BIOLOGY NOTES :- CONTROL AND COORDINATION

Control and Coordination

For survival, an organism’s body must respond correctly to various stimuli it receives.
Some important terms:
• Stimulus: An agent or sudden change in the external or internal environment which causes a change
in an organism or any of its body parts.
• Response: The change in organisms resulting from a stimulus.
• Receptors: Nerve cells which initiate waves of impulses towards the central nervous system on
receiving a stimulus.
• Effectors: Muscles or glands which contract or secrete substances on receiving an impulse from the
brain or spinal cord.

Functions of the Nervous System

• Keeps us informed about the outside world through sensory organs.

• Controls and harmonises all voluntary muscular activities. Example- running and writing.
• Enables us to remember, think and reason.
• Regulates involuntary activities such as breathing and beating of the heart.

Neuron

• A neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system.

The three main parts of a neuron are:

• Cell Body- It has a well defined nucleus and granular cytoplasm.
• Dendrites- Dendrites are branched cytoplasmic projections of the cell body.
• Axon- It is a long process of the cell body. The end portions of the axons have swollen bulb-like
structures which store neurotransmitters.
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Synapse

• The synapse is the point of contact between the terminal branches of the axons.

• Axon terminals of a neuron and the dendrites of another neuron are separated by a fine gap, i.e. a
synaptic cleft.
• The nerve impulse is sent across the synaptic cleft with the help of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

Reflex Action

• Involuntary actions in response to external or internal stimuli are termed as reflex actions.
• The peripheral nervous system and spinal cord are involved in controlling reflex actions.
• The path travelled by the impulse during a reflex action is called a reflex arc.
• A reflex arc can be represented as follows:
Stimulus → Receptor in the sense organ → Afferent (sensory) nerve fibre → CNS (spinal cord)
→ Efferent (motor) nerve fibre → Muscle/Gland → Response

Examples of Reflex Arc

• When you touch a hot object, you withdraw your hand from it immediately.
• Shivering when it is too cold or sweating when it is too hot.
• Dilation of the pupils of the eye to look in the dark and vice versa.
• When you smell your favourite dish, your mouth waters.

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Divisions of the Nervous System

Nervous
System

Peripheral
Central Nervous Nervous System
System (CNS)
(PNS)

The Central Nervous System

The central nervous system includes the brain and the spinal cord.

A. The Brain
• The human brain is the largest among all animals.

• It is well protected by the cranium or the skull.

• Three membranous coverings called meninges cover the brain.
• Inflammation of the meninges is called meningitis.
• The space between the covering membranes, central spaces of the brain and the central canal of
the spinal cord is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
• Three primary regions of the brain are forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.

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Brain

Forebrain Midbrain Hindbrain

Cerebrum Diencephalon Cerebellum

Thalamus Pons

Medulla
Hypothalamus
Oblongata

Parts of the Brain

1. Cerebrum • It is divided into two cerebral hemispheres connected to each other

by the corpus callosum.
• The walls have an outer cortex and inner medulla.
• The cortex contains cell bodies of the neuron and is greyish in
colour; hence, it is called grey matter.
• The medulla consists of axons of the nerve fibres and is called
white matter.
2. Cerebellum • It is located at the base of the cerebrum.
• It has numerous furrows.
3. Medulla Oblongata • It is located at the base of the skull.
• It is roughly triangular.
• It continues behind the brain as the spinal cord.
• Injury to the medulla oblongata results in death.

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B. The Spinal Cord

• Extends from the medulla oblongata down to almost the whole length of the backbone and ends at
the second lumbar vertebra.
• The grey matter is on the inner side and white matter is on the outer side of the spinal cord.
• The spinal cord is responsible for reflexes below the neck.
• It conducts sensory impulses from the skin and muscles to the brain.
• It conducts motor responses from the brain to muscles of the trunk and limbs.

Peripheral Nervous System

• The Peripheral Nervous System consists of nerves which carry impulses to and from the central
nervous system.

Peripheral
Nervous
System

Somatic
Nervous Autonomic
System (Cranial Nervous
and Spinal System
Nerves)

Parasympatheti
Sympathetic
c Nervous
System
System

• The Somatic Nervous System is made up of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
• Cranial nerves emerge from the brain and spinal nerves originate from the dorsal and ventral roots of
the spinal cord.
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Coordination in Plants

Nastic Movements
• The movement of a plant in response to an external stimulus, in which the direction of response is not
determined by the direction of stimulus, is called nastic movement.
• Nastic movements are shown by flat parts of the plants such as leaves and petals.
• Example-
Daisy flowers close at dusk and open at daybreak; this may be referred to as sleep movements.
This response however should not be confused with thigmotropism as the folding of leaves always
occurs in the same direction irrespective of the direction of the stimulus.
• Two types of nastic movements are:
A. Photonasty is a nastic movement to the light and dark phases of the day.
Example- Flowers of primrose blossom during the evening but close during the day.
B. Nyctinasty is the movement in response to dark. Certain parts of a plant such as the leaves and
flowers take up a different posture at night than that in the day.
Example- Leaves of the rain tree fold by nightfall.

