Nov-Dec 2022

Q1) a) What is deadlock detection and recovery? Explain two options of

deadlock recovery.

Deadlock detection is a technique used in operating systems to identify if a system is

in a deadlock state, where processes are unable to proceed because they are waiting
for resources held by other processes. Deadlock recovery refers to the methods used
to resolve or recover from a deadlock situation. Two options for deadlock recovery
are:

1. Process Termination: In this option, one or more processes involved in the

deadlock are terminated to break the deadlock. The terminated processes
release their held resources, allowing other processes to proceed.
2. Resource Preemption: In this option, resources are preempted or forcibly
taken from one process and given to another process to break the deadlock.
The preempted process is then put in a waiting state until it can acquire the
necessary resources again.
Both options have their advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of deadlock
recovery method depends on the specific system requirements

Question 1.b: What is the producer consumer problem? How to solve it using
semaphore and Mutex?

The producer-consumer problem is a classic synchronization problem in operating

systems. It involves two processes, a producer that produces data and a consumer
that consumes the data. The problem arises when the producer produces data faster
than the consumer can consume it, leading to issues like data loss or deadlock.

One way to solve this problem is by using semaphores. Semaphores are variables
that are used for controlling access to shared resources. In the producer-consumer
problem, we can use two semaphores: an empty semaphore and a full semaphore.
The empty semaphore represents the number of empty slots in the buffer, while the
full semaphore represents the number of filled slots in the buffer. The producer waits
on the empty semaphore before producing data, and signals the full semaphore after
producing data. The consumer waits on the full semaphore before consuming data,
and signals the empty semaphore after consuming data.

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
In question 1.c, the topic is about explaining different types of classical
synchronization problems and providing a detailed explanation of any one of them.

Key points

• Classical synchronization problems refer to common issues that can occur in

concurrent programming.
• One example of a classical synchronization problem is the "dining
philosophers problem," where multiple philosophers compete for limited
resources (forks) and can potentially deadlock.
• The dining philosophers problem can be solved using various synchronization
techniques such as semaphores or monitors.
• The solution involves implementing a set of rules to ensure that the
philosophers can access the forks without causing deadlock or starvation.

In question 2.a, the topic is Inter Process Communication (IPC) and its importance in
operating systems.

Key points

• Inter Process Communication (IPC) refers to the mechanisms used by

processes to communicate with each other.
• IPC is important in operating systems because it allows processes to share
data, synchronize their actions, and coordinate their activities.
• IPC enables processes to exchange information, such as messages or data,
between each other, even if they are running on different machines or in
different address spaces.
• IPC mechanisms include shared memory, message passing, pipes, sockets, and
signals.
• IPC is crucial for implementing various system services and functionalities,
such as client-server architectures, parallel processing, and distributed
computing.

In question 2.b, the topic is about the producer-consumer problem and how to solve
it using semaphore and mutex.

Key points

• The producer-consumer problem is a classic synchronization problem in

operating systems.
• It involves two processes, a producer that produces data and a consumer that
consumes the data.

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
 • The problem arises when the producer tries to produce data while the
consumer is still consuming it, or vice versa.
• Semaphore and mutex are synchronization mechanisms used to solve the
producer-consumer problem.
• Semaphore allows multiple threads to access a shared resource with a
specified limit, while mutex ensures that only one thread can access the
shared resource at a time.
• By using semaphore and mutex, we can ensure that the producer and
consumer processes synchronize their access to the shared buffer, avoiding
any conflicts or race conditions.

In question 2.c, the candidate is asked to explain the concept of a pipe and its two
types: anonymous pipe and named/FIFO pipe.

Key points

• A pipe is a form of inter-process communication that allows the transfer of

data between two processes.
• An anonymous pipe is a one-way communication channel that is created by
the operating system and is used for communication between a parent
process and its child process.
• A named pipe, also known as a FIFO pipe, is a named file that acts as a
communication channel between two or more processes. It allows unrelated
processes to communicate with each other by reading from and writing to the
named pipe file.

Question 3.a asks to explain the following terms: compaction, Belady's anomaly, and
thrashing.

Key points

• Compaction refers to the process of rearranging memory to reduce

fragmentation and improve memory utilization.
• Belady's anomaly is a phenomenon in which increasing the number of page
frames can lead to an increase in the number of page faults.
• Thrashing occurs when a system spends a significant amount of time and
resources swapping pages in and out of memory, resulting in poor
performance.

