the lead of 30 m. distance all complete.

Solution,

The Dimension of NS standard of a brick = 230*115*57 mm

The thickness of mortar in brick masonry = 10 mm
The Dimension of a brick with mortar = 240*125*67 mm
Volume of a brick with mortar = 0.00201 m3
No. of Brick required for 1 m3 Brickwork =
= = 497.51 = 500 no.
Let us take 5% wastage for loading, transportation and unloading.

Therefore,
Total no. of brick required = 500+500*5% = 525 no.

The quantity of dry mortar required = 1- qty of brick only

 = 1- 500(230*115*57)*10-9
= 0.2462 m3
The quantity of wet mortar required = 0.2462 x 1.45 = 0.356 m3 (Add 45% extra
for Wet volume)
Qty of cement required = ∑ = = 0.0712 m3

Qty of cement required in bags = 0.0712 x 28.8 = 2.05 bag = 2 bag

(1 m3=28.8 bag cement, density of cement = 1440 kg/m3)

Qty of sand required = Qty of cement x sand's ratio = 0.0712 x 4 = 0.2848 m3

Let us take water/cement ratio = 45%

Qty of water required = 0.0712 x 1440 x 0.45 = 46.13 = 47 liter

From the standard norms, we have

No. of Skilled labor required = 1.5
No. of Unskilled labor required = 2.2
Rate Analysis is taken for 1 m3 of Brickwork
S.N. Resources Types/Level Qty Unit Rate Amount Remarks
A. Materials i. Brick 525 No. 12 6300.00
ii. Cement 2 Bag 500 1000.00
iii. Sand 0.2848 m3 2000 569.60
iv. water 47 Lit 0.01 0.47
Total of Materials (A) 7870.07
B. Labor i. Skilled 1.5 No. 1000 1500.00
ii. Unskilled 2.2 No. 700 1540.00
Total of Labor (B) 3040.00
C. Equipment 3% of unskilled labor = 3% of 1540 46.20
Total of Equipment (C) 46.20
Sub-Total A+B+C 10956.27
D. Contractor 15% of Sub- Total
overhead and
15% x 10485.52 1643.44
Profit
Sub-Total without VAT 12599.71
E. VAT 13% of Sub- Total without VAT 1637.96
Grand Total Amount NRs. 14237.67 Per Cum.
 Rate Analysis of Cement Plastering

The rate analysis of 100 m2 Plaster work 12 mm thick with 1:6 cement sand
mortar including the lead of 30 m. distance all complete.

The quantity of dry mortar required = 100*(12/1000)

= 1.2 m3
The quantity of wet mortar required = 1.2 x 1.35 = 1.62 m3 (Add 35% extra for
Wet volume for plaster)
Qty of cement required = ∑ = = 0.231 m3

Qty of cement required in bags = 0.231 x 28.8 = 6.66 bag = 7 bag

(1 m3=28.8 bag cement, density of cement = 1440 kg/m3)

Qty of sand required = Qty of cement x sand's ratio = 0.231 x 6 = 1.386 m3

Let us take water/cement ratio = 45%

Qty of water required = 0.231 x 1440 x 0.45 = 149.68 = 150 liter

From the standard norms, we have

No. of Skilled labor required = 12
No. of Unskilled labor required = 16
Rate Analysis is taken for 1 m3 of Brickwork
S.N. Resources Types/Level Qty Unit Rate Amount Remarks
A. Materials i. Cement 7 Bag 500 3500.00
ii. Sand 1.386 m3 2000 2772.00
iii. water 150 Lit 0.01 1.50
Total of Materials (A) 6273.50
B. Labor i. Skilled 12 No. 1000 12000.00
ii. Unskilled 16 No. 700 11200.00
Total of Labor (B) 23200.00
C. Equipment 3% of unskilled labor = 3% of 11200 336.00
Total of Equipment (C) 336.00
Sub-Total A+B+C 29809.50
D. Contractor 15% of Sub- Total
overhead and
15% x 29809.50 4471.43
Profit
Sub-Total without VAT 34280.93
E. VAT 13% of Sub- Total without VAT 4456.52
Grand Total Amount with VAT NRs. 38737.45 Per100 Sq m.