Movement Due to Growth

The movement of plant organs towards or away from a stimulus is known as tropism.
Since the tropic movements are slow, the stimulus needs to be continued for a longer time for the effects
to be noticed.
The different types of tropic movements in plants are:

1. Phototropism • The movement of plant parts towards or away from light is termed as
phototropism.

• Because shoots of most plants grow towards the source of light, it is termed as
positive phototropism.
• Roots grow away from light and hence are negatively phototropic.
2. Geotropism • The movement of plant organs in response to gravity is termed as geotropism.

• Roots are positively geotropic because they grow in the direction of gravity.
• The shoot grows upwards, i.e. against gravity, and hence is negatively
geotropic.
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3. Thigmotropism • The movement of plant organs in response to stimuli caused by physical

contact with solid objects is termed thigmotropism.
• Weak-stemmed plants use twining stems and tendrils to climb on other
plants/objects which provide them support. Hence, twining stems and tendrils
are positively thigmotropic.
4. Hydrotropism • The movement of plant organs in response to water is termed hydrotropism.

• Roots grow towards the source of moisture and hence are positively
hydrotropic.
5. Chemotropism • The movement of plant organs in response to a chemical stimulus is called
chemotropism.

• When plant organs grow away from the chemical response it is called negative
chemotropism.
• When plant parts grow towards the chemical response it is called positive
chemotropism. For example, pollen tubes grow towards the sugary substance
secreted by the stigma of the flower.

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Plant Hormones (Phytohormones)

Plant hormones control some aspects of the growth of plants such as cell division, cell enlargement and
cell differentiation.

Phytohormones Description
1. Auxins • Promote growth of plants.
• They are secreted by the cells present in the tip of stems
and roots.
• Synthetic auxins are used in horticulture.
2. Gibberellins • Promote cell differentiation in the presence of auxins.
• They break seed dormancy.
• Stimulate elongation of shoots.
3. Cytokinins • Promote cell division in plants.
• Delay ageing of leaves.
• Promote opening of stomata.
• Promote fruit growth.
4. Abscisic Acid • Acts as a growth inhibitor.
• It promotes dormancy in seeds and buds.
• Promotes closing of stomata.
• Promotes wilting and falling of leaves.
• Detachment of flowers and fruits from the plants is due to
abscisic acid.

Hormones in Animals

Hormones Functions Disorders

1. Adrenaline • Adrenaline prepares the
Produced by the adrenal body for the fight and flight
glands. mechanism.
2. Thyroxine • Regulates carbohydrate, • Simple goitre
Secreted by the thyroid protein and fat • Ophthalmic Goitre
gland. metabolism. • Cretinism
• It increases the basal
metabolic rate (BMR).
• It regulates body growth
such as ossification of
bones and mental
development.
3. Growth Hormone • It is essential for normal • Dwarfism
Secreted by the anterior growth. • Gigantism
lobe of the pituitary gland.

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4. Insulin • Regulates the blood • Diabetes Mellitus

Secreted by pancreas glucose (sugar) level. High concentration of
sugar in blood
(hyperglycemia).
5. Testosterone • Controls the development
Secreted by the testes in of sex organs in males.
males. • Controls the development
of secondary sexual
characters during puberty.
6. Oestrogen • Controls the development
Secreted by the ovaries in of female sex organs.
females. • Controls the development
of secondary sexual
characters during puberty
in females.

Feedback Mechanism
• The body has mechanisms to maintain its normal state.
• Whenever there is a change in the normal state, messages are sent to increase secretions if there is a
fall below the normal levels or to decrease secretions if there is a rise above the normal levels to
restore the normal body state. Such a mechanism is called Negative Feedback Mechanism.
• Example- Blood sugar level
The increase in blood sugar level stimulates the secretion of insulin so that the sugar level is
maintained. If there is a fall in the blood sugar level below normal, it stimulates the secretion of
glucagon. Glucagon stimulates the breakdown of glycogen to glucose, and thus the normal sugar level
is maintained.

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