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
Q3.b. Why is the principle of locality crucial to use of virtual memory? Explain
with example.

The principle of locality is crucial to the use of virtual memory because it allows for
efficient memory management. There are two types of locality: temporal locality and
spatial locality. Temporal locality refers to the idea that if a memory location is
accessed, it is likely to be accessed again in the near future. Spatial locality refers to
the idea that if a memory location is accessed, nearby memory locations are also
likely to be accessed.

By taking advantage of these localities, virtual memory can optimize memory usage
by keeping frequently accessed data in the faster main memory (RAM) and less
frequently accessed data in the slower secondary storage (hard disk). This helps to
reduce the number of page faults and improve overall system performance.

For example, let's say a program is running and it accesses a specific memory
location. Due to temporal locality, it is likely that the program will access that same
memory location again in the near future. By keeping that memory location in the
main memory, the program can access it quickly without having to retrieve it from
the slower secondary storage. This improves the program's execution speed and
overall system performance.

In question 3.c, the term "paging and segmentation" is discussed. The question asks
for a brief explanation of what paging and segmentation are, as well as how logical
physical address translation is done in both.

Key points

• Paging is a memory management technique that divides the physical memory

into fixed-size blocks called pages, while segmentation divides the logical
memory into variable-sized segments.
• Paging uses a page table to translate logical addresses to physical addresses,
while segmentation uses a segment table.
• In logical physical address translation, the logical address is divided into a
segment number and an offset. The segment number is used to index the
segment table, which provides the base address of the segment in physical
memory. The offset is added to the base address to get the physical address.
• Paging and segmentation both provide memory protection and allow for
efficient memory allocation and management. However, they have different
advantages and disadvantages, such as the potential for internal
fragmentation in segmentation and the need for a larger page table in paging.

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
Q.4 a. Write and explain algorithms for :

i) Allocating region

ii) Freeing region

i) Allocating Region:

Algorithm:

1. Check for available space:

o Scan the free list (or other data structure managing free memory) to
find a free block large enough to accommodate the requested region.
2. Best-fit or first-fit strategy:
o Best-fit: Choose the smallest free block that can hold the region to
minimize fragmentation.
o First-fit: Allocate the first suitable block encountered, potentially faster
but might lead to more fragmentation.
3. Split or allocate the block:
o If the free block is larger than needed:
▪ Split it into two blocks: one for the allocated region and one
remaining free.
▪ Update the free list to reflect the new blocks.
o Otherwise, allocate the entire block to the region.
4. Mark the allocated region:
o Update data structures to indicate that the block is now in use.
o This might involve setting flags, maintaining a separate list of allocated
blocks, or using other techniques.
5. Return the address (or descriptor):
o Provide the starting address or a descriptor representing the allocated
region to the requesting program.

ii) Freeing Region:

Algorithm:

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
 1. Identify the region:
o Obtain the address or descriptor of the region to be freed.
2. Mark the region as free:
o Update data structures to indicate that the block is now available for
reuse.
o This involves clearing flags, removing it from the allocated list, or
performing similar actions.
3. Coalesce with adjacent free blocks:
o Check if the freed block is adjacent to other free blocks in memory.
o If so, merge them into a larger contiguous free block to reduce
fragmentation.
4. Update the free list:
o Add the newly freed block (or coalesced block) to the free list (or other
data structure) to make it available for future allocations.

In question 4.c, the student is asked to explain what paging and segmentation are,
and how logical physical address translation is done in both. The student is required
to provide key points and a brief explanation of these concepts.

Key points

• Paging is a memory management technique that divides the logical address

space into fixed-size pages and the physical memory into fixed-size frames.
Logical to physical address translation in paging is done by using a page table,
which maps logical page numbers to physical frame numbers.
• Segmentation is another memory management technique that divides the
logical address space into variable-sized segments. Logical to physical address
translation in segmentation is done by using a segment table, which maps
logical segment numbers to base addresses and limits.
• In both paging and segmentation, the translation from logical to physical
addresses is performed by the memory management unit (MMU) in the
hardware.
• Paging provides a simple and efficient way to manage memory, but it suffers
from internal fragmentation. Segmentation allows for more flexible memory
allocation, but it can suffer from external fragmentation.
• To translate a logical address to a physical address, the MMU uses the page
table or segment table to find the corresponding physical frame or segment

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
 base address. It then adds the offset within the page or segment to get the
final physical address.

