3

Actuators and Grippers

Actuators are devices which drive a robot including its grippers. They are like the
muscles of a human arm and hand. While the human arm provides motion, the hand
is used for object manipulation. As illustrated in Fig. 2.3, the same is true with a
robot. Its arm, be Cartesian or anthropomorphic or of other type, which are explained
in Section 2.2, provides motion, whereas its gripper, which is equivalent to a human
hand, manipulates objects. Both require some kind of actuator system powered by
electricity or compressed air or pressurized fluid. These systems are presented in this
chapter, along with different types of grippers used in robotic applications.
An actuator system comprises of several subsystems, namely,
(i) a power supply;
(ii) a power amplifier;
(iii) a servomotor; and
(iv) a transmission system.
The connections between all the actuator components are depicted in Fig. 3.1.

Pp: Primary source of power (electricity or pressurized fluid or compressed air); Pc: Input control
power (usually electric); Pa: Input power to motor (electric or hydraulic or pneumatic type);
Pm: Power output from motor; Pu: Mechanical power required; Pda, Pds, and Pdt: Powers lost in
dissipation for the conversions performed by the amplifier, motor, and transmission
Fig. 3.1 An actuator system

To choose an actuator, it is worth start- Actuator vs. Motor

ing from the requirements imposed on the
A motor together with transmissions and
mechanical power Pu by the force and ve- other accessories, if any, is referred as an
locity that describe the joint motion. Based actuator (see Fig. 3.1). However, in many
on the source of input power Pa, the actua- instances, they are used interchangeably
tors can be classified into three groups: to mean that they move a robot link.
 42 Introduction to Robotics

1. Electric Actuators The primary input power supply is the electric energy
from the electric distribution system.
2. Hydraulic Actuators They transform hydraulic energy stored in a reservoir
into mechanical energy by means of suitable pumps.
3. Pneumatic Actuators They utilize pneumatic energy, i.e., compressed air,
provided by a compressor and transform it into mechanical energy by means of
pistons or turbines.
A portion of the motor input power Pa is converted to the output as a mechanical
power Pm, and the rest Pds is dissipated because of mechanical, electrical, hydraulic,
or pneumatic motor losses. In a robotic application, an actuator should have the
following characteristics:
∑ Low inertia
∑ High power-to-weight ratio
∑ Possibility of overload and delivery of impulse torques
∑ Capacity to develop high accelerations
∑ Wide velocity ranges
∑ High positioning accuracy
∑ Good trajectory tracking and positioning accuracy
Based on wide application of electric actuators in industrial robots and their easy
availability in the stores next door selling
toys or repairing photocopiers, washing
Who is ABB?
machines, etc., they are presented first. It
ABB is a Zurich, Switzerland-based
will be followed by hydraulic and pneumatic multinational company operating in
actuators. While hydraulic actuators are power and automation technology
suitable for applications where the areas. It was formed in 1988 through
requirement is high power-to-weight ratio, the merger of ASEA of Sweden and
pneumatic actuators are often used by Brown, Boveri and Cie of Switzerland.
It has operations in more than 100
electrically actuated robots for their grippers countries, and is one of the major
requiring only on-off motions of the jaws. industrial robot manufacturers in the
Use of a pneumatic gripper makes the robot world.
system a little lighter and cost effective.

3.1 ELECTRIC ACTUATORS

Electric actuators are generally those where an electric motor drives robot links
through some mechanical transmission, e.g., gears, etc. In the early years of industrial
robotics, hydraulic robots were the most common, but recent improvements in electric-
motor design have meant that most new robots are of all-electric construction. The
first commercial electrically driven industrial robot was introduced in 1974 by ABB.
The advantages and disadvantages of an electric motor are the following:
Advantages
∑ Widespread availability of power supply.
∑ Basic drive element in an electric motor is usually lighter than that for fluid
power, i.e., pressurized fluid or compressed air.
∑ High power-conversion efficiency.
 Actuators and Grippers 43

∑ No pollution of working environment.

∑ Accuracy and repeatability of electric drive robots are normally better than fluid
power robots in relation to cost.
∑ Being relatively quiet and clean, they are very acceptable environmentally.
∑ They are easily maintained and repaired.
∑ Structural components can be lightweight.
∑ The drive system is well suited to electronic control.
Disadvantages
∑ Electrically driven robots often require the incorporation of some sort of
mechanical transmission system.
∑ Additional power is required to move the additional masses of the transmission
system.
∑ Unwanted movements due to backlash and plays in the transmission elements.
∑ Due to the increased complexity with the transmission system, we need complex
control requirement and additional cost for their procurement and maintenance.
∑ Electric motors are not intrinsically safe, mainly, in explosive environments.
The above disadvantages are gradually being overcome with the introduction of
direct-drive motor system, in which the electric motor is a part of the relevant robot
arm joint, thus, eliminating the transmission
dc vs. ac
elements. Moreover, the introduction of
dc stands for direct current, whereas
newer brushless motors allow electric robots
ac means alternating current. Batteries
to be used in some fire-risk applications such in flash lights, cars, etc., supply dc. For
as spray painting, as the possibility of domestic use, however, the electric
sparking at the motor brushes is eliminated. supply is ac with 230 volts, 50 cycles
Different types of electric motors are stepper (in India and other countries), 110
volts, 60 cycles (USA and others), and
motors, and the dc and ac motors, which are
similar.
explained next.
3.1.1 Stepper Motors
Stepper motors (also called stepping motors or step motors) were first used for remote
control of the direction indicators of torpedo tubes and guns in British warships and
later, for a similar purpose, in the US Navy. A variable reluctance-type stepper motor
was first patented in 1919 by C.L. Walker, a Scottish civil engineer. However, its
commercial production did not start until 1950.
Such motors are used with small and medium robots and with teaching and hobby
robots. These motors are widely used in other industrial applications mainly due to
their advantage of not requiring any feedback system and, accordingly not incurring
the associated cost. Stepper motors are, however, compatible with many feedback
devices, if so desired, and are used in full servo-control configurations in medium-
duty industrial robots. Because they are digitally controlled, they can be referred to
as digital motors or actuators. These motors do not require the expense of digital-
to-analog conversion equipment when connected to a computer-control system. A
commercially available stepper motor is shown in Fig. 3.2.
 44 Introduction to Robotics

[Courtesy: http://www.polulu.com]
Fig. 3.2 Stepper motor (Bipolar, 200 Steps/Rev, 20 ¥ 30 mm, 3.9 V, 0.6 A/Phase)

Normally, the shaft of a stepper motors rotates incrementally in equal steps in

response to a programmed input pulse train. As shown in Fig. 3.3(a), current in any of
the two phases, i.e., with P1 and P2, will magnetize the pair into north and south poles,
indicted with N and S, respectively. Accordingly, the permanent magnet at the centre
will rotate in order to align itself along a particular phase, which is demonstrated in
Fig. 3.3(b). Switching the currents in the two phases in an appropriate sequence can
produce either clockwise (CW) or counterclockwise (CCW) rotations, as tabulated
in Table 3.1. The switching sequence of Table 3.1 corresponds to what is known as
half-stepping with a step angle of 45o, whereas the full-stepping corresponds to 90o
in which one phase is energized at a time. See Example 3.3. It is pointed out here that

Fig. 3.3 Working principle of a two-phase stepper motor

 Actuators and Grippers 45

one can also achieve micro-stepping (non-identical steps) up to 1/125 of full-step by

changing the currents in small steps instead of switching them on and off, as in the
case of half- and full-stepping. While micro-stepping is advantageous from the point
of view of accurate motion control using a stepper motor, it has the disadvantage of
reduced motor torque.
Note that the steps are achieved through phase activation or switching sequences
triggered by the pulse sequences. The switching logic that decides the states of the
phases of a given step can be generated using a look-up table given in Table 3.1. The
same sequences can also be generated using a logic circuitry which is typically an
electronic device.

Table 3.1 Half-stepping sequence of a two-phase stepper motor

(both phases energized simultaneously)

Step
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Rotation
Phases
CW
P1 1 0 –1 –1 –1 0 1 1
P2 1 1 1 0 –1 –1 –1 0
CCW

As the rotor indexes round a specific amount for each control pulse, any error
in positioning is noncumulative. To know the final position of the rotor, all that
is required is to count the number of pulses fed into the stator’s phase winding of
the motor. The number of pulses per unit time determines the motor speed. The
rotor can be made to index slowly, coming to rest after each increment or it can
move rapidly in a continuous motion termed slewing. Maximum dynamic torque
in a stepper motor occurs at low pulse rates. Therefore, it can easily accelerate a
load. Once the required position is achieved and the command pulses cease, the shaft
stops without the need for clutches or brakes. The actual rotational movements or
step angles of the shaft are obtainable typically from 1.8° to 90° depending on the
particular motor choices. Thus, with a nominal step angle of 1.8°, a stream of 1000
pulses will give an angular displacement of 1800° or five complete revolutions. They
have also a low velocity capability without the need for gear reduction. For instance,
if the previously mentioned motor is driven by 500 pulses per second, it will rotate
at 150 rpm. Other advantages of the stepper motor are that the motor inertia is often
low, and also if more than one stepper motor is driven from the same source then
they will maintain perfect synchronizations.
Some disadvantages of stepper motors are that they have a lower output and
efficiency compared to other motors, namely, dc and ac, and drive inputs and
circuitry have to be carefully designed in relation to the torque and speed required.
There are various types of stepper motors which are based on the nature of a motor’s
rotor, e.g., variable reluctance, permanent magnet, and hybrid. A good account of
stepper motors is given in de Silva (2004), whereas an online video showing their
 46 Introduction to Robotics

working principles are available in WR-Stepper (2013)1. A typical specification of

a stepper motor is given in Table 3.2, whereas a general torque-speed plot is shown
in Fig. 3.4.

Table 3.2 Specifications of a stepper motor [Courtesy: www.robokits.co.in]

Brand and Model NEMA 23, RMCS-115

Step angle 1.8°
Configuration 6 wire stepper motor
Holding torque 10 kg-cm bipolar
Rated voltage 3.3 VDC
Phase current 2 Amp
Resistance/Phase 1.65 E
Inductance/Phase 2.2 mH
Rotor inertia 275 gcm2
Detent torque 0.36 kg-cm
Length 51 mm
Weight 650 grams

Torque Peak torque

Starting torque
(Standstill
torque)

No-load
speed

0 Speed

Fig. 3.4 Torque-speed characteristics of a stepper motor

1. Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor Magnetic reluctance, or simply

reluctance, is the analog of electrical resistance. Just as current occurs only in a
closed loop, so magnetic flux occurs only around
Detent Position a closed path, although this path may be more
It is the equilibrium configuration varied than that of the current. Figure 3.5(a)
when the rotor assumes the shows the basic form of the variable-reluctance
minimum reluctance position for stepper motor. The rotor is made of soft steel
that step.
and it has four poles, whereas the stator has six

1 WR stands for Web Reference given at the end of the list of References. They mainly contain the links
to online materials including videos, which are expected to enhance the understanding of a concept to the
reader.
 Actuators and Grippers 47

poles. When one of the phases, say AA¢, is excited due to a dc current passing through
the coils around the poles, the rotor positions itself to complete the flux path shown
in Fig. 3.5(a). Note that there is a main flux
Holding Torque vs. Detent Torque
path through the aligned rotor and stator
Holding torque is the amount of
teeth, with secondary flux paths occurring as
torque that the motor produces when
indicated. When rotor and stator teeth are it has rated current flowing through
aligned in this manner, the reluctance is the windings but the motor is at rest,
minimized and the rotor is at rest in this whereas the detent torque is the amount
position. This flux path can be considered of torque that the motor produces when
it is not energized, i.e., no current is
rather like an elastic thread and always trying
flowing through the windings.
to shorten itself. The rotor will move until
the rotor and stator poles are lined up. This is
termed as the position of minimum reluctance. To rotate the motor counterclockwise,
the phase AA¢ is turned off and phase BB¢ is excited. At that point, the main flux path
has the form indicated in Figs. 3.5(b-c). This form of a stepper motor generally gives
step angles of 7.5° or 15°, which are referred as half-stepping and full-stepping,
respectively. Note that a disadvantage of variable-reluctance stepper motors is that it
has zero holding torque when the stator windings are not energized (power off)
because the rotor is not magnetized. Hence, it has no capacity to hold a load in
power-off mode unless mechanical brakes are employed.