Grand Total Amount with VAT NRs. 387.37 Per Sq m.

 Rate Analysis of PCC (1:2:4)

The rate analysis of 1 m3 PCC (1:2:4) work including the lead of 30 m.

distance all complete.

The quantity of dry mortar required = 1.00 m3

The quantity of wet mortar required = 1.00 x 1.45 = 1.45 m3 (Add 45% extra for
Wet volume for plaster)
Qty of cement required = ∑ = = 0.207 m3

Qty of cement required in bags = 0.207 x 28.8 = 5.96 bag = 6 bag

(1 m3=28.8 bag cement, density of cement = 1440 kg/m3)

Qty of sand required = Qty of cement x sand's ratio = 0.207 x 2 = 0.414 m3

Qty of aggregate required = Qty of cement x aggregate's ratio = 0.207 x 4 = 0.828
m3

Let us take water/cement ratio = 45%

Qty of water required = 0.207 x 1440 x 0.45 = 134.13 = 135 liter

From the standard norms, we have

No. of Skilled labor required = 1 No.
No. of Unskilled labor required = 4 No.
Rate Analysis is taken for 1 m3 of Brickwork
S.N. Resources Types/Level Qty Unit Rate Amount Remarks
A. Materials i. Cement 6 Bag 500 3000.00
ii. Sand 0.414 m3 2000 828.00
iii. Aggregate 0.828 m3 2000 1656.00
iv. water 135 Lit 0.01 1.35
Total of Materials (A) 5485.35
B. Labor i. Skilled 1 No. 1000 1000.00
ii. Unskilled 4 No. 700 2800.00
Total of Labor (B) 3800.00
C. Equipment 3% of unskilled labor = 3% of 11200 84.00
Total of Equipment (C) 84.00
Sub-Total A+B+C 9369.35
D. Contractor 15% of Sub- Total
overhead and
15% x 29809.50 1405.40
Profit
Sub-Total without VAT 10774.75
E. VAT 13% of Sub- Total without VAT 1400.71
Grand Total Amount with VAT NRs. 12175.46 Per Cu m.
 Rate Analysis of PCC for RCC (1:1.5:3)

The rate analysis of 1 m3 PCC for RCC (1:1.5:3) work including Rebar with
the lead of 30 m. distance all complete.

The quantity of dry mortar required = 1.00 m3

The quantity of wet mortar required = 1.00 x 1.45 = 1.45 m3 (Add 45% extra for
Wet volume for plaster)
Qty of cement required = ∑ = = 0.263 m3

Qty of cement required in bags = 0.263 x 28.8 = 7.57 bag

(1 m3=28.8 bag cement, density of cement = 1440 kg/m3)

Qty of sand required = Qty of cement x sand's ratio = 0.263 x 1.5 = 0.394 m3
Qty of aggregate required = Qty of cement x aggregate's ratio = 0.263 x 3 = 0.789
m3
Let us take water/cement ratio = 45%
Qty of water required = 0.263 x 1440 x 0.45 = 134.13 = 170.42 liter
Qty of Rebar req. = 1 x 7850 x 0.01 = 78.50 KG (density of steel=7850
Kg/m3)
Qty of Binding wire req. = 78.50 x 0.001 = 0.0785 KG (Binding wire =0.1%
of main rebar)