In question 5a, the topic is file systems and their implementation. The answer should
provide key points and a brief explanation of file systems.

Key points

• A file system is a method used by operating systems to organize and store

files on a storage device.
• File system implementation involves various components such as file
allocation methods, directory structures, and free space management.
• File allocation methods include contiguous allocation, linked allocation, and
indexed allocation.
• Directory structures can be implemented using different methods such as a
single-level directory, two-level directory, or tree-structured directory.
• Free space management techniques include bit vector and linked list.
• The double buffering scheme provides an advantage over single buffering by
allowing simultaneous reading and writing of data.

Q5.c. Define following term with respect to disk access

i) Seek time
ii) Rotational Latency
iii) Data transfer time

Here are the definitions of the terms related to disk access:

i) Seek Time:

• It's the time required for the read/write head of a disk drive to physically move
to the correct track where the requested data is stored.
• It's influenced by factors like the distance between the current head position
and the target track, the speed of the actuator arm, and the disk drive's
design.
• Typical seek times for modern hard drives are around 4-10 milliseconds.

ii) Rotational Latency:

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
 • It's the time it takes for the desired sector (the specific portion of a track where
the data resides) to rotate under the read/write head once it's positioned on
the correct track.
• It depends on the rotational speed of the disk (usually measured in revolutions
per minute or RPM) and the initial position of the sector relative to the head.
• Average rotational latency is half the time for a full disk rotation, which is
about 5-10 milliseconds for common hard drives.

iii) Data Transfer Time:

• It's the time taken to transfer the actual data from the disk to the system's
memory once the head is positioned over the correct sector and the sector is
ready to be read.
• It's determined by the disk drive's transfer rate (usually measured in
megabytes per second or MB/s) and the amount of data being transferred.
• Data transfer rates for modern hard drives can range from 50-200 MB/s.

Question 6.a asks to explain the directory structure with its types and discuss
directory implementation in detail.

Key points

• The directory structure organizes files and directories in a hierarchical manner.

• The types of directory structures include single-level, two-level, and tree-
structured directories.
• Directory implementation involves creating and managing directories,
including operations like creating, deleting, and searching for

Question 6.b asks for an explanation of directory implementation in detail,

specifically discussing directory structure and its types.

Key points

• Directory structure refers to the organization and management of files and

directories within a file system.
• There are different types of directory structures, including single-level, two-
level, hierarchical, and tree-structured directories.
• Directory implementation involves the use of data structures such as arrays,
linked lists, or trees to store and manage directory information.

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
 • The choice of directory implementation depends on factors such as the size of
the file system, the number of files and directories, and the desired efficiency
of directory operations.

In question 6.c, the topic is about the advantage of the double buffering scheme
over single buffering.

Key points

• Double buffering is a technique used in computer graphics and video

processing to reduce flickering and improve performance.
• In double buffering, two buffers are used: one for rendering and one for
displaying. This allows for smooth and uninterrupted output.
• The advantage of double buffering over single buffering is that it eliminates
flickering and provides a seamless visual experience for the user.
• Double buffering also improves performance by allowing the rendering and
displaying processes to work independently, reducing latency and improving
overall efficiency.

Q7) a) Explain scheduling in

i) Linux Operating Systems
ii) UNIX free BSD OS

i) Scheduling in Linux:

• Completely Fair Scheduler (CFS):

o Default scheduler for non-real-time processes.
o Aims for fair and proportional CPU time allocation to each process.
o Uses a red-black tree to track processes and their virtual runtime
(vruntime).
o Selects the process with the smallest vruntime for execution.
o Prioritizes interactive processes to enhance responsiveness.
• O(1) Scheduler:
o Used for real-time processes with strict timing requirements.
o Guarantees fixed time slices for execution.

