𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

ELECTRO-MAGNETIS
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT:
When current flows in a wire, a magnetic field is created around the wire.
The direction of magnetic field created is determined by the direction of current.
❖ If a straight vertical wire passing through the center of a card board held horizontally with
iron fillings and current is passed through the wire, iron fillings sprinkled on the card board
make concentric circles when the board is tapped.

𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅

𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒃𝒐𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉
𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔

𝑾𝒊𝒓𝒆

Experiment to show magnetic effect of an electric current using a compass needle.

𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒃𝒐𝒂𝒓𝒅

𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅

𝐀
▪ A card board is held horizontally with a vertical copper wire passing through the centre of the
card board.
▪ Iron fillings are sprinkled all over the card board and current is switched on.
▪ The card board is tapped and the iron fillings arrange themselves in series of concentric
circles. This shows that a magnetic field has been created around the wire.
▪ A plotting compass is placed at different positions around the wire on the card board to
determine the direction of magnetic field.
NOTE: The concentric circles are close to each other near the wire showing that magnetic force
is stronger near the wire.

DIRECTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD AND CURRENT

The direction of the magnetic field around the wire can be determined by the following rules.
Right hand grip rule:
It states that if a wire is held in the right hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of current
then the other fingers point in the direction of magnetic field.

𝑻𝒉𝒖𝒎𝒃 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆

𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑶𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆

𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆
𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅

Maxwell’s cork-screw rule:

It states that if the right hand is used to screw a screw a cork-screw along the wire in the
direction of current, the direction of rotation of the screw gives the direction of magnetic field.
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆
𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅

𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
 𝑼𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑶′𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒔

MAGNETIC FIELD PATTERN DUE TO A STRAIGHT WIRE CARRYING CURRENT.

(a) Straight wire carrying current into a paper:
We use a cross

𝐎𝐑

(b) Straight carrying current out of paper:

We use a dot

𝐎𝐑

(c) Two straight wires carrying current in the same direction:

𝐎𝐑

𝐗
(d) Two straight wires carrying current in opposite directions:

(e) Current due to a circular coil:

(f) Current due to a circular coil:

𝐎𝐑

𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕
ELECTRO-MAGNETS
If a piece of iron is placed inside a solenoid, it becomes strongly magnetized when the current is
flowing. When current is switched off, the iron loses its magnetism. Such a device is called an
electromagnet.
Definition:
An electromagnet is a magnet produced when a magnetic material is placed in a
solenoid carrying current.

Factors that affect the strength of an electromagnet:

❖ Number of turns of the solenoid:
Increasing the number of turns of the solenoid increases the strength of the electromagnet.
❖ Amount of current flowing in the solenoid:
Increasing the current flowing in the solenoid increases the strength the electromagnet.
❖ Nature of magnetic material used:
If soft iron is used, it has much strength because iron is easily magnetized and easily
demagnetized.
❖ Shape of magnetic material used:
If the poles of the magnetic material are close to each other the electromagnet produced is
stronger. A horse-shoe magnet produces a stronger electromagnet.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETS
Electromagnets are frequently used in the following devices.
▪ Lifting magnets.
▪ Electric bells.
▪ Telephone receiver.
▪ Moving coil loud speaker.
▪ Magnetic relays.

LIFTING MAGNETS:
In steel industries, electromagnets are used for lifting and transporting heavy steel from one
place to another in a factory.
The electromagnets are made of several coils of an insulated copper wire wound on a U-shaped
soft iron so that an opposite polarity is produced.
The opposite adjacent poles increase the lifting power of the electromagnet.
𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏

𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝐍 𝐒
ELECTRIC BELL:
Structure:
It consists of a hammer, a gong, soft iron armature, contact adjusting screw, a push switch, steel
spring and an electromagnet made of two coils wound in opposite directions on the iron cores.
𝑩𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒚

𝑷𝒖𝒔𝒉 𝒔𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘
𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆

(𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕) 𝑯𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓

𝑮𝒐𝒏𝒈

Mode of operation of an electric bell:

▪ When the switch is pressed, current flows in the circuit and magnetizes the soft iron core
which becomes an electromagnet.
▪ The electromagnet attracts the soft iron armature which makes the hammer to hit the gong
and a loud sound is heard.
▪ As the armature is attracted, the contact between the spring and the contact screw is broken
thus cutting off the current.
▪ The electromagnet loses its magnetism and the spring returns back to its original position and
makes the contact again.
▪ The process is repeated and the hammer hits the gong repeatedly making continuous ringing.

TELEPHONE RECEIVER (EAR PIECE):

𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒅

𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒚 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒑𝒉𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒎

𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 (𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕)
▪ When a person speaks into a telephone microphone, sound energy is converted into electric
current. The current produced is varying and has the same frequency as the sound from the
person.
▪ When the current passes through the solenoid in the telephone receiver, the soft iron
(electromagnet) is magnetized.
▪ The electromagnet produces a corresponding variation in the pull of the diaphragm.
▪ The diaphragm then vibrates and reproduces a copy of the sound produced by the person
through the microphone.

MAGNETIC RELAY:
A magnetic relay is a switch which uses a small current in a primary circuit to turn on or off a
larger current in the secondary circuit.
They are used in telephone circuits, traffic light circuits etc.

Mode of operation of a magnetic relay:

𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕

𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕
𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆
(𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕)
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒔𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉

▪ The primary circuit supplies current to the soft iron (electromagnet).

▪ The soft iron gets magnetized and it then attracts the iron armature.
▪ As the armature is attracted, the contacts of the second switch are closed and current flows to
the secondary circuit.
▪ When current in the primary circuit is switched off, the electromagnet loses its magnetism.
This makes the iron armature to return back to its original position thus making the contacts
of the second switch to become open again
CIRCUIT BREAKER:
This is an automatic switch that cuts off current in the circuit when current become too much.
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒃𝒖𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏
𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝟐

𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝟏

𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕
When current in the circuit increases, the strength of the electromagnet will also increase thus
pulling the soft iron armature towards the electromagnet.
As a result, spring 1 pulls the contact apart and disconnects the circuit immediately and current
stops to flow.
The circuit can be reconnected back using a reset button by pushing down in order to bring the
contacts together.

FORCE ON A CONDUCTOR CARRYING CURRENT IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

(MOTOR EFFECT)
When a conductor carrying current is placed across a magnetic field, it experiences a force

How a force on a current carrying conductor occurs:

A magnetic field exists around a conductor carrying current.
Therefore, when a conductor carrying current is placed across a magnetic field of a permanent
magnet, the magnetic field due to the current in the conductor interacts with the magnetic field
due to the permanent magnet. This interaction results in a force being produced on the conductor.

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕

𝐍 𝐒 𝐍 𝐒

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒂 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
(a) Individual magnetic fields (b) Combined magnetic fields
DIRECTION OF FORCE:
The direction of force exerted on a conductor can be found by using Fleming’s left hand rule.