Rate Analysis is taken for 1 m3 of Brickwork

S.N. Resources Types/Level Qty Unit Rate Amount Remarks
A. Materials i. Cement 7.57 Bag 500 3785.00
ii. Sand 0.394 m3 2000 788.00
iii. Aggregate 0.789 m3 2000 1578.00
iv. water 170 Lit 0.01 1.70
v. Rebar 78.50 KG 130 10205.00 1% of RCC
vi. Bending wire 0.0785 KG 150 11.77
Total of Materials (A) 16369.47
B. Labor i. Skilled 0.8 No. 1000 800.00
ii. Unskilled 7 No. 700 4900.00
Total of Labor (B) 5700.00
C. Equipment 3% of unskilled labor = 3% of 4900 147.00
Total of Equipment (C) 147.00
Sub-Total A+B+C 22216.47
D. Contractor 15% of Sub- Total
overhead
15% x 29809.50 3332.47
and Profit
Sub-Total without VAT 25548.94
E. VAT 13% of Sub- Total without VAT 3321.36
Grand Total Amount with VAT NRs. 28870.30 Per Cu m.
8.4 Methods of Building Estimate-

i. Long and short wall method

For the calculating quantity of various construction item, long wall and short
wall method is used. For measuring the long wall and short wall the external
out-to-out length of walls running in the longitudinal direction generally is
considered as ―long wall‖ while the in-to-in internal length of walls running in
the transverse direction is called as ―short wall‖ or ―cross wall‖. For calculating
quantity multiply the length into the breadth and height of the wall.
As shown in the figure we indicate long wall and short wall and centre line is
indicated with red line.
For finding out the length of
long wall, simply add centre
length of wall to the two times
half breadth on one side of the
wall which gives the out-to-
out length of long wall.

Length of Long Wall =

Center to Center Length of
wall + Half Breadth on One
Side + Half Breadth on the
Other Side
= Center to Center Length of wall + One Breadth
For finding out length of short wall or cross wall subtract from the centre
length, so the one breadth of the wall, which gives the length of the short wall
(in-to-in) (instead of adding).
Length of Short Wall = Centre to Centre Length – One breadth
Note: The length of the long wall usually decreases from earthwork to
brickwork, and the length of the short wall is increased.

Here we give example of long wall and short wall method.

Using the above image, you can first find the length of long wall and short
wall.
Centre to Centre length of long wall = 5+ (1/2×0.30) + (1/2 x 0.30) = 5.30 m
Centre to Centre length of short wall= 4+ (1/2 x 0.30) + (1/2×0.30) = 4.30 m
After finding out the length of the long wall and short wall, now find the
quantity of the various items which are used in construction.
You can calculate the quantity of various construction items using the above
method for different building dimension.
Long wall and short wall method is used for finding out the quantity and cost of
materials. This method is simple and accurate, so there is may be no chances of
any mistake. But correctly choose long wall and short wall for finding out
accurate quantity.
 ii. Center line method

In this method of estimation, the total center line length of walls in a building is
first calculated, then the center line length is multiplied with the breadth and depth
of the respective items to get the total quantity at a time.

The center line length for different sections of walls in a building shall be worked
out separately. For verandah walls or partition walls joining the main walls, the
center line length shall be reduced by half of the breadth of the layer of the main
wall that joins with the partition or verandah wall at the same level. The number of
such joints is studied first to obtain the center line length.

By using this method estimation can be finished more quickly. This method is as
accurate as other methods (except for unsymmetrical walls). This method is
suitably used for estimating circular, rectangular, hexagonal, octagonal, etc. shaped
buildings.
Let us take an example:
For One Room Building

First, we need to calculate the total center line length of the building.
Total center line length = 2 x 5.3 + 2 x 4.3 = 19.2 m.
1. Earthwork in excavation = Total center line length x breadth x depth
= 19.2 x 0.9 x (0.3+0.3+0.3)
= 19.2 x 0.9 x 0.9
= 15.52 m3
2. Concrete in foundation = 19.2 x 0.9 x 0.3 = 5.18 m3
3. a) Brickwork in foundation for 1st footing = 19.2 x 0.6 x 0.3 m3
b) Brickwork in foundation for 2nd footing = 19.2 x 0.5 x 0.3 = 2.88 m3
4. Brickwork in superstructure = 19.2 x 3.5 x 0.3 = 20.16 m3
For Two Room Building:

Total center line length = 2 x (5.3+5.3) + 3 x 4.3 = 34.1 m.