Fig. 3.5 Variable-reluctance stepper motor

2. Permanent-Magnet Stepper Motor The basic method of operation of a

permanent-magnet type is similar to the variable-reluctance type. As illustrated in
Fig. 3.6, there are two coils A and B, each of them having four poles but displaced
from each other by half a pole pitch. The
rotor is of permanent-magnet construction Harmonic drive and Ratchet-and-
and has four poles. Each pole is wound with pawl vs. Stepper motors
field winding, the coils on opposite pairs of Harmonic drive and ratchet-and-pawl
poles being in series. Current is supplied are two transmission mechanisms
from a dc source to the winding through which produce intermittent motions
switches. It can be seen in Fig. 3.6(a) that the purely through mechanical means.
They can be loosely categorized as
motor is at rest with the poles of the
stepper motors.
permanent magnet rotor held between the
 48 Introduction to Robotics

residual poles of the stator. In this position, the rotor is locked unless a turning force
is applied. If the coils are energized and, in the first pulse, the magnetic polarity of
the poles of the coil A is reversed, the rotor will experience a torque and will rotate
counterclockwise, as shown in Fig. 3.6(b). The reverse poles are shown as A¢.

Fig. 3.6 Permanent-magnet stepper motor

If the coil B poles are now reversed to B¢, as shown in Fig. 3.6(c), the rotor will
again experience a torque, and once more the poles of the rotor are positioned midway
between the stator poles. Thus, by switching the currents through the coils, the rotor
rotates by 45°. If in the first pulse, the poles of the coil B had been reversed then the
motor would have rotated clockwise. With this type of motor, commonly produced
step angles are 1.8°, 7.5°, 15°, 30°, 34°, 90°.
3. Hybrid Stepper Motor Hybrid stepper motors are the most common variety
of stepper motors in engineering applications. They combine the features of both the
variable reluctance and permanent-magnet
motors, having a permanent magnet encaged
in iron caps which are cut to have teeth, as
shown in Fig. 3.7. A hybrid stepper motor
has two stacks of rotor teeth on its shaft (WR-
Stepper, 2013). The two rotor stacks are
magnetized to have opposite polarities, while
two stator segments surround the two rotor Fig. 3.7 Hybrid stepper motor
stacks. The rotor sets itself in the minimum
reluctance position in response to a pair of stator coils being energized. Typical step
angles are 0.9° and 1.8°.
From the descriptions of stepper motors, it is, therefore, apparent that the rate at
which the pulses are applied determines the motor speed, the total number of pulses
determines the angular displacement, and the order of energizing the coils in the first
instance determines the direction of rotation. It is because of this ease of driving
using direct digital control that stepper motors are well suited for use in a computer-
controlled robot, although the motor does require interfacing with a high-current
pulse source.
 Actuators and Grippers 49

Example 3.1 Pitch Angles of Rotors and Stators

If the angles of two adjacent teeth of a rotor Stepper Motor Model
and a stator, called the pitch angles, are
Model of a stepper motor is described
denoted by qr and qs, respectively, they can by its torque expression with respect to
be calculated as its rotor angle, i.e., t = –tmax sin(nrq),
360∞ 360∞ where tmax is maximum torque during a
qr = and q s = (3.1) step (holding torque), nr is the number
nr ns of rotor teeth, and q is any angular
position.
where by nr and ns are the corresponding
number of teeth in rotors and stators.

Example 3.2 Step Angle

Suppose, in a variable reluctance stepper motor the number of steps required is, n =
200. Then, the step angles Dq can be calculated as
360∞
Dq = = 1.8∞ (3.2)
n

Example 3.3 Sequence for Full-step Angle

As explained in the beginning of Section 3.1.1, the full-stepping requires that one
phase is energized at a time. For the two-phase motor of Fig. 3.3, the stepping
sequence is given in Table 3.3. The rotor positions are shown in Fig. 3.8.

Table 3.3 Full-stepping sequence for a two-phase motor

Step
1 2 3 4 Rotation
Phases
CW
P1 0 –1 0 1
P2 1 0 –1 0
CCW

Fig. 3.8 Stepping sequence (one phase energized at a time)

 50 Introduction to Robotics

3.1.2 dc Motors
People in their daily lives experience electric motors, whether they are dc (often
battery operated) motors to run a child’s toy or ac (mains operated) motors to turn
the blenders in the kitchen, etc. The first commercial electrically driven industrial
robot was introduced in 1974 by the Swedish giant corporation ASEA. Traditionally,
roboticists have employed electrically driven dc (direct-current) motors for robots
because, not only are powerful versions available, but they are also easily controllable
with relatively simple electronics. Although direct current is needed, batteries are
rarely used (for nonmobile robots) but instead the ac supply is rectified into a suitable
dc equivalent. The operation of any electric motor is based upon the principle
which states that a conductor will
experience a force if an electric
current in that conductor flows at
right angles to a magnetic field.
Therefore, to construct a motor, two
basic components are required. One
to produce the magnetic field usually
termed the stator, and another to act
as the conductor usually termed the
armature or the rotor. The principle
is shown in Fig. 3.9(a) for one
element of a dc motor, whereas a
two-pole dc motor is shown in Fig.
3.9(b). The magnetic field may be
created either by field coils wound on
the stator or by permanent magnets.
The field coils, if used, would be
provided with an electric current to
create magnetic poles on the stator.
In Fig. 3.9(a), the current is supplied
to a conductor via the brushes and
commutators. The current passing
through the field produces a torque,
or more accurately static torque on
the conductor, which can be given Fig. 3.9 dc motors
by
t = 2fr sin s (3.3a)
where f is the magnetic force exerted on the conductor, r is the radius of the rotor,
and s is the angle between the flux density vector of stator magnetic field b and the
unit vector normal to the plane of the coil n, as shown in Fig. 3.9(a). The angle s is
known as torque angle. In view of Lorentz’s law, the imbalanced magnetic force f
that is generated on the conductor, normal to the magnetic plane is given by
f = Bial (3.3b)
in which B is the flux density of the original field, ia is the current through the
conductor, i.e., coil rotor or armature formed by the conductors, and l is the length of
 Actuators and Grippers 51

the conductor. Substituting Eq. (3.3b) into Eq. (3.3a), the torque τ generated in the
rotor is given by
t = Aia b sin s (3.3c)
In Eq. (3.3c), A ≡ 2lr, which is nothing but the face area of the planar rotor, as
shown in Fig. 3.9(a). Moreover, unit vectors b and n represent the field direction and
normal to the plane of the rotor.
According to Eq. (3.3c), t is maximum when s = 90°. Moreover, the higher the
voltage supplied to the stator coils of the motor, the faster the motor turns, providing
a very simple method of speed
control. Similarly, varying the current
to the armature controls the torque.
Reversing the polarity of the voltage
causes the motor to turn in the
opposite direction. Some larger
robots utilize field control dc motors,
i.e., motors in which the torque is
controlled by manipulating the
current to the field coils. These motors
allow high power output at high
speeds and can give a good power-to-
weight ratio. A typical specification
of a dc motor is given in Table 3.4,
whereas its speed-torque characteristic
curve is shown in Fig. 3.10 for
Fig. 3.10 Speed-torque speed
different voltage values. characteristics of a dc motor

Table 3.4 Specifications of a dc motor [Courtesy: http://uk.rs-online.com]

Brand Parvalux
Manufacturer part no. PM2 160W511109
Type Industrial dc Electric Motors
Shaft size (S, M, L) M
Speed (rpm) 4000 rpm
Power rating (W) 160 W
Voltage rating (Vdc) 50 V(dc)
Input current 3.8 A
Height (mm) 78 mm
Width (mm) 140 mm
Length (mm) 165 mm

Note that the shape of steady-state speed-torque curves will be modified depending
on how the windings of the rotor and the stator are connected. There are three typical
ways to do that, namely, shunt-wound motor, series-wound motor, and compound-
wound motor. Figure 3.11 shows the above three windings.
 52 Introduction to Robotics

Fig. 3.11 Types of windings of dc motors

In a shunt-wound motor, the armature windings and field windings are connected
in parallel, as shown in Fig. 3.11(a). At steady state, the back electromotive force
(e.m.f.) depends directly on the supply voltage. Since the back e.m.f. is proportional
to the speed, it follows that the speed controllability is good with the shunt-wound
configuration. In series-wound motors, as the name suggests, they are connected
in series. This is shown in Fig. 3.11(b). The relation between the back e.m.f. and
supply voltage is coupled through both the armature windings and the field windings.
Hence, its speed controllability is relatively poor. But in this case, a relatively large
current flows through both windings at low speeds of the motor, giving higher starting
torque. Also, the operation is approximately at constant power. In the compound-
wound motor, a part of the field windings is connected with the armature windings
in series and the other part is connected in parallel, as shown in Fig. 3.11(c). This
kind of motors provides a compromise performance between the extremes of speed
controllability and higher starting torque characteristics, as provided by the shunt-
wound and series-wound motors, respectively. Table 3.5 summarizes the properties
derived from the above three types of windings. For an industrial robot, in general,
it is said that the current excited field control methods involve too slow a response
 Actuators and Grippers 53

time and incur losses that make permanent-magnet fields and armature control more
attractive, which are explained next.

Table 3.5 Steady-state characteristics of a dc motor [Courtesy: de Silva, 2004]

Serial Windings in a dc Field-coil resistance Speed Starting

No. motor controllability torque
1 Shunt-wound High Good Average
2 Series-wound Low Poor High
3 Compound-wound Parallel high, series low Average Average

1. Permanent-Magnet (PM) dc Motors The permanent-magnet dc motor,

which is also referred as torque motor, can provide high torque. Here, no field
coils are used and the field is produced by the permanent magnets themselves.
These magnets should have high-flux density per unit yielding a high torque/mass
ratio. Typical materials with desired characteristic of such dc motors are rare-earth
materials such as samarium cobalt, etc. Some PM motors do have coils wound on the
magnet poles but these are simply to recharge the magnets if their strength fails. Due
to the field flux being a constant, the torque of these motors is directly proportional
to the armature current. Some other advantages are: excitation power supplies for
the field coils are not required, reliability is improved as there are no field coils to
fail, and no power loss from field coils means efficiency and cooling are improved.
However, these types of motors are more expensive. Two types of PM configurations
are shown in Fig. 3.12. They are cylindrical and disk types.