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
 o Divides CPU time into epochs, with each process limited to one epoch.
• Other Schedulers:
o Linux supports various specialized schedulers for specific
workloads, such as:
▪ Deadline scheduler for tasks with deadlines
▪ Batch scheduler for non-interactive, long-running tasks
▪ Group scheduling for managing tasks in groups

ii) Scheduling in FreeBSD:

• 4.4BSD Scheduler:
o Default scheduler, based on the scheduler from 4.4BSD.
o Uses multilevel feedback queues with priority levels.
o Dynamically adjusts process priorities based on behavior.
o Favors interactive processes for better responsiveness.
• ULE Scheduler (FreeBSD 5.0+):
o Unified Scheduler for event-driven I/O, aimed at improving scalability
and responsiveness.
o Uses a single ready queue with dynamic priorities based on sleep time
and CPU usage.
o Efficiently handles I/O-bound and CPU-bound processes.

In question 7.b, the task is to explain the grep utility and its variations with examples.

Key points

• The grep utility is a command-line tool used for searching patterns in files.
• It is commonly used in Linux and UNIX operating systems.
• Grep stands for "Global Regular Expression Print."
• It can search for patterns using regular expressions.
• Variations of grep include grep -i (case-insensitive search), grep -v (inverted
search), and grep -r (recursive search).
• Examples of using grep include searching for a specific word in a file,
searching for files containing a specific pattern, and searching for lines that do
not match a pattern.

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
Q.7.c. Explain system calls exec() and brk().

exec():

• Purpose: Replaces the current running process with a new process.

• Action:
o Loads the executable code of the new process into memory.
o Overwrites the current process's memory with the new code and data.
o Begins execution of the new process.
• Common use cases:
o Launching new programs from within a script or shell.
o Creating child processes using fork() followed by exec().

brk():

• Purpose: Changes the size of the program's data segment (heap).

• Action:
o Expands or contracts the heap as needed for dynamic memory
allocation.
o Typically used in conjunction with functions like malloc() and free().
• Common use cases:
o Dynamically allocating memory for data structures at runtime.
o Handling varying memory requirements within a program.

Question 8.a asks for the requirements for a Linux system administrator and the
design principles of Linux systems.

Key points

• The requirements for a Linux system administrator include knowledge of Linux

operating systems, networking, scripting languages, and troubleshooting
skills.
• The design principles of Linux systems include simplicity, modularity, and
flexibility.
• Linux systems are designed to be open-source, allowing for customization and
collaboration among users.

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
 • Linux systems prioritize security and stability, with regular updates and
patches to address vulnerabilities.
• Linux systems support a wide range of hardware and software, making them
versatile and adaptable

In question 8.b, the topic is different types of hypervisors. The question asks for an
explanation of the different types of hypervisors with key points and a brief
explanation.

Key points

• Type 1 hypervisors, also known as bare-metal hypervisors, run directly on the

host's hardware and have direct access to the underlying resources.
• Type 2 hypervisors, also known as hosted hypervisors, run on top of an
existing operating system and rely on the host's resources for virtualization.
• Type 1 hypervisors provide better performance and security compared to
Type 2 hypervisors.
• Examples of Type 1 hypervisors include VMware ESXi, Microsoft Hyper-V, and
Xen.
• Examples of Type 2 hypervisors include VMware Workstation, Oracle
VirtualBox, and Microsoft Virtual PC.

In question 8.c, the candidate is asked to explain the memory management in LINUX
system. The answer should include key points and a brief explanation of the topic.

Key points

• Memory management in LINUX system involves managing the allocation and

deallocation of memory resources.
• The LINUX system uses a virtual memory system, which allows processes to
access more memory than physically available.
• The memory management in LINUX involves techniques such as paging,
segmentation, and demand paging.
• Paging involves dividing the memory into fixed-size pages and mapping them
to physical memory frames.
• Segmentation involves dividing the memory into logical segments and
mapping them to physical memory.
• Demand paging is a technique where pages are loaded into memory only
when they are needed.

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
 • The LINUX system uses page tables to keep track of the mapping between
virtual and physical memory addresses.
• Memory management in LINUX also includes techniques such as memory
allocation, deallocation, and memory protection.

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
May-June 2023
Q1: a) What is synchronization? Operating system support and
programming language support for synchronization.

Synchronization: Synchronization is the coordination of multiple processes

or threads to ensure their correct and orderly execution. It involves
controlling the access to shared resources to avoid conflicts and maintain
data consistency.

Operating System Support: Operating systems provide synchronization

mechanisms to facilitate communication and coordination among
processes. Common synchronization primitives include semaphores,
mutexes, and condition variables.

