1.

Safety Precautions for Laboratories and

Introduction to Fabrication Machines

General Laboratory Rules:

1. Be prepared. Read and fully comprehend the lab procedure as set forth in the lab manual
before you begin any experiment. If you do not understand the procedure, consult your
instructor of lab assistant.
2. Think safety. Work carefully and think before proceeding.
3. All laboratory students must be supervised never work alone because a partner can help
or assist in case of injury or accident.
4. Know the hazards of any materials or machinery you are working with. The laboratory
manual and instructor will review specific safety issues on individual experiments before
you perform any tests.
5. All students must wear appropriate safety equipment.
6. Lab coat and safety shoes must be worn anytime any laboratory experiment is being
performed. Additional safety equipment must be utilized based on specific experiment
requirements.
7. All students must wear appropriate laboratory attire.
8. No open toed shoes; no loose-fitting clothing; jewelry and watches should be removed;
long hair should be tied back
9. No food or beverage in the laboratory.
10.Know emergency procedures. Make note of fire escape routes and emergency phone
numbers.
11.Report any perceived safety hazards. Immediately report any spills, equipment
malfunctions, injuries or other perceived safety hazards to your instructor or lab assistant.
12.Keep your work area clean.
13.Failure to conform with any of the above rules may result in not being allowed to
participate in the laboratory experiment.
 EXERCISE NO. 2:
Grinding of Turning Tool
 2.Grinding of Turning Tool:

1. Introduction
The purpose of this lab report is to document the process of drawing and grinding a turning
tool on a rack at a specified angle for designated operations. Turning tools are essential in
machining processes, as they shape materials through cutting. Proper grinding techniques
ensure that tools maintain their effectiveness and precision.
2. Materials and Equipment
Turning tool blank (material: high-speed steel or carbide)
Tool grinding machine
Angle gauge
Calipers
Bench grinder
Safety goggles
Measuring tape
Marking tools (scribe, marker)
3. Procedure
Step 1: Drawing the Tool Design The first step involves creating a detailed drawing of the
turning tool. This drawing should include dimensions, angles, and profiles necessary for the
intended operation. The design must consider factors such as:
The type of material being machined.
The required surface finish.
The geometry of the cutting edge.
Using CAD software or manual drafting techniques, create a scale drawing that includes:
Overall length.
Cutting edge angle (typically between 5° to 15°).
Relief angles to prevent rubbing against the workpiece.
Step 2: Setting Up the Grinding Machine Before grinding, ensure that the grinding machine is
set up correctly:
Check that all safety guards are in place.
Ensure that the grinding wheel is appropriate for the material of the tool blank.
Adjust the height of the work rest to match the centerline of the spindle.
Step 3: Marking Reference Points Using calipers and marking tools, transfer critical
dimensions from your drawing onto the tool blank. Mark reference points for:
The cutting edge.
Relief angles. This will guide you during grinding.

Step 4: Grinding Process

Initial Shaping: Start by rough grinding to remove excess material from the tool blank using a
coarse-grit wheel.
Forming Cutting Edge: Switch to a finer grit wheel to shape the cutting edge according to your
drawing specifications. Maintain consistent pressure and avoid overheating by intermittently
cooling with water or oil.
Creating Relief Angles: Adjust your setup to grind relief angles accurately, ensuring they do not
exceed recommended values (usually around 5° to 10°).
Step 5: Final Inspection After grinding, inspect the tool using an angle gauge and calipers:
Verify that all dimensions match those specified in your drawing.
Check for any irregularities or defects on the cutting edge.
If necessary, perform touch-up grinding on areas that require refinement.
4. Results
Upon completion, you should have a precisely ground turning tool ready for use in machining
operations. Document any discrepancies between your final product and initial design
specifications.

Objective:
To study the drawing and grind the turning tool on the rack and specified angle on the
designated operation.

Job Planning & Time Estimation:

S.No Job Description Time

01 Study the drawing thoroughly.

02 Grind the front relief (at angle 10°)

03 Grind the left side relief (at angle 10°)

04 Grind the top rake (at angle 12°)

05 Round off the nose of the tool.

06 Complete the finishing touches and clean the tool.

EXERCISE NO. 03:

LATHE FACING:
3.Lathe Piece facing:
Finish Turning:
Finish turning on a lathe, which follows rough turning, produces a smooth surface finish,
and cuts the work piece to an accurate size. Factors such as the condition of the cutting
tool bit, the rigidity of the machine and work piece and the lathe speed and feed rate,
may affect the type of surface finish produced.