Fig. 3.12 Two types of permanent-magnet dc motor configurations

The cylindrical motor operates in a similar manner to that already described for
other dc motors except that there are no field coils, whereas the disk motor has a large
diameter, short-length armature of nonmagnetic material. It is the cylindrical motor
that is more commonly used in industrial robots.
2. Brushless Permanent-Magnet dc Motors A problem with dc motors is that
they require a commutator and brushes in order to periodically reverse the current
through each armature coil. The brushes make sliding contacts with the commutators
and as a consequence sparks jump between the two and they suffer wear. Brushes
 54 Introduction to Robotics

thus have to be periodically changed and the commutator resurfaced. To avoid such
problems, brushless motors have been designed. Essentially, they consist of a
sequence of stator coiled and a permanent magnet rotor. A current-carrying conductor
in a magnetic field experiences a force; likewise, as a consequence of Newton’s third
law of motion, the magnet will also experience an opposite and equal force. With the
conventional dc motor, the magnet is fixed and the current-carrying conductors made
to move. With the brushless permanent-magnet dc motor the reverse is the case, the
current-carrying conductors are fixed and the
magnetic field moves. The rotor is a ferrite or
ceramic permanent magnet. In concept,
brushless dc motors are somewhat similar to
permanent-magnet stepper motors explained
in Section 3.1.1 and to some type of ac
motors, as in Section 3.1.3. Figure 3.13
shows the basic form of such a motor. The
current to the stator coils is electronically
switched by transistors in sequence round
the coils, the switching being controlled by
Fig. 3.13 Brushless permanent-
the position of the rotor so that there are magnet dc motor
always forces acting on the magnet causing
it to rotate in the same direction.
The brushless motors have many advantages over conventional dc motors. For
example,
∑ They have better heat dissipation, heat being more easily lost from the stator
than the rotor.
∑ There is reduced rotor inertia. Hence, they weigh less and low mass for a
specified torque rating.
∑ The motors in themselves are less expensive.
∑ They are more durable and have longer life.
∑ Low maintenance.
∑ Lower mechanical loading.
∑ Improved safety.
∑ Quieter operation.
∑ They are of smaller dimensions of comparable power.
∑ The absence of brushes reduces maintenance costs due to brush and commutator
wear, and also allows electric robots to be used in hazardous areas with flammable
atmospheres such as are found in spray-painting applications.
One disadvantage is that the control systems for brushless motors are relatively
expensive due to sensing and switching.
3. dc Servomotors and their Drivers Servomotors are motors with motion
feedback control, which are able to follow a specified motion trajectory. In a dc
servomotor, both angular position and speed might be measured using, say, shaft
encoders, tachometers, resolvers, potentiometers, etc., and compared with the desired
position and speed. The error signal which is the difference between the desired
minus actual responses is conditioned and compensated using analog circuitry or
 Actuators and Grippers 55

is processed by a digital hardware processor or a computer, and supplied to drive

the servomotor toward the desired response. Motion control implies indirect torque
control of the motor that causes the motion. In some applications like grinding, etc.,
where torque itself is a primary output, direct control of motor torque would be
desirable. This can be accomplished using feedback of the armature current or the
field current because those currents determine the motor torque. A typical layout of
a dc servomotor is given in Fig. 3.14.

Fig. 3.14 A dc servomotor [Courtesy: de Silva, 2004]

Note that the control of a dc motor is achieved by controlling either the stator field
flux or the armature flux. If the armature and field windings are connected through
the same circuit, i.e., one of the winding types shown in Fig. 3.11, both techniques
are implemented simultaneously. Two methods of control are armature control and
field control. In armature control, the field current in the stator circuit is kept constant
and the input voltage to the rotor is varied in order to achieve a desired performance.
In the field control, on the other hand, the armature voltage is kept constant and input
voltage to the field circuit is varied. These winding currents are generated using a
motor driver. It is a hardware unit that generates necessary current to energize the
windings of the motor. By controlling the current generated by the driver, the motor
torque can be controlled. By receiving feedback from a motion sensor (encoder
tachometer, etc.), the angular position and the speed of the motor can be controlled.
The drive unit of a dc servomotor primarily consists of a driver amplifier
(commercially available amplifiers are
linear amplifier or pulse-width- Impedance vs. Inertia Matching
modulation, i.e., PWM, amplifier), with In electrical systems, impedance matching is
additional circuitry and a dc power to equate the input impedance of a load (or
supply. The driver is commanded by a output impedance) with the input impedance
control input provided by a host to maximize the power transfer. Similarly,
in a motor-gearbox load configuration, the
computer through an interface (input/ inertia (or mechanical impedance) of the
output) card. A suitable arrangement is load seen by the motor should be the same
shown in Fig. 3.15. Also, the driver as its inertia in order to obtain maximum
parameters like amplifier gains are power transfer or acceleration.
 56 Introduction to Robotics

software programmable and can be set by the host computer. The control computer
receives a feedback signal of the motor motion, through the interface board, and
generates a control signal, using a suitable control law explained in Chapter 10. The
signal is then provided to the drive amplifier, again through the interface board. An
interface board or Data Acquisition (DAQ) card is a hardware module with Digital-
to-Analog (DAC) and Analog-to-Digital (ADC) capabilities built-in. These are
generally parts of a robot’s control system, as mentioned in Section 2.1.3.

Fig. 3.15 Controller of a dc servomotor

The final control of a dc motor is accomplished by controlling the supply voltage

to either the armature circuit or the field circuit. A dissipative method of achieving
this involves using a variable resistor in series with the supply source to the circuit.
This method has disadvantages of high heat generation, etc. Instead, the voltage to a
dc motor is controlled by using a solid-state switch known as a thyrister to vary the
off time of fixed voltage level, while keeping the period of pulse signal constant.
Specifically, the duty cycle of a pulse
signal is varied, as demonstrated in Duty Cycle
Fig. 3.16. This is called pulse-width- It is given in percentage as
modulation or PWM. A commercial dc On period
—————— × 100%
servomotor along with its controller unit Pulse period
is shown in Fig. 3.17.

Voltage

On period Pulse period

Reference
voltage

Time
On Off On Off On Off
Fig. 3.16 Duty cycle of a PWM signal
 Actuators and Grippers 57

[Courtesy: http://www.maxonmotor.in/
maxon/view/content/ec-max-motors]
(a) A dc servomotor (b) Maxon’s driver for its servomotor
Fig. 3.17 A dc servomotor and its driver controller

Example 3.4 Stable and Unstable Operating Points of a dc Motor

Figure 3.18 shows the steady-state characteristic curve of a dc motor for a given
load to be driven at constant power under steady-state operating condition using a
separately wound dc motor with constant supply voltages to the field and armature
windings. The constant power curve for the load is a hyperbola because twm =
constant. The two curves intersect at A and B. At A, if there is a slight decrease in
the speed of operation, the motor (magnetic) torque will increase to tmA and the load
torque demand will increase to tlA. But since t mA > tlA, the system will accelerate back
to the point A. This shows that the point A is stable. On the other hand, at B, if speed
drops slightly, the magnetic torque of the motor will increase to tmB and at the same
time, the load torque demand will also increase to tlB, where tmB < tlB. As a result,
the system will decelerate further leading to stalling the motor. Hence, the point B
is unstable.

Fig. 3.18 Steady-state characteristic curve of a dc motor

 58 Introduction to Robotics

3.1.3 ac Motors
Until recently, ac (alternating current) motors have not been considered suitable for
robots because of the problems involved in controlling their speeds. In its simplest
form, an ac motor consists of external electromagnets around a central rotor, but
without any form of mechanical switching mechanism for the electromagnets.
However, because alternating current (such as the mains electricity supply) is
constantly changing polarity (first flowing one way, then the opposite way, several
times a second, e.g., 50 in India, and 60 in the USA), it is possible to connect the
ac supply directly to the electromagnets. The alternating reversal of the direction
of current through the coils will perform the same task of polarity changing in ac
motors. The magnetic field of the coils will appear to rotate (almost as if the coils
themselves were being mechanically rotated).
A typical specification of an ac motor is given in Table 3.6. Moreover, speed-
torque characteristics of ac motors are shown in Fig. 3.19. Typical advantages of an
ac motor over its dc counterpart are listed below:
∑ Cheaper.
∑ Convenient power supply.
∑ No commutator and brush mechanism. Hence, virtually no electric spark
generation or arcing (safe in hazardous environment like spray painting and
others)
∑ Low power dissipation, and low rotor inertia.
∑ High reliability, robustness, easy maintenance, and long life.
Some of the disadvantages are the following:
∑ Low starting torque.
∑ Need auxiliary devices to start the motor.
∑ Difficulty of variable-speed control or servo control unless modern solid-state
and variable-frequency drives with field feedback compensation are used.

Table 3.6 Specifications of an ac motor [Courtesy: http://uk.rs-online.com]

Brand ABB
Manufacturer part no. 1676687
Type Industrial single and three-phase electric motors
Supply voltage 220 – 240 Vac 50 Hz
Output power 180 W
Input current 0.783 A
Shaft diameter 14 mm
Shaft length 30 mm
Speed 1370 rpm
Rated torque 1.3 Nm
Torque starting 1.3 Nm
Height 150 mm
Length 213 mm
Width 120 mm
 Actuators and Grippers 63

motions are with the help of an electrically powered rotary motor, as explained in
sections 3.1.1–3.1.3, coupled with transmission mechanisms like nut and ball-screw,
cam-follower, rack-and-pinion, etc. These devices inherently have problems of
friction and backlash. Additionally, they add inertia and flexibility to the driven load,
thereby generating undesirable resonances and motion errors. Proper inertia matching
is also essential. In order to avoid the above difficulties of using a transmission
system, direct rectilinear electromechanical actuators are desirable. They can be
based on any of the principles mentioned for the rotary actuators, i.e., stepper or dc
or ac motors. In these actuators, flat stators and rectilinearly moving elements (in
place of rotors) are employed. These types of actuators are also referred to as electric
cylinders in line with hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders that are explained next.

Fig. 3.23 A solenoid and its characteristic curve

3.2 HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS

Hydraulic actuators are one of the two
What is 1 Bar?
types of fluid power devices for industrial
robots. The other type is pneumatic, It is a unit of pressure.
described in the next section. Hydraulic One Bar = one atm = 14.7 Psi = 101356.5
actuators utilize high-pressure fluid such N/m2 (Pa) or approximately 0.1 MPa.
as oil to transmit forces to the point of
application desired. A hydraulic actuator is very similar in appearance to that of
pneumatically driven one. Different components are shown in Fig. 3.24, whereas
typical specifications of a cylinder are given in Table 3.8. Hydraulic actuators
designed to operate at much higher pressures (typically between 70 and 170 bar).
They are suitable for high power applications. Advantages and disadvantages of a
hydraulic actuator are as follows:
Advantages
∑ High efficiency and high power-to-size ratio.
∑ Complete and accurate control over speed, position, and direction of actuators
are possible.
 64 Introduction to Robotics

Fig. 3.24 A hydraulic actuator

∑ Few backlash problems occur due to the stiffness and incompressibility of the
fluid, especially, when the actuator acts as the joint itself. Large forces can be
applied directly at the required locations.
∑ They generally have a greater load-carrying capacity than electric and pneumatic
robots.
∑ No mechanical linkage is required, i.e., a direct drive is obtained with mechanical
simplicity.
∑ Self-lubricating (low wear) and non-corrosive.
∑ Due to the presence of an accumulator, which acts as a ‘storage’ device, the
system can meet sudden demands in power.
∑ Hydraulic robots are more capable of withstanding shock loads than electric
robots.
Disadvantages
∑ Leakages can occur to cause loss in performance, and general contamination of
the work area. There is also higher fire risk.
 Actuators and Grippers 65

∑ The power pack can be noisy, typically about 70 decibel (dBA) or louder if not
protected by an acoustic muffler.
∑ Changes in temperature alter the viscosity of How noisy is 70 decibels?
the hydraulic fluid. Thus, at low temperatures,
fluid viscosity will increase, possibly, causing The level of 70 decibels is
about the noise level of heavy
sluggish movement of the robot.
traffic.
∑ For smaller robots, hydraulic power is usually
not economically feasible as the cost of hydraulic
components do not decrease in proportion to size.
∑ Servo control of hydraulic systems is complex and is not as widely understood
as electric servo control.
Hydraulic systems power the strongest and the stiffest robots and, hence, the
bulk modulus of the oil is an extremely important attribute to be selected. A high
bulk modulus implies a stiff, quickly responding system with a corresponding quick
pressure build-up, while a low bulk modulus may result in a system that is too loose
because of the high compressibility of the oil. Hydraulic systems or circuits have
always four essential components: a reservoir to hold the fluid, pumps to move it,
valves to control the flow, and an actuator to carry out the dictates of the fluid on some
load. Rotary hydraulic actuators are also available in the market. A commercially
available hydraulic cylinder is shown in Fig. 3.25(a), whereas its design using
software is available in WR-Hydraulic (2013). A video of such cylinders is also
available at WR-Hydraulic-video (2013).