Programming Language Support: Programming languages offer constructs

for synchronization to help developers write concurrent programs. For
example, Java provides synchronized blocks and methods, and Python
offers the threading module with Locks and Conditions.

b) What is interprocess communication? Explain pipes and shared

memory.

Interprocess Communication (IPC): IPC involves the exchange of data

between processes. Two common IPC mechanisms are pipes and shared
memory.

Pipes: Pipes are a unidirectional communication channel between two

processes. One process writes data to the pipe, and the other reads from it.
Pipes are often used for communication between a parent and child
process. In Unix-like systems, the pipe() system call is used to create pipes.

Shared Memory: Shared memory allows multiple processes to access the

same region of memory. Changes made by one process are immediately

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
visible to others. The operating system handles the protection and
synchronization of shared memory. IPC mechanisms like semaphores are
often used to synchronize access to shared memory.

c) What are classical synchronization problems? Explain any one in

detail.

Classical Synchronization Problems: Classical synchronization problems are

challenges related to coordination and communication between multiple
processes. One example is the "Producer-Consumer Problem."

Producer-Consumer Problem: In this problem, there are two types of

processes: producers that produce data and place it into a shared buffer,
and consumers that retrieve and consume the data from the buffer. The
challenge is to ensure that producers and consumers operate in a
coordinated manner, avoiding issues like buffer overflow or underflow.

Synchronization mechanisms such as semaphores or mutexes are used to

control access to the shared buffer, ensuring that producers and consumers
do not interfere with each other.

Q2: a) What is deadlock? Explain its characteristics with an example.

Deadlock: A deadlock is a state where a set of processes are blocked

because each process is holding a resource and waiting for another
resource acquired by some other process in the set.

Characteristics of Deadlock:

1. Mutual Exclusion: Processes hold exclusive control of resources.

2. Hold and Wait: Processes hold resources while waiting for others.

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
 3. No Preemption: Resources cannot be forcibly taken from a process.
4. Circular Wait: A cycle of processes waiting for resources.

Example: Consider two processes, A and B, and two resources, X and Y. If A

holds X and requests Y, and B holds Y and requests X, a deadlock occurs. A
is waiting for a resource held by B, and vice versa.

b) What are different methods of handling deadlock? Explain deadlock

detection with an example.

Handling Deadlock:

1. Prevention: Ensure that at least one of the four deadlock conditions

never holds.
2. Avoidance: Use algorithms to ensure that the system remains in a
safe state.
3. Detection and Recovery: Identify deadlocks and take corrective
actions.

Deadlock Detection:

• The system periodically checks for the existence of a deadlock.

• If detected, the system may choose to recover by aborting some
processes or releasing resources.

Example: Consider a resource allocation graph where processes and

resources are represented as nodes, and edges represent resource requests
or allocations. A cycle in this graph indicates a potential deadlock. If a cycle
is detected, the system can take corrective measures.

Q3: a) Explain the virtual memory system with a suitable diagram.

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
Virtual Memory System: Virtual memory is a memory management
technique that provides an "idealized abstraction of the storage resources
that are actually available on a given machine" that "creates an illusion to
users of a very large (main) memory."

Diagram: (Unfortunately, I cannot provide a visual representation, but

imagine a diagram with three components: Physical Memory (RAM), Virtual
Memory, and Secondary Storage.)

• Physical Memory (RAM): Represents the actual RAM available in the

system.
• Virtual Memory: Acts as an extension to physical memory. It allows
running processes to use more memory than physically available.
• Secondary Storage: Where data not currently in use is stored. Acts as
a backing store for virtual memory.

b) Explain the basic method for implementing paging. Draw the

paging model of logical and physical memory.

Paging: Paging is a memory management scheme that eliminates the need

for contiguous allocation of physical memory. It allows the physical address
space to be non-contiguous.

Paging Model: (Imagine a diagram with two sections: Logical Memory and
Physical Memory.)

• Logical Memory:
• Divided into fixed-size blocks called "pages."
• Logical addresses consist of a page number and an offset
within the page.
• Physical Memory:
• Divided into frames, each of the same size as pages.
• Physical addresses consist of a frame number and an offset
within the frame.

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
Mapping between logical and physical addresses is done through a page
table.

c) What is swapping? Does swapping increase the Operating system’s

overheads?