Fleming’s left hand rule;

It states that if the left hand is held with the thumb, first finger and second finger placed at right
angles to each other, the thumb points in the direction of force, the first finger points in the
direction of magnetic field and second finger points in the direction of current.

Illustration of Fleming’s left-hand rule:

F

N S S N
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒘𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒖𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒔

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

N S S N

F
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒘𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒔
Example:
The diagram below shows a wire AB placed between the poles of a permanent magnet.
B

S N S N
A
State what is observed when current flows in the wire using Fleming’s left hand rule.
(i) In the direction AB.
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝒖𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒔
(ii) In the direction BA.
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒔

Factors that affect magnitude of force on a current carrying conductor:

a) Amount of current:
Increasing the amount of current flowing in the conductor increases the magnitude of
force created.
b) Strength of magnetic field:
Increasing the strength of magnetic field increases the magnitude of force created. This
can be done by using a stronger magnet.
c) Length of a conductor:
Increasing the length of a conductor increases the magnitude of force created.
d) Cross sectional area of a conductor:
The larger the cross-sectional area of a conductor, the larger the force created.

NOTE:
When the magnetic field and current are parallel to each other, no force is exerted on the
conductor.

Force between two parallel conductors carrying current in opposite directions

F F

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒆𝒍 𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓

Force between two parallel conductors carrying current in the same direction

X
F F

𝑶𝑹

X
F F

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕 𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓

APPLICATIONS OF MOTOR EFFECT

Force on a current carrying conductor can be applied in the following;
▪ Moving coil loud speaker
▪ D.C motor
▪ Moving coil galvanometer

MOVING COIL LOUD SPEAKER:

It consists of a light coil of wire known as a voice coil placed in a magnetic field provided by the
permanent magnet.
Loud speakers can be used in; radios, Bluetooth speakers etc.

𝑽𝒐𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕

𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆

𝑷𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒊𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒔

𝑭𝒍𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒔

𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕
Mode of operation of a moving coil galvanometer:
▪ When varying current flows into the voice coil in a radial magnetic field of the permanent
magnet, the voice coil experiences a varying force and vibrates at the same frequency as the
current.
▪ This sets the paper cone to also vibrate at the same frequency as the current in voice coil.
▪ The vibration of the paper cone sets the air in contact with it to vibrate thus a loud sound is
heard.

ELECTRIC MOTOR (D.C MOTOR)

The direct current motor converts electrical energy to kinetic energy.
They are used in; Printers, Fans, Water pumps etc.
Structure:
It consists of a rectangular coil which can rotate in a magnetic field provided by the permanent
magnet. The ends of the coil are connected to two halves of a copper ring (split rings or
commutators)
Two carbon brushes press against the commutators so that when the circuit is connected to a
battery the coil rotates.

B C
F

F
A D
N S
𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒉

𝑹𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕

𝑺𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒖𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓
𝑩𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒚
(𝑺𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 / 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈)

Mode of operation:
▪ When the switch is closed, current flows into the rectangular coil ABCD.
▪ Side CD experiences an upward force and side AB experiences a downward force according
to Fleming’s left hand rule.
▪ The two forces form a couple which causes the coil to rotate in the anticlockwise direction.
▪ When the coil rotates until it reaches the vertical position, the carbon brushes lose contact
with the commutator and current is cut off.
▪ However, the coil continues to rotate and passes over the vertical position due to the
momentum gained.
▪ The two commutators interchange contacts with the carbon brushes.
▪ This reverses the direction of current in the coil and the forces experienced by the sides of the
coil.
▪ The coil continues to rotate as long as current is flowing.

Energy losses in an electric motor and how they are minimized.

ENERGY LOSS HOW TO MINIMIZE IT
▪ Energy loss due friction e.g. between ▪ By lubricating i.e. oiling and greasing.
carbon brushes and commutators.
▪ Energy loss due to heating effect in the ▪ By using thick copper wires of low
coil due to resistance. resistance.
▪ Energy loss due to eddy currents. This is
as a result of the changing magnetic flux ▪ By winding the coil on a laminated iron
in the coil. core.

Back emf of a motor;

When the coil cuts across the magnetic field of the permanent magnets, an emf is induced and acts
in an opposite direction to the emf applied to rotate the motor.
The new emf induced is called back emf.
𝑳𝒆𝒕;
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑰𝑨
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑬
𝐵𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝑬𝑩
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑹𝑨
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒏;
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒆𝒎𝒇
𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝑬 − 𝑬𝑩
𝑰𝑨 =
𝑹𝑨

𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑰𝑨 𝑬 𝑩
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑰𝑨 𝑬
𝑬𝑩
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬

The efficiency or strength of an electric motor can be increased by;

▪ Increasing current flowing through the coils.
▪ Increasing the number of turns in the coil.
▪ Using a stronger magnet to increase the strength of magnetic field.
▪ Winding the coil on a soft-magnetic material e.g. soft-iron.
Examples:
1. A motor whose armature resistance is 2Ω is operated on a 240V mains supply. Given the
back emf in the motor is 220V.
Calculate;
(i) the current through the armature.
(ii) the efficiency of the motor.
(i) (ii)
𝑹𝑨 = 𝟐𝛀, 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽, 𝑬𝑩 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝑽 𝑬𝑩
𝑬 − 𝑬𝑩 𝜼 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬
𝑰𝑨 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝑹𝑨 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟐𝟒𝟎 − 𝟐𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝑰𝑨 = 𝜼 = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟕%
𝟐
𝟐𝟎
𝑰𝑨 =
𝟐
𝑰𝑨 = 𝟏𝟎𝑨

2. The current through the armature of an electric motor of resistance 6Ω is 2A. If the armature
is connected to a 120V mains supply, calculate the efficiency of the motor.

𝑹𝑨 = 𝟔𝛀, 𝑬 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑽, 𝑬𝑩
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬𝑩 =?, 𝑰𝑨 = 𝟐𝑨, 𝜼 =? 𝑬
𝑬 − 𝑬𝑩 𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝑰𝑨 = 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑹𝑨 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟐𝟎 − 𝑬𝑩 𝜼 = 𝟗𝟎%
𝟐=
𝟔
𝑬𝑩 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 − 𝟏𝟐
𝑬𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝑽
Exercise:
1. A 240V vacuum cleaner motor takes a current of 0.6A. Find the efficiency of the motor if the
useful mechanical power output is 72W. State how the rest of the energy is being wasted.
2. An electric motor 90% efficient operates a water pump. If it raises 0.9kg of water through
20m every second, calculate;
(i) Power output by the motor.
(ii) Back emf through the motor if the current through it is 5A.
(iii) Electric power supplied to the motor (power input).

MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER:

This is a device used to detect small currents and small potential differences (voltages)

Structure:
It consists of a rectangular coil wound on an aluminium former and placed over a cylindrical iron
core. The coil rotates in the radial magnetic field provided by the poles of the permanent
magnets. The radial magnetic field ensures that the coil is always perpendicular to magnetic flux.
Current flows in and out of galvanometer through the hair springs.
The hair springs also controls the rotation of the coil and the pointer.
 𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆

𝑺𝟐
𝑷𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕

𝑪𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝑺𝟏 𝑪𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆

𝑯𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔
Mode of operation of a moving coil galvanometer:
▪ When current flows through the coil, the two vertical sides experience parallel opposite forces.
▪ The two forces form a couple which causes to rotate until it is stopped by the hair springs.
▪ As the coil rotates, the pointer deflects on the linear scale showing the amount of current
flowing in the coil.
▪ When current stops flowing, the hair springs return the pointer to zero position on the scale.

SENSITIVITY OF A GALVANOMETER:
A galvanometer is said to be more sensitive if it can detect very small currents and very small
voltages.
There are two types of sensitivity namely;
Current sensitivity: This is the deflection per unit current.
Voltage sensitivity: this is the deflection per unit voltage.

How to increase the sensitivity of a galvanometer.

• By using a strong magnet to provide a strong magnetic field.
• By increasing the number of turns on the coil.
• By using a coil of large cross sectional area.
• By using very weak hair springs.

Advantages of a moving coil galvanometer:

• It is used to measure both alternating and direct current.
• It has a linear scale.
• It is not affected by external magnetic fields.
• It is portable.
 CONVERTING A GALVANOMETER INTO A VOLTMETER
Recall: A voltmeter has a high resistance so that no current can pass through it.
A galvanometer reads very small voltages in milli-voltages and can be converted into a voltmeter
to read large voltages.
This can be done by connecting a multiplier in series with the galvanometer.
Definition:
A multiplier is a resistor of high resistance.
𝑹𝒈
𝑰𝒈 𝑰𝒎
𝑰 𝑮 𝑹𝒎

𝑽𝒈 𝑽𝒎

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃. 𝑑 = 𝑃. 𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑃. 𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟

𝑽 = 𝑽𝒈 + 𝑽𝒎
But from Ohm’s law 𝑉𝑔 = 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔 , 𝑉𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚
𝑽 = 𝑰 𝒈 𝑹𝒈 + 𝑰 𝒎 𝑹𝒎
Since the galvanometer and multiplier are in series, the current through galvanometer is equal to
current through multiplier i.e. 𝑰𝒈 = 𝑰𝒎

𝑽 = 𝑰 𝒈 𝑹𝒈 + 𝑰 𝒈 𝑹𝒎

Examples:
1. A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 6Ω gives a full scale deflection of 15mA. How can
it be converted to a voltmeter which can measure a maximum voltage of 5V?
15
𝐈𝑔 = 15mA = = 0.015A 𝐕 = 5V
1000
𝑹𝒈 = 𝟔𝛀
𝑰𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝑨 𝑰𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝑨
𝑮 𝑹𝒎

𝑽𝒈 𝑽𝒎

𝑽 = 𝑽𝒈 + 𝑽𝒎
𝑽 = 𝑰 𝒈 𝑹𝒈 + 𝑰 𝒎 𝑹𝒎
𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓 × 𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓 × 𝑹𝒎
𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝑹𝒎
𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗
= 𝑹𝒎
𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓
𝑹𝒎 = 𝟑𝟐𝟕. 𝟑𝟑𝛀
A multiplier of 327.33Ω should be connected in series with the galvanometer.
2. A moving coil galvanometer reads 0.05A at full scale deflection and has a resistance of 2Ω.
Calculate the resistance that should be connected in series with the galvanometer so as to
convert it to a voltmeter which reads 15V at full scale deflection.
𝐈𝑔 = 0.05A 𝐕 = 15V
𝑹𝒈 = 𝟐𝛀
𝑰𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝑨 𝑰𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝑨
𝑮 𝑹𝒎

𝑽𝒈 𝑽𝒎
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒈 + 𝑽𝒎
𝑽 = 𝑰 𝒈 𝑹𝒈 + 𝑰 𝒎 𝑹𝒎
𝟏𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 × 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 × 𝑹𝒎
𝟏𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝑹𝒎
𝟏𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟏
= 𝑹𝒎
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝑹𝒎 = 𝟐𝟗𝟖𝛀
A multiplier of 298Ω should be connected in series with the galvanometer.

CONVERTING A GALVANOMETER INTO AN AMMETER

Recall: An ammeter has a very low resistance so that a large current can pass through it.
A galvanometer reads very small currents in milli-amperes and can be converted into an ammeter
to read large currents.
This can be done by connecting a shunt in parallel with the galvanometer.
Definition:
A shunt is a resistor of low resistance.
𝑹 𝒈 , 𝑽𝒈
𝑰 𝑰𝒈
𝑮
𝑰𝒔

𝑹𝒔
𝑽𝒔
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡.
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒈 + 𝑰𝒔
𝑰𝒔 = 𝑰 − 𝑰𝒈
Since the galvanometer and shunt are in parallel, the P,d across the galvanometer is equal to P.d
across the shunt.
𝐕𝒈 = 𝐕𝒔
But from Ohm’s law 𝑉𝑔 = 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔 , 𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑅𝑠
𝑰𝒈 𝑹𝒈 = 𝑰𝒔 𝑹𝒔

𝑰 𝒈 𝑹𝒈
𝐑𝒔 =
𝑰𝒔
Examples:
1. A galvanometer of resistance 20Ω gives a full scale deflection of 5mA. How can it be
converted to an ammeter which can measure a maximum current of 2A?
5 𝐕𝒈 = 𝐕𝒔
𝑰𝒈 = 5𝑚𝐴 = = 0.005𝐴
1000 𝑰 𝒈 𝑹𝒈 = 𝑰 𝒔 𝑹𝒔
𝑹𝒈 = 20𝛺 , 𝑽𝒈 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 × 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟓 × 𝑹𝒔
𝑰 = 𝟐𝑨 𝑰𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝑨 𝟎. 𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟓𝑹𝒔
𝑮 𝟎. 𝟏
𝐑𝒔 =
𝑰𝒔 𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟓
𝐑 𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝛀
𝑹𝒔
𝑽𝒔 A shunt of resistance 0.05Ω should be
connected in parallel with the
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒈 + 𝑰𝒔 galvanometer.
𝑰 𝒔 = 𝑰 − 𝑰𝒈
𝑰𝒔 = 𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝑰𝒔 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟓𝑨

2. A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 4Ω gives a full scale deflection of 25mA. Calculate
the value of the resistance required to convert to convert it to an ammeter which reads 15A at
f.s.d.
25 𝐕𝒈 = 𝐕𝒔
𝑰𝒈 = 25𝑚𝐴 = = 0.025𝐴
1000 𝑰 𝒈 𝑹𝒈 = 𝑰 𝒔 𝑹𝒔
𝑹𝒈 = 4𝛺 , 𝑽𝒈 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 × 𝟒 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟗𝟕𝟓 × 𝑹𝒔
𝑰 = 𝟏𝟓𝑨 𝑰𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝑨 𝟎. 𝟏 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟗𝟕𝟓𝑹𝒔
𝑮 𝟎. 𝟏
𝐑𝒔 =
𝑰𝒔 𝟏𝟒. 𝟗𝟕𝟓
𝐑 𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟔𝟕𝟖𝛀
𝑹𝒔
𝑽𝒔 A shunt of resistance 0.006678Ω should be
connected in parallel with the
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒈 + 𝑰𝒔 galvanometer.
𝑰 𝒔 = 𝑰 − 𝑰𝒈
𝑰𝒔 = 𝟏𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓
𝑰𝒔 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟗𝟕𝟓𝑨

3. A moving coil galvanometer of internal resistance 4Ω gives a maximum deflection when a

current of 2mA flows through it. A shunt of resistance 0.06Ω is used to convert the
galvanometer into an ammeter.
(i) Find the current through the shunt.
(ii) The maximum current that can be measured by the set up.
 2 (i)
𝑰𝒈 = 2𝑚𝐴 = = 0.002𝐴
1000 𝑽𝒈 = 𝑽𝒔
𝑹𝒈 = 4𝛺 , 𝑽𝒈 𝑰 𝒈 𝑹𝒈 = 𝑰 𝒔 𝑹𝒔
𝑰 =? 𝑰𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝑨 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐 × 𝟒 = 𝑰𝒔 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔
𝑮 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟖 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝑰𝒔
𝑰𝒔 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟖
𝑰𝒔 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟔
𝑰𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟑𝑨
𝑹𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝛀, 𝑽𝒔
(ii)
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒈 + 𝑰𝒔
𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟑
𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝑨

4. A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 5Ω and current sensitivity of 2 divisions per

milliampere gives a full-scale deflection of 16 divisions.
(i) Calculate current through the galvanometer.
(ii) Calculate the voltage across the galvanometer if 1division represents 2V.
(i) (ii)
Current sensitivity = 2div/mA Voltage sensitivity = 1div/2V
Full scale deflection = 16divisions Full scale deflection = 16divisions
2𝑑𝑖𝑣 1𝑚𝐴 1 𝑑𝑖𝑣 2𝑉
16𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐈𝐠 16𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐕𝐠
16
𝐈𝐠 = = 8𝑚𝐴 𝐕𝐠 = 16 × 2 = 32𝑉
2

EXERCISE:
1. A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 4Ω gives a full scale deflection of 1.5mV. How
can it be converted to voltmeter which can measure a maximum voltage of 2𝑉?
Ans: [𝟓𝟑𝟐𝟗. 𝟑𝛺]
2. A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 10Ω gives a full scale deflection of 25𝑚𝐴. How
can it be converted to an ammeter which can measure a maximum current of 2.5𝐴?
Ans: [𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝛺]
3. A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 50Ω gives a full scale deflection of 5mV. How can
it be converted to an ammeter which can measure a maximum current of 2𝐴?
Ans: [𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟓𝛺]
4. Consider a full scale deflection when a current of 15mA flow through it. If the resistance of
the galvanometer is 5Ω, find the magnitude of the resistance (multiplier) to be used for it to
measure a maximum 𝑝. 𝑑 of 15V
Ans: [𝟗𝟗𝟓𝛺]
5. A moving coil galvanometer has resistance of 0.5Ω and full scale deflection of 2mA. How
can it be modified to read current to voltage 10V
Ans: [4999 Ω]
6. A moving coil galvanometer has resistance of 0.5Ω and full scale deflection of 2mA. How
can it be adopted to read current 6A?
Ans: [1. 67 × 10−4 𝛺]
7. Consider a moving coil galvanometer which has resistance of 5Ω and full scale deflection
when a current of 15mA. A suppose a maximum current of 3A is to be measured using this
galvanometer. What is the value of the shunt required.
Ans: [𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝛺]
8. A galvanometer of internal resistance of 20Ω and full scale deflection of 5mA. How can it be
modified for use as;
(i) 1.0A ammeter
(ii) 100V voltmeter
Ans: (i). [𝟏. 𝟎𝟓𝛺] (ii). [𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟎𝛺]
9. A milliammeter has a full scale reading of 0.01A and has resistance 20Ω. Show how a
suitable resistor may be connected in order to use this instrument as a voltmeter reading up to
10V.
Ans: [𝟗𝟖𝟎𝛺]

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
When a conductor (e.g. wire) moves across a magnetic field such that it cuts the magnetic field
lines (magnetic flux), an emf/current is induced in the conductor.
Therefore, an emf is induced whenever magnetic flux changes and the induced emf causes
current to flow.

Definition:
Electromagnetic induction is the process by which an emf is induced in the coil due to
change in magnetic flux linking the coil.

Factors that determine the magnitude of induced emf/current:

(i) Number of turns;
The magnitude of induced emf is increased by increasing the number of turns of the coil.

(ii) Strength of the magnet;

The magnitude of induced emf can be increased by using a strong magnet to provide a
stronger magnetic field.

(iii) Area of coil in magnetic field;

The magnitude of induced emf is increased by placing a large area of coil into the
magnetic field.

(iv) Rate at which magnetic flux changes;

Increasing the speed of motion of a magnet in the coil increases the size of emf induced.
Direction of induced emf/current:
The direction of induced current can be found by Fleming’s right hand rule.
It states that if the thumb, first and second fingers are placed at right angles to each other,
• thumb points in the direction of force (motion)
• the first finger points in the direction of magnetic field
• second finger points in the direction of induced current.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)

𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅

𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:

There are two laws of electromagnetic induction namely;
− Faraday’s law
− Lenz’s law

Faraday’s law:
It states that the magnitude of induced emf in a coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linking the coil.

Lenz’s law:
It states that the induced current flows in a direction so as to oppose the change causing it.

Experiment to verify Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction:

Ends of a solenoid are connected to a galvanometer.
A magnet with its south pole facing towards the solenoid is moved into the coil and then pulled
out.

𝑨 𝑩
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒅
A
𝑺 𝑵

𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒔

𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝑩 𝒂 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒉 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆

𝑮𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓
When a magnet is moved/plunged into the solenoid;
▪ The galvanometer deflects to the left. This is because current is induced in the solenoid and
it flows in a clockwise direction to produce a South pole to oppose the approaching magnet.
(Fleming’s right hand rule)
▪ The magnet is repelled by the solenoid. This is because the induced current is flowing in the
direction that makes end B of the solenoid to be a south pole.

𝑨 𝑩
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒅

𝑺 𝑵
𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒔
𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝑩 𝒂 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒉 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆

A B
𝑮𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓
When a magnet is pulled out of the solenoid;
▪ The galvanometer deflects to the right. This is because current is induced in the solenoid and
it flows in an anticlockwise direction to produce a North pole to oppose the leaving magnet.
(Fleming’s right hand rule)
▪ The magnet is attracted by the solenoid. This is because the induced current is flowing in the
direction that makes end B of the solenoid to be a north pole.