Table 3.8 Specifications of a hydraulic cylinder [Courtesy: http://uk.rs-online.com]

Brand Rexroth
Manufacturer part no. CDL1M00/32/18/50/C1X/B1CHUMS
Type Cylinder-rod ends bearing
Body Carbon steel
Bore size 32 mm
Stroke 50 mm
Port size G 1/4
Static proof pressure 240 bar
Working pressure 160 bar
Maximum force at 160 bar 12.8 kN
Maximum flow at 0.1 mm/s 4.8 l/min
Overall length 200 mm
Overall length (piston extended) 250 mm
Rod-end diameter 18 mm
Rod-end thread size 18 mm
Seal material NBR/Pollyurethane
Recommended hydraulic medium Mineral-oil-based fluids
Hydraulic fluid operating temperature range –20 to +80o C
 66 Introduction to Robotics

[Courtesy: www.meritindustriesltd.com]

[Courtesy: www.festo.com]
(a) Hydraulic cylinder (b) Pneumatic cylinder
Fig. 3.25 Commercially available cylinders

3.3 PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS

Pneumatic actuators are the other type of fluid power devices for industrial robots.
Pneumatic actuators utilize compressed air for the actuation of cylinders as shown
in Fig. 3.25 (b), and are widely used for typical opening and closing motions of
jaws in the gripper of a robot, as shown in Fig. 2.4 (a), or for the actuation of simple
robot arms used in applications where continuous motion control is not of concern.
A pneumatic actuator comprising of a pneumatic cylinder and other accessories are
shown in Fig. 3.26, whereas the specifications of a cylinder are given in Table 3.9.
Typical advantages and disadvantages of pneumatic actuators are as follows:
Advantages
∑ It is the cheapest form of all actuators. Components are readily available and
compressed air is normally an already existing facility in factories.
∑ Compressed air can be stored and conveyed easily over long distances.
∑ Compressed air is clean, explosion-proof and insensitive to temperature
fluctuations, thus, lending itself to many applications.
∑ They have few moving parts making them inherently reliable and reducing
maintenance costs.
∑ Since pneumatic systems are common throughout industry, therefore, relevant
personnel are often very familiar with the technology.
∑ Very quick in action and response time, thus, allowing fast work cycles.
∑ No mechanical transmission is usually required.
∑ Pneumatics can be intrinsically safe in explosive areas as no electrical control is
required. Also in wet conditions there is no danger of electrocution.
∑ The systems are usually compact.
∑ Control is simple, e.g., mechanical stops are often used.
∑ Individual components can be easily interconnected.
Disadvantages
∑ Since air is compressible, precise control of speed and position is not easily
obtainable unless more complex electromechanical devices are incorporated
into the system. This means that only a limited sequence of operation at a fixed
speed is often available.
 Actuators and Grippers 67

Fig. 3.26 A pneumatic actuator

∑ If mechanical stops are used, resetting the system can be slow.

∑ Pneumatics is not suitable for moving heavy loads under precise control due
to the compressibility of air. This compressibility necessitates the application
of more force than would normally be necessary to ensure that the actuator is
firmly in position against its stop under load conditions.
∑ If moisture penetrates the units and ferrous metals have been used then damage
to individual components can result.
The compressibility of the air in a pneumatic actuator does not allow for
sophisticated control, but the same can be used to advantage, preventing damage
 68 Introduction to Robotics

due to overload and providing compliance that may be required in many practical
applications.

Table 3.9 Specifications of a pneumatic cylinder for a gripper

[Courtesy: http://uk.rs-online.com]

Brand SMC
Manufacturer part no. MHC2-25D
Type Gripper (double acting)
Bore 25 mm
Operating angle 30° (open) to –10° (Closed)
Pressure range 1 to 6 Bar
Connection port size M5 m
Temperature range 0 to 60°C
Media Non lubricated air
Holding moment 1.4 Nm at 5 bar
Repeatability at closing position ±0.1 mm
Maximum operating frequency 80 cpm (cycles per minute)

3.4 SELECTION OF MOTORS

For any application of robots, one must decide which of available actuators is
most suitable. Positioning accuracy, reliability, speed of operation, cost, and other
factors must be considered. Electric motors are inherently clean and capable of high
precision if operated properly. In contrast, pneumatic systems are not capable of high
precision for continuous-path operation and hydraulic actuators require the use of oil
under pressure. Hydraulic system can generate greater power in a compact volume
than electric motors. Oil under pressure can be piped to simple actuators capable of
extremely high torque and rapid operations. Also, the power required to control an
electro-hydraulic valve is small. Essentially, the work is done in compressing the
oil and delivering it to the robot-arm drives. All the power can be supplied by one
powerful, efficient electric motor driving the hydraulic pump at the base of the robot
or located at some distance away. Power is controlled in compact electro-hydraulic
valves. However, high-precision electro-hydraulic valves are more expensive and
less reliable than low-power electric amplifiers and controllers. On the other hand,
electric motors must have individual controls capable of controlling their power. In
large robots, this requires switching of 10 to 50 amperes at 20 to 100 volts. Current
switching must be done rapidly; otherwise there is large power dissipation in the
switching circuit that will cause excessive heat. Small electric motors use simple
switching circuits and are easy to control with low-power circuits. Stepper motors
are especially simple for open-loop operation. The single biggest advantage of a
hydraulic system is their intrinsically safe operation.
As a rule of thumb, hydraulic actuators are preferred where rapid movement at
high torques is required, at power ranges of approximately over 3.5 kW unless the
slight possibility of an oil leakage cannot be tolerated. Electric motors are preferred
 4
Sensors, Vision and
Signal Conditioning
Sensors in robots are like our nose, ears, mouth, and skin, whereas vision or robot
vision can be thought of as our eyes. Based on the function of human organs, for
example, eyes, skin, etc., terminology like vision, tactile, etc., have cropped up in
robot sensors. Robots, like humans, must gather extensive information about their
environment in order to function effectively. They must pick up an object and know
it has been picked up. As the robot arm moves through the 3-dimensional Cartesian
space, it must avoid obstacles and approach items to be handled at a controlled speed.
Some objects are heavy, others are fragile, and others are too hot to handle. These
characteristics of objects and the environment must be recognized, and fed to the
computer that controls a robot’s movement. For example, to move the end-effector
of a robot, with or without a payload along a desired trajectory and to exert a desired
force on an object, the end-effector and sensors (normally located at the joints and at
the end-effector) work in coordination with the robot controller (a microprocessor, or
a computer or a microcontroller).
Note that in industrial applications of robots, as explained in Chapter 2, sensors
must play important roles. For example, they must at least provide the following
functions:
1. Safe Operation Sensors must protect human workers who work in the vicinity
of the robot or other equipment. For example, one can provide a sensor on the floor
of a work cell where a robot is working so that if anybody steps in the robot’s power
should be switched off.
2. Interlocking This is required to coordinate the sequence of operations on a
component. For example, unless a turning is done on a component, it should not be
transferred to the conveyor.
3. Inspection This is essential for Sensor vs. Transducer
quality control. For example, one can Sensor and transducer are used
use a vision system to measure the interchangeably to denote a sensor-
transducer unit. They are the functional
length of a component to check if it is stages of sensing. First, a measurand
within the acceptable tolerance or not. is felt or sensed before it is transduced
or converted from one type of energy to
4. Part Configuration If a robot is another for various purposes including the
used to weld two parts of a car body, measurement of physical parameters like
the sensors must identify the correct position, velocity, etc.
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 77

configurations, i.e., position and orientation of the parts, before the robot starts
welding.
There could be other scenarios like identifying the color code of a particular car
model before painting with that color is done by the robot, etc.

4.1 SENSOR CLASSIFICATION

The major capabilities required by a robot are as follows:
Simple Touch The presence or absence of an object.
Taction or Complex Touch The presence of an object plus some information on
its size and shape.
Simple Force Measured force along a single axis.
Complex Force Measured force along two or more axes.
Proximity Noncontact detection of an object.
Simple Vision Detection of edges, holes, corners, and so on.
Complex Vision Recognition of shapes.
Based on the type of signals a sensor or transducer receives and processes, it can
be classified as analog or digital. In analog sensors, with the variation of input there
is a continuous variation of output, whereas in case of digital sensors, the output is
of digital or discrete nature. For example, potentiometers, tacho-generators located
at the joints and strain-gauge-based sensors located at the end-effector of a robot fall
in the category of analog sensors, whereas encoders, located at the robot’s joints,
are digital sensors. In this book, sensors are, however, classified based on what they
sense, i.e., internal or external state of the robots, etc., as shown Fig. 4.1.

4.2 INTERNAL SENSORS

Internal sensors, as the name suggests, are used to measure internal state of a robot,
i.e., its position, velocity, acceleration, etc., at a particular instant. Based on these
information, control command is decided by the controller. Depending on the
quantities it measures, a sensor is termed as the position, velocity, acceleration, or
force sensor.
4.2.1 Position Sensors
Position sensors measure the position of each joint, i.e., joint angle of a robot. From
these joint angles, one can find the end-effector configuration, namely, its position
and orientation, through forward kinematics which will be taken up in Chapter 6.
Different position sensors are explained next.
1. Encoder The encoder is a digital optical device that converts motion into a
sequence of digital pulses. By counting a single bit or by decoding a set of bits, the
pulses can be converted to relative or absolute measurements. Thus, encoders are of
incremental or absolute type. Further, each type may be again linear and rotary.
 78
Introduction to Robotics

Fig. 4.1 Classification of sensors

 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 79

Incremental Linear Encoder As shown in Fig. 4.2(a), it has a transparent glass

scale with opaque grating. The thickness of grating lines and the gap between them
is made same, which are in the range of microns. One side of the scale is provided
with a light source and a condenser lens. On the other side there are light-sensitive
cells. The resistance of the cells (photodiodes) decreases whenever a beam of light
falls on them. Thus, a pulse is generated each time a beam of light is intersected by
the opaque line. This pulse is fed to the controller, which updates a counter (a record
of the distance traveled).
Absolute Linear Encoder It is similar in principle as the incremental linear
encoder. The difference is that it gives absolute value of the distance covered at
any time. Thus, the chance of missing the pulses at high speeds is less. The output
is digital in this case. The scale is marked in a sequence of opaque and transparent
strips, as shown in Fig. 4.2(b). In the scale shown, if the opaque block represents
1 (one) and the transparent block as 0 (zero) then the leftmost column will show a
binary number as 00000, i.e., a decimal value of 0, and the rightmost column will
show a binary number 11111, i.e., a decimal value of 61.
Incremental Rotary Encoder It is similar to the linear incremental encoder with a
difference that the gratings are now on a circular disc, as in Fig. 4.2(c). The common
value of the width of transparent spaces is 20 microns. There are two sets of grating
lines on two different circles which detect direction of rotation, and one can also
enhance the accuracy of the sensor. There is another circle, which contains only one
grating mark. It is used for measurement of full circles.
Absolute Rotary Encoder Similar to the absolute linear encoder, the circular disk
is divided into a number of circular strips and each strip has definite arc segments,
as shown in Fig. 4.2(d). This sensor directly gives the digital output (absolute). The
encoder is directly mounted on the motor shaft or with some gearing to enhance the
accuracy of measurement. To avoid noise in this encoder, a gray scale is sometimes
used. A Gray code, unlike binary codes, allows only one of the binary bits in a code
sequence to change between radial lines. It prevents confusing changes in the binary
output of the absolute encoder when the encoder oscillates between points. A sample
Gray code is given in Table 4.1 for some numbers. Note the difference between the
Gray and binary codes. The basic arrangement of the rotary encoder is shown in Fig.
4.2(e).