Swapping: Swapping is a technique where processes are moved in and out

of the main memory (RAM) and secondary storage (usually a hard disk). It
allows the operating system to bring in the required parts of a program
into memory when needed and swap out parts that are not currently in use.

Operating System Overheads: Swapping can increase operating system

overheads because:

1. I/O Operations: Swapping involves reading from or writing to the

disk, which is slower than accessing RAM.
2. Context Switching: Moving processes in and out of memory
requires saving and restoring their execution context, incurring
additional overhead.

While swapping can help utilize memory more efficiently, the associated
overhead may impact system performance.

Q4: a) Explain the differences between: i) Logical and physical address

space ii) Paging and segmentation

i) Logical and Physical Address Space:

• Logical Address Space: The set of addresses generated by a

program. It represents the addresses that a process uses.

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
 • Physical Address Space: The actual locations in the hardware
memory (RAM) where data is stored.

ii) Paging and Segmentation:

• Paging: Memory is divided into fixed-size blocks (pages). Processes

are divided into equal-sized pages. Simplifies memory management.
• Segmentation: Memory is divided into variable-sized segments. Each
segment corresponds to a logical unit, such as a function or data
structure.

b) What is internal fragmentation and external fragmentation? How

are they reduced?

Internal Fragmentation:

• Definition: Wasted memory within a partition due to the allocation

of a larger block than necessary.
• Reduction: Use dynamic partitioning with techniques like best fit,
worst fit, or buddy system allocation to minimize wasted space.

External Fragmentation:

• Definition: Unallocated memory scattered throughout the system,

making it challenging to allocate contiguous blocks of

Q5: a) List and explain file types and file access methods.

File Types:

1. Regular Files: Store user data.

2. Directories: Contain lists of file names and their corresponding inodes.
3. Special Files: Represent devices (e.g., /dev/sda).

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
 4. Links: Pointers to other files.

File Access Methods:

1. Sequential Access: Read/write data sequentially (e.g., tapes).

2. Random Access: Directly access any part of the file (e.g., disks).
3. Text vs. Binary Access: Text files store human-readable characters, while
binary files store data in a format understood by the computer.

b) What are different disk scheduling policies? Explain SCAN and CSCAN with
an example.

Disk Scheduling Policies:

1. First-Come-First-Serve (FCFS): Serves requests in the order they arrive.

2. Shortest Seek Time First (SSTF): Serves the request with the shortest seek
time.
3. SCAN (Elevator): Moves the disk arm back and forth, serving requests in its
path.
4. C-SCAN: Similar to SCAN but only moves in one direction, servicing requests
along the way.

Example of SCAN: Assume disk requests at positions 98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67.

• Initial head position: 53.

• SCAN moves to 0, servicing 14, 37.
• Then to 122, servicing 65, 67.
• Finally, to 183, servicing 124.
• Direction changes after reaching the ends.

c) Explain how free space management is done by the Operating System?

Free Space Management:

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
 1. Bit Vector or Bitmap: Each block has a bit indicating whether it is free or
allocated.
2. Linked List: Blocks are linked to form a list, where free blocks point to the
next free block.
3. Counting: Maintain a count of free blocks in a designated block.

The OS tracks free space to efficiently allocate and deallocate storage.

Q6: a) What are different disk scheduling policies? Explain LIFO and SCAN with
an example.

Disk Scheduling Policies:

1. LIFO (Last-In-First-Out): Serves the last request first.

2. SCAN (Elevator): Moves the disk arm back and forth, serving requests in its
path.

Example of LIFO: Assume disk requests at positions 98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67.

• LIFO serves requests in reverse order: 67, 65, 124, 14, 122, 37, 183, 98.

b) Given memory partition of 100K, 500K, 200K, 300K, and 600K (in order).
How would each of First fit, best fit, and worst fit algorithm place processes of
size 212K, 417K, 112K, 426K (in order)? Which also makes the most efficient use
of memory.

First Fit:

• 212K: 300K partition.

• 417K: 600K partition.
• 112K: 200K partition.
• 426K: No suitable partition; may lead to fragmentation.

Best Fit:

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
 • 212K: 300K partition.
• 417K: 600K partition.
• 112K: 200K partition.
• 426K: 500K partition (smallest sufficient).