Note: The speed of deflection of pointer on the galvanometer increases when the magnet is
moved in and out at a faster rate.

Example:
1. The figure below shows a conductor connected to a galvanometer and placed in a magnetic
field of two magnets.

𝑺 𝑵
State what happens
(a) When the conductor is moved down.
The galvanometer deflects to the left showing that current is induced in the conductor and
it flows in clockwise direction.

(b) When the conductor is moved up.

The galvanometer deflects to the right showing that current is induced in the conductor
and it flows in anticlockwise direction.

𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕
(c) when conductor is slowly moved up and then moved down faster
The galvanometer deflects to the right slowly and then to the deflects to the left at a faster
rate.

2. The figure below shows a magnet moved towards a cylindrical coil connected to a
galvanometer.

𝑺 𝑵 𝑨 𝑩

(a) Explain what will be observed in the figure above.

The galvanometer deflects to the left because current is induced and it flows in a clockwise
direction so that the end A is made a North pole to oppose the approaching magnet thus
the magnet is repelled.
(b) State how the magnitude of current induced in the figure above can be increased.
- By increasing the number of turns of the coil.
- By using a stronger magnet.
- By increasing the speed at which the magnet is moving into the coil.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

It is applied in;
• Generators
• Transformers

GENERATORS
A generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
There are two types of generators namely;
▪ Direct current generator (dynamo)
▪ Alternating current generator (alternator)

D.C generator (Dynamo)

Structure:
It consists of the following;
❖ Permanent magnets which provide strong magnetic fields.
❖ An armature/ rectangular coil which rotates in the magnetic field.
❖ Carbon brushes which get current from split rings (commutators)
 B C
F

F
A D
N S
𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒉

𝑳𝑶𝑨𝑫
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒖𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓
(𝑺𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 / 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈)

Mode of operation of a d.c generator

▪ When the rectangular coil ABCD rotates, the magnetic flux linking the coil changes and an
emf is induced in the coil causing current to flow in the coil.
▪ When the coil passes over the vertical position, the split rings change contacts from one
carbon brush to another. This reverses the direction of current in the coil.
▪ Therefore, the direction of current flowing through the load remains the same.

A graph of induced emf against time for a d.c generator.

𝑬𝒎𝒇

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

Note: 𝑽𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

• The induced emf or current is maximum
when the plane of the coil is horizontal.
This is because cutting of the magnetic
field lines is greatest at this point by the
moving coil (𝑖. 𝑒. 900 ) N S
• The induced emf or current is minimum
when the plane of the coil is vertical. This
is because cutting of the magnetic field
lines is minimum at this point by the
moving coil (𝑖. 𝑒. 00 )
𝑯𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
A.C generator (Alternator):
In A.C generators slip rings are used instead of split rings.
Note: A slip ring is a device that connects a stationary object (carbon brush) to a rotating object
(rectangular coil)
Therefore, slip rings are always fixed.

Structure:
It consists of the following;
❖ Permanent magnets which provide strong magnetic fields.
❖ An armature / rectangular coil which rotates in the magnetic field.
❖ Carbon brushes which get current from the slip rings

B C
F

F
A D
N S
𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒉
c

𝑳𝑶𝑨𝑫
𝑺𝒍𝒊𝒑 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

Mode of operation of an A.C generator

▪ When the rectangular coil ABCD rotates, the magnetic flux linking the coil changes and an
emf is induced in the coil causing current to flow in the coil.
▪ When the coil passes over the vertical position, the slip rings change contacts from one
carbon brush to another. This reverses the direction of current in the coil.
▪ Therefore, the direction of current flowing through the load also changes.

A graph of induced emf against time for an A.C generator.

𝑬𝒎𝒇

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
TYPES OF INDUCTION
There are two types namely;
▪ Self -induction
▪ Mutual induction

Self- induction:
This is the process by which an emf is induced in the coil due to changing current in the same
coil.
The magnetic flux due to the current in the coil links that coil and if the current changes, the
resulting flux change induces an emf in the coil itself.

𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑪𝒐𝒊𝒍

Mutual induction:
This is the process by which an emf is induced in the coil due to changing current in the nearby
coil.
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝟏 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝟐
𝑪𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝟐

𝑰𝟏 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝟐 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅

𝑮𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓

In mutual induction, emf is induced in coil 2 (secondary coil) due to change in current in coil 1
(primary coil).
This is applied in transformers
 TRANSFORMERS
This is an electric device that is used to step up or step down voltage.
OR
This is an electric device that is used to increase or decrease alternating voltage.

Transformers are normally used in electrical appliances e.g. radio receivers, TV sets, battery
chargers etc. where the input voltage has to be changed.

Structure of a transformer:
It consists of a laminated soft iron ring around which primary and secondary coils are wound.
The soft iron ring concentrates the magnetic fields produced.

𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑽𝒑 𝑽𝒔 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅

𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍
𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍

Mode of operation of a transformer:

▪ When alternating voltage 𝐕𝒑 is applied to the primary coil, alternating current flows through
the primary coil.
▪ The alternating current creates a changing magnetic flux in the primary coil which links up
with the secondary coil.
▪ An emf 𝐕𝒔 is induced in the secondary coil due to the changing magnetic flux.
▪ The induced emf depends on the number of turns in the secondary coil.

TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS:
There are two types namely;
(i) Step up transformer;
This is the type of transformer whose number of turns in the secondary coil is greater than
the number of turns in the primary coil.
They are usually put at power and transmission stations.

(ii) Step down transformer;

This is the type of transformer whose number of turns in the secondary coil is less than the
number of turns in the primary coil.
They are usually put near consumer places and in electrical appliances.
ENERGY/POWER LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER
ENERGY LOSS HOW IT IS MINIMIZED
(i) Energy loss due to heating effect By using low resistance thick copper wires.
(𝐈2 𝐑);
This is because of the resistance of the
coils.
(ii) Energy loss due to eddy currents; By using a laminated soft iron core.
Eddy currents are currents induced in
the core due changing magnetic flux
and they cause unnecessary heat.
(iii) Energy loss due to hysteresis; By using a soft iron core which can be easily
This happens when magnetization of magnetized and demagnetized.
the core is reversed. So, if it is not
easily magnetized and demagnetized,
some power is wasted in overcoming
internal friction.
(iv) Energy loss due to flux leakage; By using an E-shaped iron core so that all the
This occurs when some magnetic flux flux in the primary coil links up to the
fails to link up to the secondary coil. secondary coil.