Table 4.1 Sample Gray codes

Decimal Binary code Gray code

0 0000 0000
1 0001 0001
2 0010 0011
3 0011 0010
4 0100 0110
 80 Introduction to Robotics

Fig. 4.2 Encoders

Example 4.1 Angular Position of an Encoder

If maximum count possible is p pulses and the range of a rotary encoder is ±qm then
the angular position corresponding to a count of n pulses is given as follows:
n
q= q (4.1)
p m

2. Potentiometer A potentiometer, also referred as simply pot, is a variable-

resistance device that expresses linear or angular displacements in terms of voltage,
as shown in Figs. 4.3(a-b), respectively. It consists of a wiper that makes contact with
a resistive element, and as this point of contact moves, the resistance between the
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 81

wiper and end leads of the device changes in proportion to the displacement, x and q
for linear and angular potentiometers, respectively.

Fig. 4.3 Potentiometers

3. LVDT The Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is one of the most
used displacement transducers, particularly when high accuracy is needed. It generates
an ac signal whose magnitude is related to the displacement of a moving core, as
indicated in Fig. 4.4. The basic concept is that of a ferrous core moving in a magnetic
field, the field being produced in a manner similar to that of a standard transformer.
There is a central core surrounded by two identical secondary coils and a primary
coil, as shown in Fig. 4.4. As the core changes position with respect to the coils, it
changes the magnetic field, and hence the voltage amplitude in the secondary coil
changes as a linear function of the core displacement over a considerable segment. A
Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT) operates under the same principle
as the LVDT is also available with a range of approximately ±40°.

Fig. 4.4 Principle of LVDT

 82 Introduction to Robotics

4. Synchros and Resolver While encoders give digital output, synchros and
resolvers provide analog signal as their
What are arc-minute
output. They consist of a rotating shaft
and arc-second?
(rotor) and a stationary housing (stator).
Their signals must be converted into the They are the measures of small angles.
one degree = 60 arc-minutes and
digital form through an analog-to-digital
one arc-minute = 60 arc-seconds.
converter before the signal is fed to the
computer.
As illustrated in Fig. 4.5, synchros and resolvers employ single-winding rotors
that revolve inside fixed stators. In a simple synchro, the stator has three windings
oriented 120° apart and electrically connected in a Y-connection. Resolvers differ
from synchros in that their stators have only two windings oriented at 90°. Because
synchros have three stator coils in a 120° orientation, they are more difficult than
resolvers to manufacture and are, therefore, more costly.
Modern resolvers, in contrast, are available in a brushless form that employ a
transformer to couple the rotor signals from the stator to the rotor. The primary
winding of this transformer resides on the stator, and the secondary on the rotor.
Other resolvers use more traditional brushes or slip rings to couple the signal into the
rotor winding. Brushless resolvers are more rugged than synchros because there are
no brushes to break or dislodge, and the life of a brushless resolver is limited only by
its bearings. Most resolvers are specified to work over 2 V to 40 V rms (root mean
square) and at frequencies from 400 Hz to 10 kHz. Angular accuracies range from 5
arc-minutes to 0.5 arc-minutes.

Fig. 4.5 Synchros and resolvers

In operation, synchros and resolvers resemble rotating transformers. The rotor

winding is excited by an ac reference voltage, at frequencies up to a few kHz. The
magnitude of the voltage induced in any stator winding is proportional to the sine
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 83

of the angle q between the rotor-coil axis and the stator-coil axis. In the case of a
synchro, the voltage induced across any pair of stator terminals will be the vector
sum of the voltages across the two connected coils. For example, if the rotor of a
synchro is excited with a reference voltage, V sin (w t), across its terminal R1 and R2,
the stator’s terminal will see voltages denoted as V0 in the form:
V0(S1 − S3) = V sin (w t) sin q (4.2a)
V0(S3 − S2) = V sin (w t) sin (q + 120°) (4.2b)
V0(S2 − S1) = V sin (w t) sin (q + 240°) (4.2c)
where S1, S2, etc., denotes the stator terminals. Moreover, V and w are the input
amplitude and frequency, respectively, whereas q is the shaft angle. In the case of a
resolver, with a rotor ac reference voltage of V sin (w t), the stator’s terminal voltages
will be
V0(S1 − S3) = V sin (w t) sin q (4.3a)
V0(S4 − S2) = V sin (w t) sin (q + 90°) = V sin (w t) cos q (4.3b)
As said earlier, the output of these synchros and resolvers must be first digitized.
To do this, analog-to-digital converters are used. These are typically 8-bit or 16-
bit. An 8-bit means that the whole range of analog signals will be converted into a
maximum of 28 = 256 values.
4.2.2 Velocity Sensors
Velocity or speed sensors measure by taking consecutive position measurements at
known time intervals and computing the time rate of change of the position values or
directly finding it based on different principles.
1. All Position Sensors Basically, all position sensors when used with certain
time bounds can give velocity, e.g., the number of pulses given by an incremental
position encoder divided by the time consumed in doing so. But this scheme puts
some computational load on the controller which may be busy in some other
computations.
2. Tachometer Such sensors can directly find the velocity at any instant of time,
and without much of computational load. This measures the speed of rotation of
an element. There are various types of tachometers in use but a simpler design is
based on the Fleming’s rule, which states ‘the voltage produced is proportional to the
rate of flux linkage.’ Here, a conductor (basically a coil) is attached to the rotating
element which rotates in a magnetic field (stator). As the speed of the shaft increases,
the voltage produced at the coil terminals also increases. In other ways, as shown in
Fig. 4.6, one can put a magnet on the rotating shaft and a coil on the stator. The
voltage produced is proportional to the speed of rotation of the shaft. This information
is digitized using an analog-to-digital converter and passed on to the computer.
3. Hall-effect Sensor Another velocity-measuring device is the Hall-effect
sensor, whose principle is described next. If a flat piece of conductor material, called
Hall chip, is attached to a potential difference on its two opposite faces, as indicated
in Fig. 4.7 then the voltage across the perpendicular faces is zero. But if a magnetic
field is imposed at right angles to the conductor, the voltage is generated on the two
 84 Introduction to Robotics

other perpendicular faces. Higher the field value, higher the voltage level. If one
provides a ring magnet, the voltage produced is proportional to the speed of rotation
of the magnet.

Fig. 4.6 Schematic diagram of a tachometer

Fig. 4.7 Principle of Hall-effect sensor

4.2.3 Acceleration Sensors

Similar to measurements of velocity Why acceleration from force
from the information of position sensors, but not from velocity?
one can find the accelerations as the time
rate of change of velocities obtained Finding acceleration from force involves
integration which suppresses any noise in
from velocity sensors or calculated the force signal. However, if the velocity
from the position information. But signal is used to determine acceleration,
this is not an efficient way to calculate differentiation has to be performed which
the acceleration because this will put amplifies the noise in the velocity signal.
a heavy computational load on the Hence, the latter is never advisable.
computer and that can hamper the speed
of operation of the system. Another way to compute the acceleration is to measure
the force which is the result of mass times acceleration. Forces are measured, for
example, using strain gauges for which the formula is
DRAE
F= (4.4)
RG
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 85

where F is force, DR is the change in resistance of the strain gauge, A is the cross-
sectional area of the member on which the force being applied, E is the elastic
modulus of the strain-gauge material, R is the original resistance of the gauge, and
G is gauge factor of the strain gauge. Then, the acceleration a is the force divided by
mass of the accelerating object m, i.e.,
F DRAE
a= = (4.5)
m RCm
It is pointed out here that the velocities
What is Gauge Factor?
and accelerations that are measured using
It is a measure of sensitivity for the strain
position sensors require differentiations.
gauges, and defined by
It is generally not desirable, as the 1 DR
noise in the measured data, if any, will G=
e R
be amplified. Alternatively, the use of
where G is the gauge factor, and e is
integrators to obtain the velocity from strain.
the acceleration, and consequently the
position, are recommended. Integrators tend to suppress the noise.
Example 4.2 Change in Resistance
If the gauge factor G = 2, resistance of the unreformed wire R = 100 W, and strain
e = 10–6, then change in resistance is given by
DR = GeR = 2 × 10–6 × 100 = 0.0002 W (4.6)

4.2.4 Force Sensors

A spring balance is an example of a force sensor in which a force, namely, the weight,
is applied to the scale pan that causes displacement, i.e., the spring stretches. The
displacement is then a measure of the force. There exist other types of force sensors,
e.g., strain-gauge based, Hall-effect sensor, etc.
1. Strain-gauge Based The principle of this type of sensors is that the elongation
of a conductor increases its resistance. Typical resistances for strain gauges are 50–
100 ohms. The increase in resistance is due to
∑ Increase in the length of the conductor; and
∑ Decrease in the cross-section area of the conductor.
Strain gauges are made of electrical conductors, usually wire or foil, etched on a
base material, as shown in Fig. 4.8. They are glued on the surfaces where strains are
to be measured, e.g., R1 and R2 of Fig. 4.9(a). The strains cause changes in the
resistances of the strain gauges, which are measured by attaching them to the
Wheatstone bridge circuit as one of the four resistances, R1 . . . R4 of Fig. 4.9(b). The
principle of a Wheatstone bridge is explained in Section
4.5.5. It is a cheap and accurate method of measuring
strain. But care should be taken for the temperature
changes. In order to enhance the output voltage and cancel
away the resistance changes due to the change in
temperature, two strain gauges are used, as shown in Fig.
4.9(a), to measure the force at the end of the cantilever
beam. Fig. 4.8 Strain gauges
 86 Introduction to Robotics

Fig. 4.9 Strain measurement

2. Piezoelectric Based A piezoelectric material exhibits a phenomenon known

as the piezoelectric effect. This effect states that when asymmetrical, elastic crystals
are deformed by a force, an electrical potential will be developed within the distorted
crystal lattice, as illustrated in Fig. 4.10. This effect is reversible. That is, if a potential
is applied between the surfaces of the
crystal, it will change its physical
dimensions. The magnitude and polarity of
the induced charges are proportional to the
magnitude and direction of the applied
force. The piezoelectric materials are
quartz, tourmaline, Rochelle salt, and
others. The range of forces that can be
measured using piezoelectric sensors are
from 1 to 20 kN and at a ratio of 2 × 105.
These sensors can be used to measure an Fig. 4.10 Piezoelectric sensor
instantaneous change in force (dynamic
forces).
3. Current Based Since the torque provided by an electric motor is a function
of the current drawn, its measurement, along with the known motor characteristics,
gives the torque sensing.
Example 4.3 Force and Acceleration using Strain Gauges
If the strain gauge of Example 4.2 is used to measure applied force, F on a member
of cross-sectional area, A = 10 mm2, and Young’s modulus, E = 6.9×10-10 N/m2 (for
aluminium), then using Eq. (4.4)
AE DR (10 ¥ 10 -6 )(6.9 ¥ 1010 )(0.0002)
F= = = 0.69 N (4.7)
GR 2(100)
If the mass of the member m = 3 kg then using equations (4.5) and (4.7)
0.69
a= = 0.21 m/s2 (4.8)
3
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 87