1. Earthwork in excavation = Total center line length x breadth x depth
= 34.1 x 0.9 x (0.3+0.3+0.3)
= 34.1 x 0.9 x 0.9
= 27.62 m3

2. Concrete in foundation = 34.1 x 0.9 x 0.3 = 9.20 m3

3.
a) Brickwork in foundation for 1st footing = 34.1 x 0.6 x 0.3 = 6.13 m3
b) Brickwork in foundation for 2nd footing = 34.1 x 0.5 x 0.3 = 5.11 m3

4. Brickwork in superstructure = 34.1 x 3.5 x 0.3 = 35.8 m3

Thus you can estimate the quantity of different items such as

Quantity of D.P.C = Total Centre line length x Breadth of foundation x Thickness
of D.P.C
Quantity of plinth beam = Total Centre line length x Breadth of the beam x
Depth of beam.
Quantity of wall plaster for 2 sides = Total center line length x Height of wall x
Thickness of plaster.
Quantity of Paint for 2 sides of wall = Total center line length x Height of wall x
2 = Area of paint in sq. ft
iii. Crossing method

The cross estimating method is a technique that involves using data from
similar completed projects to estimate the cost of a new project. It is often used
when there is limited information available on the new project or when there are
significant uncertainties in the project scope, schedule, or other variables.

The accuracy of the cross estimating method depends on the quality and relevance
of the data used in the analysis. It is important to ensure that
the completed projects used for comparison are truly comparable to the
new project and that any adjustments made to the cost data are based
on sound reasoning and reliable data sources.
The first step is to identify completed projects that are similar
in scope, size, complexity, and other relevant characteristics to the new project.
This involves conducting research on completed projects in the same industry,
geographic location, and with similar project requirements.

Once similar completed projects have been identified, the next step is to
collect cost data on those projects. This can
include data on labour costs, material costs, equipment costs, overhead costs, and
other relevant costs associated with completing the projects.
The cost data collected from the completed projects may need to be adjusted
to account for differences in inflation, location, market conditions, and
other factors that may impact the cost of the new project. For example, if
the projects were completed several years ago, adjustments may need to be made
for inflation.
Once the cost data has been collected and adjusted, the next step is to calculate
the cost for the new project. This involves using the cost data from
the completed projects as a benchmark and making adjustments based on the
unique characteristics of the new project.
Finally, the cost estimate should be verified to ensure that it is reasonable
and accurate. This can be done by comparing the estimate to other cost
estimates for similar projects, conducting a sensitivity analysis to assess
the impact of changes in key variables, and seeking input from experts and
other stakeholders.
8.5 Detailed Estimate

A detailed estimate is drawn up when there’s more information available or the scope
of the project is better known.

Detailed estimates include incredibly detailed information on quantities, costs and

rates—in fact, all items necessary to complete the project. All the line items are added
together to reach the final cost.

Besides these line items, detailed estimates can also include:

i. Information on the rates used to calculate costs (see quantity estimate

below)
ii. Specifications
iii. Drawings for the areas included in the project (including an index and
key)
Detailed estimates are often used as a contractor’s budget estimate. This planning tool
helps him know how much cash flow he needs and whether he requires financing.

 After getting administrative approval on rough cost estimate, detailed estimates

are prepared.
 In this, the estimate is divided in to sub-heads and quantities of various items
are calculated individually.
 The detailed estimate shall also provide for the cost of approach road, water
supply, electric installation and acquisition of land etc., so as to call it a
comprehensive estimate

Details Estimate
S.N. Item of No. L B H Qty Unit Rate Amount Remarks
Works

1 Site
Clearance
2 E/W in
excavation
3 PCC
4 RCC
5 Plaster
6 Painting
Sub- Total Amount NRs.
VAT @ 13%
Grand- Total Amount NRs.