Worst Fit:

• 212K: 600K partition (largest).

• 417K: No suitable partition; may lead to fragmentation.
• 112K: 300K partition.
• 426K: No suitable partition; may lead to fragmentation.

Efficiency: Best Fit usually results in the most efficient use of memory by selecting
the smallest suitable partition.

c) What is Directory? Explain directory implementation and allocation methods.

Directory:

• A directory is a file system cataloging structure that contains references to

other computer files.

Directory Implementation:

1. Linear List: A simple list containing entries with the file names and pointers to
their data blocks.
2. Hash Table: Entries are hashed to quickly locate a file.
3. Multilevel Index: A hierarchical structure with indexes pointing to
subdirectories or files.

Allocation Methods:

1. Contiguous Allocation: Each file occupies a contiguous block of disk space.

2. Linked Allocation: Each file is a linked list of disk blocks.
3. Indexed Allocation: An index block contains pointers to the actual data
blocks of the file.

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
Q7: a) What are the goals of Linux? Also, interfaces to Linux.

Goals of Linux:

1. Portability: Run on a wide range of hardware.

2. Multiuser and Multitasking: Support multiple users and tasks concurrently.
3. Stability and Reliability: Provide a stable and reliable operating environment.
4. Open Source: Source code accessible and modifiable by users.

Interfaces to Linux:

1. Command-Line Interface (CLI): Shell commands for direct interaction.

2. Graphical User Interface (GUI): Desktop environments like GNOME or KDE.
3. Application Programming Interface (API): Libraries and system calls for
programmatic interaction.

b) What is the kernel? Explain the structure of the kernel.

Kernel:

• The kernel is the core component of the operating system, responsible for
managing resources, providing services, and acting as an interface between
hardware and software.

Structure of the Kernel:

1. Process Management: Manages processes, scheduling, and context

switching.
2. Memory Management: Allocates and deallocates memory, handles virtual
memory.
3. File System Management: Manages file systems, directories, and storage.
4. Device Drivers: Interfaces with hardware devices.
5. System Calls: Provides an interface for user-level processes to request
services from the kernel.

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
c) Explain various process management system calls in Linux with an example.

Process Management System Calls:

1. fork(): Creates a new process by duplicating the calling process.

2. exec(): Replaces the current process image with a new one.
3. wait(): Waits for a child process to terminate and returns its status.
4. exit(): Terminates the calling process.
5. getpid(): Returns the process ID of the calling process.

Q8: a) Define the components of LINUX system with a diagram. What is the
responsibility of the kernel in the LINUX operating system?

Components of Linux System:

1. Hardware: Physical computer components.

2. Kernel: Core of the operating system.
3. Shell: Interface for users to interact with the kernel.
4. Utilities: System management and user applications.
5. System Libraries: Code libraries for application development.

Responsibility of the Kernel:

• The kernel is responsible for managing hardware resources, providing system

services, and acting as a bridge between hardware and software. It handles
process scheduling, memory management, device drivers, and filesystems.

b) What are different Process management system calls in Linux? Explain exec()
and brk() in detail.

Process Management System Calls:

1. fork(): Creates a new process by duplicating the calling process.

2. exec(): Replaces the current process image with a new one.

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SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav
 3. wait(): Waits for a child process to terminate and returns its status.
4. exit(): Terminates the calling process.
5. getpid(): Returns the process ID of the calling process.

exec() System Call:

• Definition: Replaces the current process image with a new one.

• Example:
cCopy code
char *args[] = { "ls" , "-l" , NULL }; execvp( "ls" , args);

brk() System Call:

• Definition: Changes the end of the data segment of the calling process.
• Example:
cCopy code
brk(new_end);

c) Explain implementation of process and threads in Linux.

Process Implementation in Linux:

• Each process has its address space, file descriptors, and other resources.
• Processes are created using the fork() system call.
• Communication between processes can be achieved through Interprocess
Communication (IPC) mechanisms.

Thread Implementation in Linux:

• Threads share the same address space and resources within a process.
• Threads are created using the pthread_create() library function.
• Threads within a process can communicate through shared data.

Linux supports both processes and threads, providing flexibility for developers to
choose the appropriate concurrency model for their applications.

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All Question answers.
SPPU Nov-Dec 2022 and Apr-May 2019 Operating System -By Soham Jadhav