4.3 EXTERNAL SENSORS

External sensors are primarily used to learn more about a robot’s environment,
especially the objects being manipulated. External sensors can be divided into the
following categories:
∑ Contact type, and
∑ Noncontact type.
4.3.1 Contact Type
In this section, a contact-type force sensor is explained.
Limit Switch A limit switch is constructed
much as the ordinary light switch used at homes
and offices. It has the same on-off characteristics.
The limit switch usually has a pressure-sensitive
mechanical arm, as shown in Fig. 4.11(a). When
an object applies pressure on the mechanical arm,
the switch is energized. An object might have an
attached magnet that causes a contact to rise and
close when the object passes over the arm. As
shown in Fig. 4.11(b), the pull-up register keeps
the signal at +V until the switch closes, sending Fig. 4.11 Limit switch
the signal to ground. Limit switches can be either
Normally Open (NO) or Normally Closed (NC), and may have multiple-poles. A
normally open switch has continuity when pressure is applied. A single-pole switch
allows one circuit to be opened or closed upon contact, whereas a multi-pole switch
allows multiple switch circuits to be open or closed. Limit switches are mechanical
devices which have problems like
∑ they are subjected to mechanical failure,
∑ their mean time between failures is low compared to noncontact sensors, and
∑ the speed of operation is relatively slow compared to the speed of switching of
photoelectric micro-sensors which is up to 3000 times faster.
Limit switches are used in robots to detect the extreme positions of the motions,
where the link reaching an extreme position switches off the corresponding actuator,
thus, safeguarding any possible damage to the mechanical structure of the robot arm.
4.3.2 Noncontact Type
Here, noncontact-type force sensors and their principles are presented.
1. Proximity Sensor Proximity sensing is the technique of detecting the presence
or absence of an object with an electronic noncontact-type sensor. Proximity sensors
are of two types, inductive and capacitive. Inductive proximity sensors are used in
place of limit switches for noncontact sensing of metallic objects, whereas capacitive
proximity sensors are used on the same basis as inductive proximity sensors.
However, these can also detect nonmetallic objects.
Inductive Proximity Sensor All inductive proximity sensors consist of four basic
elements, namely, the following:
 88 Introduction to Robotics

∑ Sensor coil and ferrite core

∑ Oscillator circuit
∑ Detector circuit
∑ Solid-state output circuit
As shown in Fig. 4.12, the oscillator circuit
generates a radio-frequency electromagnetic field.
The field is centred around the axis of the ferrite
core, which shapes the field and directs it at the
sensor face. When a metal target approaches the
face and enters the field, eddy currents are induced
into the surface of the target. This results in a
loading or damping effect that causes a reduction
in amplitude of the oscillator signal. The detector
circuit detects the change in the oscillator
amplitude. The detector circuit will ‘switch on’ at
specific operating amplitude. This signal ‘turns
on’ the solid-state output circuit. This is often
referred to as damped condition. As the target
leaves the sensing field, the oscillator responds
with an increase in amplitude. As the amplitude
increases above a specific value, it is detected by
the detector circuit, which is ‘switched off’ causing
the output signal to return to the normal or ‘off’
state. The sensing range of an inductive proximity
sensor refers to the distance between the sensor
face and the target. It also indicates the shape of
the sensing field generated through the coil and the
core. There are several mechanical and
environmental factors that affect the sensing range.
The usual range is up to 10–15 mm but some Fig. 4.12 Inductive proximity
sensors have ranges as high as 100 mm. sensor

Capacitive Proximity Sensor A capacitive proximity sensor operates much like

an inductive proximity sensor. However, the means of sensing is considerably
different. Capacitive sensing is based on dielectric capacitance. Capacitance is the
property of insulators to store the charge. A capacitor consists of two plates separated
by an insulator, usually called a dielectric.
When the switch is closed, a charge is stored on
the two plates. The distance between the plates
determines the ability of the capacitor to store
the charge and can be calibrated as a function of
stored charge to determine discrete ON and
OFF switching status. Figure 4.13 illustrates
the principle of a capacitive sensor. One
capacitive plate is part of the switch, the sensor
face is the insulator, and the target is the other Fig. 4.13 Principle of capacitive
plate. Ground is the common path. The sensors
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 89

capacitive switch has the same four elements as the inductive sensor, i.e., sensor (the
dielectric media), oscillator circuit, detector circuit, and solid-state output circuit.
The oscillator circuit in a capacitive switch operates like one in an inductive
switch. The oscillator circuit includes capacitance from the external target plate
and the internal plate. In a capacitive sensor, the oscillator starts oscillating when
sufficient feedback capacitance is detected. Major characteristics of the capacitive
proximity sensors are as follows:
∑ They can detect non-metallic targets.
∑ They can detect lightweight or small objects that cannot be detected by
mechanical limit switches.
∑ They provide a high switching rate for rapid response in object counting
applications.
∑ They can detect limit targets through nonmetallic barriers (glass, plastics, etc.).
∑ They have long operational life with a virtually unlimited number of operating
cycles.
∑ The solid-state output provides a bounce-free contact signal.
Capacitive proximity sensors have two major limitations.
∑ The sensors are affected by moisture and humidity, and
∑ They must have extended range for effective sensing.
Capacitive proximity sensors have a greater sensing range than inductive
proximity sensors. Sensing distance for capacitive switches is a matter of plate
area, as coil size is for inductive proximity sensors. Capacitive sensors basically
measure a dielectric gap. Accordingly, it is desirable to be able to compensate for
the target and application conditions with a sensitivity adjustment for the sensing
range. Most capacitive proximity sensors are equipped with a sensitivity adjustment
potentiometer.
2. Semiconductor Displacement Sensor As shown in Fig. 4.14, a
semiconductor displacement sensor uses a semiconductor Light Emitting Diode
(LED) or laser as a light source, and a Position-Sensitive Detector (PSD). The laser
[Courtesy: http://www.sensorcentral.com/displacement/
laser02.php]

Fig. 4.14 Semiconductor-based sensor

 90 Introduction to Robotics

beam is focused on the target by a lens. The target reflects the beam, which is then
focused on to the PSD forming a beam spot. The beam spot moves on the PSD as
the target moves. The displacement of the workpiece can then be determined by
detecting the movement of the beam spot.

4.4 VISION
Vision can be defined as the task of
extracting information about the external Computer Vision vs. Computer Graphics
world from light rays imaged by a camera Computer vision can be thought of as
or an eye. Vision, also referred in the ‘inverse computer graphics.’ Computer
literature as computer vision or machine graphics deals with how to generate images
from a specification of the visual scene (e.g.,
vision or robot vision, is a major subject objects, scene structures, light sources),
of research and many textbooks, e.g., by whereas computer vision inverts this process
Haralick and Shapiro (1992, 1993), and to infer the structure of the world from the
others. A good coverage on the topic has observed image(s).
also appeared in Niku (2001). There are
also dedicated journals, e.g., Computer Vision, Graphics, and Image Processing, and
conferences in the area of robot vision. The area is so vast that it cannot be covered
in one section or chapter of a book. However, an attempt is made here to introduce
the basic concepts and techniques so that one is able to understand the systems and
methodologies used in robot vision. For detailed study and research, other references
in the area should be consulted.
Note in Fig. 4.1 that the vision systems or vision sensors are classified as external
noncontact type. They are used by robots to let them look around and find the parts,
for example, picking and placing them at appropriate locations. Earlier, fixtures
were used with robots for accurate positioning of the parts. Such fixtures are very
expensive. A vision system can provide alternative economic solution. Other tasks
of vision systems used with robots include the following:
1. Inspection Checking for gross surface defects, discovery of flaws in labeling,
verification of the presence of components in assembly, measuring for dimensional
accuracy, checking the presence of holes and other features in a part.
2. Identification Here, the purpose is to recognize and classify an object rather
than to inspect it. Inspection implies that the part must be either accepted or rejected.
3. Visual Servoing and Navigation Control The purpose here is to direct the
actions of the robot based on its visual inputs, for example, to control the trajectory
of the robot’s end-effector toward an object in the workspace. Industrial applications
of visual servoing are part positioning, retrieving parts moving along a conveyor,
seam tracking in continuous arc welding, etc.
All of the above applications someway require the determination of the
configuration of the objects, motion of the objects, reconstruction of the 3D geometry
of the objects from their 2D images for measurements, and building the maps of the
environments for a robot’s navigation. Coverage of vision system is from a few
millimetres to tens of metres with either narrow or wide angles, depending upon the
 5
Transformations

For the purpose of controlling a robot, it is necessary to know the relationships

between the joints’ motion (input) and the end-effector motion (output), because the
joint motions control the end-effector’s movements. Thus, the study of kinematics is
important, where transformations between the coordinate frames attached to different
links of the robot need to be performed.

5.1 ROBOT ARCHITECTURE

A robot under study is made up of several links connected serially by joints. The
robot’s Degree Of Freedom (DOF) depends on the number of links and joints, their
types, and the kinematic chain of the robot.
5.1.1 Links and Joints
The individual bodies that make up a robot are called links. Here, unless otherwise
stated, all links are assumed to be rigid, i.e., the distance between any two points within
the body does not change while it is moving. A rigid body in the three-dimensional
Cartesian space has six DOF. This implies that the position of the body can be
described by three translational, and the orientation by three rotational coordinates.
For convenience, certain nonrigid bodies, such as chains, cables, or belts, which
when serve the same function as rigid bodies, may be considered as links. From the
kinematic point of view, two or more members when connected together without
any relative motion between them are considered a single rigid link. For example, an
assembly of two gears connected by a common shaft is treated as one link.
Links of a robot are coupled by kinematic pairs or joints. A joint couples two links
and provides physical constraints on the relative motion between the links. It is not a
physical entity but just a concept that allows one to specify how one link moves with
respect to another one. For example, a hinge joint of a door allows it to move relative
to the fixed wall about an axis. No other motion is possible. The type of relative
motion permitted by a joint is governed by the form of the contact surface between
the members, which can be a surface, a line, or a point. Accordingly, they are termed
as either lower or higher pair joint. If two mating links are in surface contact, the
joint is referred to as a lower pair joint. On the contrary, if the links are in line or
point contact, the joint is called higher pair joint. As per the definition, the hinge joint
of the door is a lower pair joint, whereas a ball rolling on a plane makes a higher pair
joint. Frequently used lower and higher pairs are listed in Table 5.1.
 Transformations 117

1. Revolute Joint, R A revolute joint, also known as a turning pair or a hinge

or a pin joint, permits two paired links to rotate with respect to each other about the
axis of the joint, say, Z, as shown in Fig. 5.1. Hence, a revolute joint imposes five
constraints, i.e., it prohibits one of the links to translate with respect to the other one
along the three perpendicular axes, X, Y, Z, along with the rotation about two axes, X
and Y. This joint has one degree of freedom (DOF).

Fig. 5.1 A revolute joint

2. Prismatic Joint, P A prismatic joint or a sliding pair allows two paired links
to slide with respect to each other along its axis, as shown in Fig. 5.2. It also imposes
five constraints and, hence, has one DOF.

Fig. 5.2 A prismatic joint

3. Helical Joint, H As shown

in Fig. 5.3, a helical joint allows
two paired links to rotate about
and translate at the same time
along the axis of the joint. The
translation is, however, not
independent. It is related to the
rotation by the pitch of the screw.
Thus, the helical joint also has
five constraints, and accordingly
one DOF. Fig. 5.3 A helical joint
118 Introduction to Robotics

4. Cylindrical Joint, C It permits rotation about, and independent translation

along, the axis of the joint, as shown in Fig. 5.4. Hence, a cylindrical joint imposes
four constraints on the paired links, and has two DOF.

Fig. 5.4 A cylindrical joint

5. Spherical Joint, S It allows one of the coupled links to rotate freely in all
possible orientation with respect to the other one about the center of a sphere. No
relative translation is permitted. Hence, it imposes three constraints and has three
DOF.