Uses of eddy currents:

▪ They are used in electromagnetic brakes.
▪ They are used to detect cracks in metals.
Transformer equations:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝐕𝑝 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝐍𝑝
=
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝐕𝑠 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝐍𝑠

𝐕𝑝 𝐍𝑝
=
𝐕𝑠 𝐍𝑠

𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 = 𝐈𝑠 𝐕𝑠
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 = 𝐈𝑝 𝐕𝑝

𝐈𝑠 𝐕𝑠
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐈𝑝 𝐕𝑝

Definition:
An ideal transformer is a transformer where there are no energy losses.
Therefore, an ideal transformer is 100% efficient i.e. 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
In real life situations, there is no transformer which is 100% efficient.
Examples:
1. A transformer is used to step down an alternating voltage from 240V to 12V. Calculate the
number of turns on the secondary coil if the primary coil has 2000 turns.

𝐕𝒑 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽 𝐕𝒔 = 𝟏𝟐𝑽 𝐕𝒑 𝐍𝒑
=
𝐕𝒔 𝐍𝒔
𝐍𝒑 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐍𝒔 =? 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
=
𝟏𝟐 𝐍𝒔
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟐
𝐍𝒔 =
𝟐𝟒𝟎

𝐍𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔.

2. A transformer whose efficiency is 80% has an output power of 12W. Calculate the input
current if the input voltage is 240V.

𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝐕𝒑 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽 𝐏𝒐 = 𝟏𝟐𝑾 𝟏𝟐
𝟖𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝑰
𝐈𝒑 =? 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒊 =
𝟖𝟎
𝑷𝒊 = 𝟏𝟓𝑾

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝟖𝟎% 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡, 𝑷𝒊 = 𝐈𝑝 𝐕𝑝

𝟏𝟓 = 𝐈𝒑 × 𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝟏𝟓
𝐈𝒑 =
𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝐈𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓𝑨
3. A transformer is converted to 240V a.c mains. If the primary coil has 1200 turns and a
resistor of 3Ω is connected to secondary coil of 60 turns.
Calculate;
(i) p.d across the secondary coil.
(ii) current through the 3Ω resistor.
(i) (ii)
𝐕𝒑 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽 𝐕𝒔 =? 𝐕𝒑 𝐍𝒑 From ohm’s law;
=
𝐕𝒔 𝐍𝒔 𝐕𝒔 = 𝐈𝒔 𝐑
𝐍𝒑 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐍𝒔 = 𝟔𝟎 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟐 = 𝐈𝒔 × 𝟑
= 𝟏𝟐
𝐕𝒔 𝟔𝟎 𝐈𝒔 =
𝐈𝒔 =? 𝟐𝟒𝟎 × 𝟔𝟎 𝟑
𝐕𝒔 = 𝐈 𝒔 = 𝟒𝑨
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑹 = 𝟑𝛀
𝐕𝒔 = 𝟏𝟐𝑽
4. A transformer is designed to work on a 240V, 60W supply. It has 3000turns in the primary
and 200 turns in the secondary and it is 80% efficient. Calculate the current in primary and
secondary coils.
Current in primary coil Current in second coil
𝐕𝒑 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽 𝐕𝒔 =? 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐈𝑝 𝐕𝑝 𝐏𝒐
𝛈= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟔𝟎 = 𝐈𝑝 × 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝐏𝒊
𝐍𝒑 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐍𝒔 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟔𝟎
𝐈𝒑 = 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝐏𝒐 = 𝐈𝑠 𝐕𝑠
𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝐈𝒑 =? 𝐈𝒔 =? 𝐈𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝑨 𝐈𝑠 𝐕𝑠
𝟖𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟔𝟎
𝐕𝒑 𝐍𝒑 𝐈𝑠 × 𝟏𝟔
𝐏𝒊 = 𝟔𝟎𝑾 𝐏𝒐 =? = 𝟖𝟎 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐕𝒔 𝐍𝒔 𝟔𝟎
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚, 𝛈 = 𝟖𝟎% 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎
= 𝟖𝟎 × 𝟔𝟎
𝐕𝒔 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑰𝒔 =
𝟐𝟒𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐕𝒔 =
𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑰𝒔 = 𝟑𝑨
𝐕𝒔 = 𝟏𝟔𝑽

5. A setup transformer is designed to operate from a 240V supply with delivery energy at 250V.
If the transformer is 90% efficient, determine the current into the primary winding when the
output terminals are connected to 250V, 100W lamp.

𝐕𝒑 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽 𝐕𝒔 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝑽 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝐏𝒐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑾 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟗𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐈𝒑 =? 𝑷𝒊
𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒊 =
𝟗𝟎
𝑷𝒊 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝑾

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝟗𝟎% 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡, 𝑷𝒊 = 𝐈𝑝 𝐕𝑝

𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏 = 𝐈𝒑 × 𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏
𝐈𝒑 =
𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝐈𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟐𝟗𝑨

6. An electric power generator produces 24kW at 240V, the voltage is stepped up to 400V for
transmission to a factory. The total resistance of the transmission wire is 0.5Ω.
(i) What is the ratio of number of turns in primary to number of turns in secondary is the
transformer.
(ii) Find the power loss in transmission lines assuming both transformers are 100% efficient.

𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟕
 𝐕𝒑 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽 𝐕𝒔 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑽 (i) (ii)
𝐕𝒑 𝐍𝒑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐏𝒐 = 𝐈𝒔 𝐕𝒔
=
𝐕𝒔 𝐍𝒔 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝐈𝒔 × 𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝐍𝒑 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
= 𝐈𝒔 =
𝐏𝒊 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑾 𝐏𝒐 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑾 𝐍𝒔 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝟒𝟎𝟎
since they are 100% 𝐍𝒑 𝟑 𝐈𝒔 = 𝟔𝟎𝑨
= Power loss in wires
𝐈𝒑 =? 𝐍𝒔 𝟓
𝑷 = 𝐈𝒔 𝟐 𝐑
𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝛀 𝐍𝒑 : 𝐍𝒔 = 𝟑: 𝟓 𝑷 = 𝟔𝟎𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟓
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎𝑾

7. A transformer is designed to operate at 240V main supply and deliver 9V. The current drawn
from the main supply is 1A if the efficiency of the transformer is 90%. Calculate
(i) maximum power output
(ii) power lost
(i)
𝐕𝒑 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽 𝐕𝒔 = 𝟗𝑽 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡, 𝑷𝒊 = 𝐈𝑝 𝐕𝑝
𝑷𝒊 = 𝟏 × 𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝐈𝒑 = 𝟏𝑨 𝑷𝒊 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽
𝐏𝒊 =? 𝐏𝒐 =?
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑷𝒐
𝟗𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝟗𝟎 × 𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝑷𝒐 =
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝟗𝟎% 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒐 = 𝟐𝟏𝟔𝑾
(ii)
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 = 𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒐
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎 − 𝟐𝟏𝟔
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 = 𝟐𝟒𝑾
EXERCISE:
1. A transformer has 800 turns in its primary coil and 3200 turns in its secondary coil.
If it is connected to an alternate voltage of 240V. What is the output voltage?
Ans: [𝟗𝟔𝟎𝑽]
2. If one wishes to step down voltage from 240V to 10V, determine the number of turns
in the secondary if the primary coil has 4800 turns.
Ans: [𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔]
3. A step up transformer is 80% efficient if the number of turns of the coil is 2400 turns
and 500 turns. Given that the input voltage and the output current are 240V and 0.25A.
Calculate the output voltage and input current.
Ans: [𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟐𝑽, 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝑨]
4. Find the ratio of number of turns of the primary to the number of turns in the secondary,
if the voltage of 12V is stepped up to 18V.
Ans: [𝟐: 𝟑]
5. A 3V, 6W bulb is connected to the secondary coil of a transformer whose input voltage
is 12V. Given that the transformer is 90% efficient and the bulb works at full capacity.
Calculate the current in the secondary coil and the current in the primary coil
Ans: [𝟐𝑨, 𝟏. 𝟖𝑨]
6. An electric power is generated at 11kV. Transformers are used to raise the voltage to
440V for transmission over long distances using cables. The output of transformers is
19800W and they are 90% efficient. Find the input current to the transformer and the
output current to the cables.
Ans: [𝟒𝟓𝑨, 𝟐𝑨]
7. A transformer is designed to produce an output of 240V when connected to a 25V supply.
If the transformer is 80% efficient, calculate the input current when the output is connected
to a 240V, 75W lamp.
Ans: [𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟓𝑨, 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟕𝟓𝑨]
8. An 𝑎. 𝑐 transformer operates on a 240V mains. The voltage across the secondary which has
960 turns is 20V.
(i) find the number of turns in the primary coil.
(ii) if the efficiency of the transformer is 80% calculate the in the primary coil when a
resistor of 40Ω is connected across the secondary.
Ans: [𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟐𝟎𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔, 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟐𝟏𝑨]
9. A transformer whose secondary col has 60 turns and primary 1200 turns has its secondary
connected to a 3Ω resistor if its primary is connected to a 240V 𝑎. 𝑐 supply. Calculate the
current flowing in the primary assuming that the transformer is 80% efficient.
Ans: [𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝑨]
10. A transformer is designed to work on a 240V, 60W supply, it has 3000 turns in the primary
and 200 turns in the secondary and its efficiency is 80%. Calculate the current in the
secondary coil.
Ans: [𝟑𝑨]
11. An a.c transformer operates on 240V mains. It has 1200 turns in the primary and gives 18V
across the secondary.
(i) find the number of turns in the secondary
(ii) if the efficiency of the transformer is 90% calculate the current in the primary coil
when a resistor of 50Ω is connected across the secondary
Ans: [𝟗𝟎𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔, 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝑨]
 ALTERNATING AND DIRECT CURRENT
Direct Current (D.C) is the current which flows in one direction only.
All batteries produce direct current.
Alternating Current (A.C) is current which flows in opposite directions periodically.
This means that the direction of current flowing in a circuit is constantly being reversed back and
forth.

The electric current supplied to our homes is alternating current. This comes from power plants
that are operated by the electric company.
AC can be converted to DC by using rectifier

Advantages of A.C over D.C

A.C is easy to generate.
A.C is easy to transmit to around the country with minimal power loss.
Alternating current can easily be stepped up and down for home consumption.

Disadvantages of A.C over D.C

A.C cannot be used to charge a battery.
A.C cannot be used in electroplating.
A.C cannot be used in electrolysis.

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
1. a) i) Define the term neutral point as applied to magnetism.
ii) Briefly explain how a rod of steel can be magnetized using the single touch stroking
method.
b) Briefly explain how the soft iron core causes power loss in a transformer.
c) i) What is a magnetic field.
ii) Draw a diagram of the magnetic field pattern when a bar magnet is placed in the
earth’s magnetic field with its south pole facing the geographical north.
d) List four features of magnetic flux.
2. a) Define the following terms as applied to magnetism.
i) Ferromagnetic material.
ii) Neutral point.
b) The figure below shows an electromagnet made by a pupil in the laboratory. The
electromagnet is to pick up and release a metal object.

𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕
 i) Name a suitable material for X and explain why it is made from this material.
ii) Name two metals which a magnet will not attract.
iii) State two changes which a student could make so that a heavier metal object
could be lifted by the electromagnet.
c) A galvanometer of resistance 5Ω gives a full scale deflection for a current of 15mA.
How may it be converted into?
i) An ammeter reading up to 3A.
ii) A voltmeter reading up to 6V.
Ans: i) [𝟐. 𝟓𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎Ω] ii) [𝟑𝟗𝟓Ω]
3. a) i) What is a magnetic field.
ii) State the law of magnetism.
b) i) Explain with the aid of diagrams, how a steel bar can be magnetized by the single
touch method.
ii) Sketch the magnetic field pattern around two bar magnets whose north poles face
each other.
c) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe how a simple a.c generator works.
4. a) Describe briefly the structure and action of an a.c transformer.
b) i) State any three causes of energy losses in a transformer.
ii) How are these losses reduced in a practical transformer?
c) Explain why it is an advantage to transmit electrical power at high voltage.
d) An electric power is generated at 11kV. Transformers are used to raise the voltage to
440kV for transmission over large distances using cables. The output of transformers is
19.8MW and they are 90% efficient. Find;
i) The input current to the transformer.
ii) The output current to the cables.
Ans: i) [𝟐𝒌𝑨] ii) [𝟒𝟓𝑨]
5. a) Explain how a piece of iron can be magnetized by the single touch method. Illustrate
your answer with a diagram.
b) How can you determine the polarity of a magnet?
c) Explain why a magnet loses its magnetism when placed in a coil of a wire carrying an
alternating current.
d) Describe the motion of a beam of electrons directed midway between the north and
south poles of a permanent magnet.
6. a) Describe with the aid of a labeled diagram, the structure and principle of operation of an
a.c generator.
b) An electric power generator produces 24kW at 240V a.c. The voltage is stepped up to
4000V for transmission to a factory, where it is then stepped down to 240V. The total
resistance of the transmission wires is 0.5Ω.
i) What is the ratio of the number of turns in the primary to the number of turns in
the secondary of the step down transformer?
ii) Find the power lost in the transmission lines assuming both transformers are 100%
efficient.
Ans: i) [𝟓𝟎: 𝟑] ii) [𝟏𝟖𝑾]
c) i) What power would have been lost if the same electric power had been transmitted
directly to the factory through the same transmission wires without use of
transformers.
 ii) Comment on differences between the power losses in (b) (ii) and (c) (i) above.
Ans: i) [𝟏𝟓𝒌𝑾]
7. a) i) Draw a labeled diagram to show essential parts of a d.c motor.
ii) Describe briefly how a d.c motor works.
b) State three ways of increasing the torque of the motor.
c) i) What factors make the efficiency of a motor less than 100%?
ii) How is each factor in (c) (i) above minimized?
d) An electric motor of efficiency 90% operates a water pump. The pump raises 0.9kg of
water through 10m every second.
i) What is meant by the term efficiency?
ii) State the energy changes which take place.
iii) Find the electrical power supplied to the motor.
Ans: iii) [𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑾]
8. a) i) What is a magnetic field?
ii) Draw a diagram of the magnetic field pattern between the north poles of two bar
magnets placed near each other.
b) Describe how you can plot the magnetic field around a wire carrying a current
perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
c) Draw a diagram to show what happens when two straight conductors placed vertically
near each other carry a current in
i) The same direction.
ii) The opposite direction.
d) Describe briefly two methods of magnetizing an iron rod.
e) A transformer is designed to produce an output of 220V when connected to a 25V
supply. If the transformer is 80% efficient, calculate the input current when the output is
connected to a 220V, 75W lamp.
Ans: [𝟑. 𝟕𝟓𝑨]
9. a) State three factors on which the magnitude of the force exerted on a wire carrying a
current in a magnetic field depends.
b) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe the action of a moving coil galvanometer
c) A moving coil galvanometer has a coil of resistance 4Ω and gives a full scale deflection
when a current of 25mA passes through it. Calculate the value of the resistance required
to convert it to an ammeter which reads 15A at full scale deflection.
Ans: [𝟔. 𝟔𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 Ω]
10. a) With the aid of a diagram explain, the use of keepers to store magnets.
b) i) Describe using a labeled diagram how a telephone receiver works.
ii) State two ways by which the strength of an electromagnet can be increased.
c) i) A part from electrical method, mention two other methods of demagnetization.
ii) Explain how the above methods mentioned lead to magnetization.
d) Describe how you would demagnetize a bar magnet by the electrical method.
11. a) What is a transformer
b) The diagram below shows a model of a transformer in which the primary coil, P is
connected to d.c and the secondary coil, S is connected to the galvanometer, G.

𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑲

𝑷 𝑺 𝑮

i) What is observed just as the switch, K is closed.

ii) What will be the effect of closing switch, K very fast in (i) above?
iii) What is observed when the switch is left closed?
iv) What is observed as the switch is opened.
v) When is observed if the d.c source is replaced by an a.c source of low frequency
c) A transformer of efficiency 80% is connected to a 240V a.c supply to operate a heater of
resistance 240Ω. If the current flowing in the primary circuit is 5A.
i) Calculate the potential difference across the heater.
ii) If the heater is cooled by oil of specific heat capacity 2,100𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 and the
temperature of oil rises by 200 in 3 minutes, find the mass of oil used in cooling.
Ans: i) [𝟒𝟖𝑽] ii) [𝟒. 𝟏𝟏𝒌𝒈]
12. a) i) What is meant by a magnetic field.
ii) Suggest any three characteristics of the magnetic field.
b) i) Describe in details how an iron bar can be magnetized by electrical method.
ii) A galvanometer has resistance of 2Ω and gives a 50mA full scale deflection.
Calculate the value of resistance that is used so that the meter reads current up to 2A.
Ans: ii) [𝟓. 𝟏𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 Ω]
c) The diagram below is a transformer, study it and answer the questions that follow.

𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝟕𝟓
𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑽 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝐑

i) Find the potential difference across R.

ii) If the current in the mains is 0.55A. What is the current in the secondary coil?
iii) With a reason name the type of the transformer.
Ans: i) [𝟏𝟐𝑽] ii) [𝟏𝟏𝑨]
13. a) State any two factors which determine the magnitude of a force exerted on a current
carrying conductor.
b) With the aid of a well labeled diagram, describe the structure and mode of action of a
moving coil loud speaker.
 c) State the factors which determine the pitch and loudness of the sound produced by a
moving coil loud speaker.
d) A D.C motor has an armature resistance of 4Ω. If it draws a current of 10A when
connected to a supply of 200V, calculate the
i) Power wasted in the windings
ii) Efficiency of the motor
Ans: i) [𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑾] ii) [𝟖𝟎%]
14. a) The diagram below shows a coil connected to a centre-zero galvanometer, G.

𝐒 𝐍
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕

𝐆
State and explain the deflection of the galvanometer needle when the magnet is
i) Held stationary at one end of the coil
ii) Moved slowly towards the coil
iii) Left at rest inside the coil
iv) Moved away from the coil
v) Moved quickly in an out of the coil about twice per second
b) i) State four ways in which power is lost in a transformer
ii) How can the power loss be minimized in each case
c) Distinguish between a d.c motor and a d.c generator
d) An electric motor taking a current of 5A at 240V is connected by cable to a generator
some distance away. If the p.d at the terminals of the generator is 250V, calculate
i) The resistance of the cable
ii) The power supplied by the generator and loss of power in the cable.
15. a) A bar magnet is placed with its axis along the magnetic meridian with its south pole
pointing north.
i) Sketch the magnetic flux pattern near the magnet in the earth’s field.
ii) With reference to the sketch, explain what is meant by a neutral point in a magnetic
field
b) i) Describe an experiment to determine the magnetic field pattern of a bar magnet using
iron fillings.
ii) State one advantage and one disadvantage of the method in (b) (i).
c) Describe how the earth’s magnetic meridian may be determined.
d) A galvanometer has a coil of resistance 8Ω and gives a full scale deflection when a
current of 0.5mA is supplied. Calculate the resistance that can be used to convert it into
an ammeter measuring up to 5A.
Ans: [𝟖. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 Ω]
16. a) i) What is a magnetic field
ii) State the law of magnetism
b) i) Explain with the aid of a diagram how a steel bar can be magnetized by the single
touch method.
 ii) Sketch the magnetic field pattern around two bar magnets whose north poles face
each other.
17. a) With the aid of a labeled diagram describe how a simple ac generator works
b) Explain with the aid of a diagram what happens when two vertical, parallel conductors
are placed near one another and carry current in
i) The same direction
ii) The opposite direction
c) i) Describe with the aid of a diagram, how a direct current generator works
ii) State three ways of increasing the emf produced by the generator
18. a) What is meant by magnetic saturation
b) Explain why freely suspended bar magnet swings until it points North South.
c) With the aid of a diagram explain the use of magnetic keepers.
19. a) State any two factors which determine the magnitude of the emf induced in a coil
rotating in magnetic field.
b) i) Draw a diagram to show the construction of a step-down transformer
ii) A transformer is used to step-up an alternating voltage from 20V to 240V. Calculate
the number of turns in the primary coil if the secondary coil has 1200 turns.
Ans: [𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔]
20. The figure shows a circuit
𝑺𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏

𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔
a) Describe what is observed when the key, K, is closed
(i) Closed
(ii) Closed and then again opened
b) State two ways by which the effect of what was observed in (a) (i)
above can be increased.