Fig. 5.5 A spherical joint

6. Planar Joint, L This three DOF joint allows two translations along the two
independent axes of the plane of contact and one rotation about the axis normal to
the plane, Fig. 5.6.

Fig. 5.6 A planar joint

 Transformations 119

Table 5.1 Lower pair joints

Name Symbol Geometric Form and DOF Common

Representations Surface
Revolute R Fig. 5.1 1 Cylinder
Prismatic P Fig. 5.2 1 Prism
Helical H Fig. 5.3 1 Screw
Cylindrical C Fig. 5.4 2 Cylinder
Spherical S Fig. 5.5 3 Sphere
Planar L Fig. 5.6 3 Plane

Table 5.1 summarizes the basic lower pair

joints, where all the joints have surface
contact between the interconnecting links.
Another commonly used lower pair joint in
robotics is the two DOF universal joint, as
shown in Fig. 5.7. This is the combination of
two intersecting revolute joints. Examples of
higher pair joints in robots are gears and cams
with roller followers, where they make line
contacts. Fig. 5.7 A universal joint
5.1.2 Kinematic Chain
A kinematic chain is a series of links
Mechanism vs. Manipulator
connected by joints. When each and every
Whereas a mechanism can be open- and
link in a kinematic chain is coupled to at
closed-chain mechanical system; a ma-
most two other links, the chain is referred nipulator is treated here as an open-chain
to as simple kinematic chain. A simple system.
kinematic chain can be either closed or
open. It is closed if each and every link is coupled to two other links as shown in
Fig. 5.8. A kinematic chain is open if it contains exactly two links, namely, the end
ones that are coupled to only one link. A robotic manipulator shown in Fig. 5.9 falls
in this category.

Fig. 5.8 A four-bar mechanism

 Transformations 121

equal to the dimension of the working space, s, i.e., s = ci + ni. Hence, the total
number of constraints imposed by all the joints can be re-written as
p p p
c = Â ci = Â (s - ni ) = sp - Â ni (5.2)
i =1 i =1 i =1

Upon substitution of Eq. (5.2) into Eq. (5.1), one obtains the DOF of the system,
n, as
p
n = s(r - p - 1) + Â ni (5.3a)
i

which is the well-known Grubler Kutzbach criterion for the determination of a

system’s DOF. A simple and easy-to-use form of Eq. (5.3a) for the planar and spatial
motions of a system consisting of only one DOF kinematic pairs, e.g., revolute or
prismatic, can be given by
n = 3(r – 1) – 2p: For planar; n = 6 (r – 1) – 5p: For spatial (5.3b)
Note that the link dimensions are not entered in the formula, which sometimes
affect the DOF of the mechanism due to its geometrical arrangement of the links.

Example 5.1 Four-bar Mechanism

Figure 5.8 shows a planar four-bar mechanism whose links, including the ground,
are connected in a loop by four revolute joints. Here, s = 3, r = 4, and p = 4. Equation
(5.3a) gives
n = 3 (4 − 4 − 1) + (1 + 1 + 1 + 1) = 1 (5.4)
Hence, the planar four-bar linkage has one DOF. One can easily verify the result
of Eq. (5.4) using the expression of Eq. (5.3b) for planar motion too.

Example 5.2 A Robot Manipulator

Figure 5.9 shows the schematic diagram of a Stanford robot (Angeles, 2003). Its
DOF can be determined using Eq. (5.3a) as s = 6, r = 7 (including the fixed base), p
= 6. Then, from Eq. (5.3a), the DOF of the robot is
n = 6 (7 − 6 − 1) + 6 ¥ 1 = 6 (5.5)
One can easily verify the result of Eq. (5.5) using the expression of Eq. (5.3b) for
spatial motion too.

Example 5.3 Five-bar Mechanism

Figure 5.10 shows a planar five-bar mechanism. There are five links connected in
a loop by five revolute joints. Hence, s = 3, r = 5 (including the base), and p = 5.
Equation (5.3a) yields
n = 3 (5 − 5 − 1) + 5 × 1 = 2 (5.6)
The planar five-bar mechanism has two DOF, which is often used as a robot
manipulator also.
122 Introduction to Robotics

Fig. 5.10 A five-bar mechanism Fig. 5.11 A double parallelogram mechanism

Example 5.4 A Double Parallelogram Mechanism

Figure 5.11 shows a double parallelogram mechanism, where s = 3, r = 5 (including
the fixed base), p = 6. Then, Eq. (5.3a), gives
n = 3 (5 − 6 − 1) + 6 ¥ 1 = 0 (5.7)
which interprets the system as a structure with zero DOF. This is not true, as the
mechanism is known to have one DOF. Actually, the link #5 has length equal to
that of link #2. Hence, #5 is kinematically redundant and can be removed without
destroying the basic kinematic chain and subsequently the input-output behavior of
the mechanism.
In general, if the Grubler–Kutzbach criterion, Eq. (5.3), yields n > 0, the mechanism
has n DOF. If the criterion yields n = 0, it is a structure with zero DOF, and if n
< 0, the system is a statically indeterminate structure with redundant constraints.
Exceptions, however, occur as the one shown for Fig. 5.11 which does not obey the
Grubler–Kutzback criterion. For such systems, different mobility criterion, e.g., loop
mobility criterion, as described by Tsai (1999), etc., can be employed to determine
their DOF.

5.2 POSE OF A RIGID BODY

Rigid-body motion in the three-
dimensional Cartesian space comprises Pose vs. Configuration
of translation and rotation. Whereas They mean the same in this book, i.e., the
translation is defined using three position of a point on a rigid body and its
Cartesian coordinates, the rotation needs orientation.
three angular coordinates. Hence, the
rigid-body motion can be defined completely using six coordinates. In the study of
the kinematics of robot manipulators, one constantly deals with the position and
orientation of several bodies in space. The bodies of interest include the links of the
manipulator, tools, and workpiece. To identify the position and orientation of a body,
i.e., its pose or configuration, a fixed reference coordinate system is established,
which is called the fixed frame. Next, a Cartesian coordinate system attached to the
moving body is employed to describe its pose.
 Transformations 123

The pose or the position and orientation of a rigid body with respect to the
reference coordinate system are known from the six independent parameters. As
shown in Fig. 5.12, let the X-Y-Z-coordinate system be the fixed reference frame. The
U-V-W-coordinate system is attached to the moving body and referred as the moving
frame. Clearly, the pose or configuration of the rigid body is known if the pose of
the moving frame with respect to the fixed frame is known. This pose is determined
from the position of any point on it, say, the origin, O, or point P, and the orientation
of the moving frame with respect to the fixed frame.
5.2.1 Position Description
The position of any point, P, on a rigid body in motion with respect to the fixed
reference frame can be described by the three-dimensional Cartesian vector, p, as
indicated in Fig. 5.12. If the coordinates of the point P or the components of the
vector p are, px, py, pz, in the fixed frame F, it is denoted as
È px ˘
Í ˙
[p]F ∫ Í p ˙ (5.8)
y
Í ˙
Í pz ˙
Î ˚
where the subscript F stands for the reference frame where the vector p is
represented.

Fig. 5.12 Spatial description

The subscripts x, y and z represent the projections of the position vector p onto the
coordinate axes of the fixed reference frame, namely, along X, Y and Z, respectively.
Vector p can alternatively be expressed as
p = px x + py y + pz z (5.9)
where x, y and z denote the unit vectors along the axes, X, Y and Z of the frame F,
respectively, as indicated in Fig. 5.12. Their representations in the frame F, namely,
[x]F, [y]F and [z]F, are as follows:
124 Introduction to Robotics

È1 ˘ È0 ˘ È0 ˘
[x]F ∫ Í0 ˙ , [ y ]F ∫ Í1 ˙ , and [z]F ∫ Í0 ˙ (5.10)
ÍÎ0 ˙˚ ÍÎ0 ˙˚ ÍÎ1 ˙˚

Substituting Eq. (5.10) into Eq. (5.9), it can be shown that the expression of the
vector p in the frame F, i.e., [p]F, is same as that of Eq. (5.8). Note that if the vector
p is represented in another fixed frame different from the frame F then the vector p
will have different components along the new coordinate axes even though the actual
position of the point P has not changed. Thus, a vector will normally be written
without mentioning any frame, e.g., as done in Eq. (5.9) which, in contrast to Eqs
(5.8) and (5.10), is termed frame invariant representation, i.e., independent of the
choice of any particular reference frame. It is, however, important to note that when
a numerical problem is solved, one must choose a suitable coordinate frame.
Example 5.5 Position of a Point in the Fixed Frame
If coordinates of a point P in the fixed coordinate frame are px = 3, py = 4, and pz = 5
then the position vector p from Eq. (5.8) can be given by
È3 ˘
[p]F ∫ Í4 ˙
ÍÎ 5 ˙˚

5.2.2 Orientation Description

The orientation of a rigid body with respect to the fixed frame can be described in
different ways. For example,
1. Direction cosine representation
2. Fixed-axes rotations
3. Euler-angles representation
4. Single- and double-axes rotations
5. Euler parameters, and others
Each one has its own limitations. If necessary, one may switch from one to other
representation during a robot’s motion to avoid the former’s limitations. These
representations are explained below.
1. Direction Cosine Representation To describe the orientation or rotation of
a rigid body, consider the motion of a moving frame M with respect to a fixed frame
F, with one point fixed, say, the origin of the fixed frame, O, as shown in Fig. 5.12.
Let u, v and w denote the three unit vectors pointing along the coordinates axes, U,
V and W of the moving frame M, respectively, similar to the unit vectors, x, y, and
z, along X, Y and Z of the fixed frame F, respectively. Since each of the unit vectors,
u, v or w, denotes the position of a point at a unit distance from the origin on the
axes of frame M, they are expressed using their projections on the X, Y, Z axes of the
frame F as
u = ux x + uy y + uz z (5.11a)
v = vx x + vy y + vz z (5.11b)
w = wx x + wy y + wz z (5.11c)
140 Introduction to Robotics

Fig. 5.21 Successive rotation of a box about Y and Z-axes

Note the order of multiplications in Eq. (5.44a) which are with respect to fixed
axes, as done in Eq. (5.31d). The result of Eq. (5.44a) can be verified from Fig.
5.20(c) using the concept of direction cosine representation of a rotation matrix
explained earlier. Similarly, the resultant
rotation matrix for the rotations about Y and
Z-axes, denoted by QYZ, can be obtained as
È 0 -1 0 ˘
QYZ = QZQY = Í 0 0 1 ˙ (5.44c)
Í ˙
ÍÎ-1 0 0 ˙˚

Comparing Eqs. (5.44a) and (5.44c),

it is obvious that the two sequences of
rotations are different. However, the same
is not true for the vector representation of
a point P with respect to O shown in Fig.
5.22. One can either add the vector b to a or
a to b. Both additions will result the same Fig. 5.22 Addition of two vectors
vector p.

5.3 COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION

As pointed out in Section 5.2, the position of a rigid body in space is expressed in
terms of the position of a suitable point on the body, say, OM in Fig. 5.23, with respect
to the origin O of the fixed frame F, while its orientation or rotation is expressed in
terms of the unit vector components of the axes of the moving frame M attached to
the body. Referring to Fig. 5.23, the relation between the two coordinate frames,
 Transformations 141

namely, F and M, are derived as follows: Consider an arbitrary point P on the rigid
body to which the frame M is attached at OM. Let p and p¢ be the vectors denoting the
point P from the origin of the frames
F and M, respectively. In addition, let
o be the position vector denoting the
translation of the origin of the frame
M, OM, from that of the frame F, i.e.,
O. Thus,
p = o + p¢ (5.45)
Note that if p¢ is known in the
moving frame M, then it is nothing but
the coordinates of the point P in the
frame M, i.e., [p¢]M. Moreover, if Q
is the orientation of the frame M with
respect to the frame F then the vector
p¢ in the frame F, i.e., [p¢]F = Q[p¢]M.
Hence, the vector, p, in the fixed frame Fig. 5.23 Two coordinate frames
F, i.e., [p]F, can be obtained as
[p]F = [o]F + Q[p¢]M (5.46)
Equation (5.46) represents the coordinate transformation of the point P of the
rigid body from the moving frame M to the fixed frame F, while both translation and
rotation are involved.
5.3.1 Homogeneous Transformation
The coordinate transformation given by Eq. (5.46) can be rearranged as
È[ p]F ˘ È Q [o]F ˘ È[ p ¢ ]M ˘
Í ˙=Í T ˙Í ˙ (5.47)
Î 1 ˚ ÍÎ0 1 ˙˚ Î 1 ˚
where 0 ∫ [0, 0, 0]T is the three-dimensional vector (column) of zeros. Accordingly,
0T ∫ [0, 0, 0]. Equation (5.47) is written in a compact form as
[p]F = T [p ¢ ]M (5.48)

where [p]F and [p ¢ ]M are the four-dimensional vectors obtained by putting one at
the bottom of the original three-dimensional
Why Homogenous? vectors, [p]F and [p¢]M, respectively, as the
Matrix T of Eq. (5.48) takes care of fourth element, whereas the 4 × 4 matrix T is
both the translation and rotation of called Homogeneous Transformation Matrix
the frame attached to the body with (HTM). Equation (5.48) is simple in a sense that
respect to the fixed frame.
the transformation of a vector, which includes
both translation and rotation, from the frame M to F is done by just multiplying one
4 ¥ 4 matrix, instead of a matrix multiplication and vector addition, as in Eq. (5.46).
However, from the view of computational complexity, i.e., the numbers of
multiplications/divisions and additions/subtractions required in a computer program,
Eq. (5.46) is economical compared to Eq. (5.47) or (5.48), as some unnecessary
multiplications and additions with 1’s and 0’s, respectively, have to be performed.
142 Introduction to Robotics

It is pointed out here that for the homogeneous transformation matrix T, the
orthogonality property does not hold good, i.e.,
TTT ≠ 1 or T−1 ≠ TT (5.49)
However, the inverse of the HTM T can be obtained easily from Eq. (5.47) as
ÈQ T - Q T [ o ]F ˘
T−1 = Í ˙ (5.50)
T
ÎÍ 0 1 ˚˙

Example 5.12 Pure Translation

Referring to Fig. 5.24(a), consider the frame M which is obtained from the frame F
by translating it two units along Y and one unit along Z. Their relation is represented
by a homogeneous transformation matrix (HTM), namely,
È1 0 0 0˘
Í ˙
0 1 0 2˙
T∫ Í (5.51)
Í0 0 1 1˙
Í ˙
Î0 0 0 1˚

Fig. 5.24 Different motions

 146 Introduction to Robotics

Comparing Eqs. (5.58b) and (5.59c), only the coordinates of the origin of frame B
are different, as clear from Figs. 5.26(a-b).

Example 5.17 Verification of Eq. (5.59c) using MATLAB

In order to verify the equation, the following commands were used:
>> tam = [cos(pi/6), –sin(pi/6), 0, sqrt(3) – 1/2; sin(pi/6),
cos(pi/6), 0, 1 + sqrt(3)/2;0, 0, 1, 0;0, 0, 0, 1];
>> tbm = [cos(pi/4), sin(pi/4), 0, sqrt(2); –sin(pi/4), cos(pi/4),
0, 0;0, 0, 1, 0;0, 0, 0, 1];>>
tm = tam*tbm
tm =
0.9659 0.2588 0 2.4568
-0.2588 0.9659 0 2.5731
0 0 1.0000 0
0 0 0 1.0000
where ‘tam’ and ‘tbm’ represent the matrices [TA]F and [TB]F , respectively, whereas
the resultant matrix [TA]F is denoted by ‘tm.’ Equation (5.59c) can be easily verified
to be the expression given by ‘tm.’

5.4 DENAVIT AND HARTENBERG (DH) PARAMETERS

A robot manipulator consists of several links connected by usually single degree-of-
freedom (DOF) joints, say, a revolute or a prismatic joint. In order to control the
end-effector with respect to the base, it is
First appearance of DH parameters necessary to find the relation between the
The DH parameters were first appeared coordinate frames attached to the end-
in Denavit and Hartenberg (1955) to effector and the base. This can be obtained
represent a directed line which is nothing from the description of the coordinate
but the axis of a lower pair joint. The
definitions used in this book are variants
transformations between the coordinate
of the original definitions. frames attached to all the links and forming
the overall description in a recursive
manner. For this purpose, the material presented in the previous section for describing
the position and orientation of the rigid body is useful for obtaining composition of
coordinate transformations between the consecutive frames. As a first step, a
systematic general method is to be derived to define the relative position and
orientation of two consecutive links. The
problem is to define two frames attached to two
successive links and compute the coordinate
transformation between them. In general, the
frames are arbitrarily chosen as long as they are
attached to the link they are referred to.
Nevertheless, it is convenient to set some rules
for the definition of the link frames. The
convention adopted here for a serial chain robot
shown in Fig. 5.27 is that it has n + 1 links,
namely, link #0, . . . #n, coupled by n joints, i.e., Fig. 5.27 Serial manipulator
joint 1, . . . n.
 Transformations 147

Now, referring to Fig. 5.28,

(a) Let axis i denote the axis of the joint connecting the link i −1 to the link i.
(b) A coordinate system Xi, Yi, Zi is attached to the end of the link i − 1⎯not to the
link i!⎯for i = 1, . . . n + 1.

Fig. 5.28 Frame conventions and Denavit and Hartenberg (DH) parameters
148 Introduction to Robotics

(c) Choose axis Zi along the axis of joint i, whose positive direction can be taken
towards either direction of the axis.
(d) Locate the origin Oi at the intersection of the axis Zi with the common normal to
Zi−1 and Zi. Also, locate Oˆ i on Zi at the intersection of the common normal to Zi
and Zi+1.
(e) Choose the axis Xi along the common normal to axes Zi−1 and Zi with the direction
from the former to the later.
(f) Choose the axis Yi so as to complete a right-handed frame.
Note that the above conventions do not give a unique definition of the link frames
in the following cases:
∑ For Frame 1 that is attached to the fixed base, i.e., link 0, only the direction of
axes Z1 is specified. Then O1 and X1 can be chosen arbitrarily.
∑ For the last frame n + 1, the foregoing conventions do not apply since there is no
link n + 1. Thus, the frame n + 1 can be arbitrarily chosen.
∑ When two consecutive axes are parallel, the common normal between them is
not uniquely defined.
∑ When two consecutive axes intersect, the direction of Xi is arbitrary.
∑ When the joint i is prismatic, only the direction of the axis Zi is determined,
whereas the location of Oi is arbitrary.
In all such cases, the indeterminacy can be exploited to simplify the procedure.
For instance, the axes of the frame n + 1 can be made parallel to those of the frame n.
Once the link frames have been established, the position and orientation of the frame
i with respect to the frame i − 1 are completely specified by four parameters known as
the Denavit and Hartenberg (DH) parameters. Hence, these frames are also referred
as DH frames. The four DH parameters are defined as follows:
1. bi (Joint Offset) Length of the intersections of the common normals on the
joint axis Zi, i.e., Oi and Oˆ i . It is the relative position of links i − 1 and i. This is
measured as the distance between Xi and Xi + 1 along Zi.
2. qi (Joint Angle) Angle between the orthogonal projections of the common
normals, Xi and Xi+1, to a plane normal to the joint axis Zi. Rotation is positive when
it is made counter-clockwise. It is the relative angle between links i − 1 and i. This is
measured as the angle between Xi and Xi + 1 about Zi.
3. a (Link Length) Length between Oˆ and O . This is measured as the distance
i i i+1
along the common normal Xi+1 to axes Zi and Zi+1.
4. ai (Twist Angle) Angle between the orthogonal projections of joint axes Zi and
Zi+1 onto a plane normal to the common normal Xi+1. This is measured as the angle
between the axes Zi and Zi+1 about the axis Xi+1 to be taken positive when rotation is
made counter-clockwise.
Note that the above four parameters are defined sequentially as one moves from
link i − 1 to link i + 1 through link i. Moreover, the first two parameters, namely, bi
and qi, define the relative position of links i − 1 and i, whereas the last two, ai and ai,
describe the size and shape of link i that are always constant. Parameters bi and qi are,
however, variable depending on the type of joints in use. In particular,
∑ qi is variable if the joint i is revolute; and
 Transformations 149

∑ bi is variable if the joint i is prismatic.

So, for a given type of joint, i.e., revolute or prismatic, one of the DH parameters is
variable, which is called joint variable, whereas the other three remaining parameters
are constant, called link parameters.

Example 5.18 DH Parameters of a Three-link Planar Arm

Figure 5.29 shows a three-link planar arm. The coordinate frames to define the DH
parameters are shown in the figure. The DH parameters are tabulated in Table 5.3,
where ai and qi, for i = 1, 2, 3, are the link lengths and the joint angles, respectively.
Axis Zi is perpendicular to the plane of the page
and X1 is chosen arbitrarily. Note that frame 1,
i.e., X1, Y1, and Z1, is fixed to the link denoted
as #0. Since there is no link 4, frame 4 can be
arbitrarily assigned so that its X4-axis is placed
along the link, as done for frames 2 and 3.

Table 5.3 DH parameters of the three-link

arm

Link bi qi ai ai
1 0 q1 (JV) a1 0
2 0 q2 (JV) a2 0
3 0 q3 (JV) a3 0
JV: Joint Variable Fig. 5.29 A three-link planar arm

Note that for a 2-link planar with both revolute joints, #3 is removed from
Fig. 5.29. The corresponding DH parameters are those in Table 5.3 but without the
third row.

Example 5.19 DH Parameters of Revolute-Prismatic Planar Arms

Referring to two Revolute-Prismatic (RP) planar arms, Fig. 5.30, where the revolute
and prismatic joints are indicated as R and P, respectively, the DH parameters are
listed in Table 5.4.

Fig. 5.30 Revolute-Prismatic planar arms

150 Introduction to Robotics

Table 5.4 DH parameters of the RP arm

Link bi qi ai ai
(a) Intersecting joint axes
1 0 q1 (JV) 0 π/2
2 b2 (JV) 0 0 0
(b) Non-intersecting joint axes
1 0 q1 (JV) a1 –π/2
2 b2 (JV) 0 0 π/2

Example 5.20 DH Parameters of a Prismatic-Revolute Planar Arm

If the revolute and prismatic joints are interchanged, the result is a Prismatic-Revolute
(PR) arm, as shown in Fig. 5.31. Its DH parameters are shown in Table 5.5.

Fig. 5.31 Prismatic-Revolute planar arm

Table 5.5 DH parameters of the PR arm

Link bi qI ai ai
1 b2(JV) –p/2 0 p/2
2 0 q2(JV) a2 0

Example 5.21 DH Parameters of a Spherical Arm

Referring to the spherical robot arm shown in Fig. 5.32, note that the first and second
joint axes, namely, Z1 and Z2, intersect. Hence, the first link length does not affect the
end-effector motion due to the rotation of the first joint. So it is beneficial to put both
the first and second frames at the intersection of the first two revolute axes, namely,
at O1 or O2. The DH parameters are tabulated in Table 5.6, where b2, b3, and qi, for i
= 1, 2, 3, are indicated in Fig. 5.32.
Table 5.6 DH parameters of the spherical arm
Link bi qi ai ai
1 0 q1 (JV) 0 p/2
2 b2 q2 (JV) 0 p/2
3 b3 (JV) 0 0 0