Procedure:
1. Check to see if the cutting edge of the tool bit is free from nicks, burns, etc. It is good
practice to home the cutting edge before you take a finish cut.
2. Set the lathe to the recommended speed and feed rate. The feed rate used depends
upon the surface finish required.
3. Take a light trial cut about .250 inch long at the right hand end of the work to produce
a true diameter, set the cutting tool bit to the diameter and set the graduated collar
to the right diameter.
4. Stop the lathe, measure the diameter.
5. Set the depth of cut for half the amount of material to be removed.
6. Cut along for .250 inch, stop the lathe and check the diameter.
7. Re-adjust the depth of cut, if necessary and finish turn the diameter. In order to
produce the truest diameter possible, finish turn work piece to the required size.
Should it be necessary to finish a diameter by filming or polishing, never leave more
than .002 to .003 inch for this operation.

FACING
Work pieces to be machined are generally cut a little longer than required, and faced to
the right length. Facing is an operation of machining the ends of a workpiece square with
its axis.
To produce a flat, square surface when facing, the lathe might be true.
The purpose of facing are:
 To provide a true, flat surface, square with the axis of the workpieces.
 To provide and accurate surface from which to take measurements.
 To cut the work pieces to the required length.

Procedure:
1. Move the tool post to the left-hand side of the compound rest, and set the right hand
facing tool bit to the right height of the lathe center point. The compound rest may be
set at 30 degrees for accurate end facing.
2. Mount the work piece in the chuck to face. Use a line center in the tail stuck or
straight ruler if needed for true.
3. Insert a facing tool.

4. Position the tool slightly off from the part.

5. Set the facing tool bit pointing left at a 15-20 degree angle. The point of the tool bit
must be closest to the work piece and space must be left along the side.
6. Set the lathe to the correct speed and feed for the diameter and type of material
being cut.
7. Before turning the machine on, turn the spindle by hand to make sure parts do not
interfere with spindle rotation.
8. Start the lathe and bring the tool bit ad close to the lathe center as possible.
9. Move the carriage to the left, using the hand wheel, until the small cut is started.
10. Feed the cutting tool bit inwards to the center by turning the cross feed handle. If the
power feed cross feed is used for feeding the cutting tool, the carriage should be locked
in position.
11. Repeat procedure 6, 7 and 8 until the work piece is cut to the correct length.
12. There will be a sharp edge on the work piece after facing, which should be broken
with a file.

Objective:
To finish turning and start facing practice on the cylindrical metal work piece.

Job Planning & Time Estimation:

S.N Job Description Time

o
01 Study the drawing thoroughly.

02 Secure the workpiece in the lathe chuck and set the speed and feed rate.

03 Position the facing tool slightly above the centerline of the workpiece.

04 Start the operation with low feed and speed and high depth of cut.

05 Begin the facing operation, making shallow cuts gradually

06 Continue facing until the entire surface is flat.

07 Measure the flatness and make necessary adjustments.

08 Clean the workpiece to finish.

EXERCISE NO. 04:

 TURNING AND STEP TURNING:

4.Turning Practice and Step Turning:

Turning
The operation of turning is used to remove as much metal as possible in the shortest
length of time. Accuracy and surface finish are not important in this operation. Therefore,
max depth of .030 inch and a .020 to .030 inch feed is recommended. Work piece is
generally rough turned to within about .030 inch of the finished size in a few cuts as
possible.

Procedure:
1. Set the lathe to the correct speed and feed rate for the type and size of the material being
cut.
2. Adjust the quick change gear box for a .010 to .030 inch feed, depending on the depth of cut
and condition of the machine.
3. For Example: .010, Move the tool holder to the left hand side of the compound rest and set
the tool bit to right height to center.
4. Tighten the tool post securely to prevent the tool holder from moving during the machining
operation.
5. Take a light trial cut at the right hand end of the work piece for about .250 inch length.
6. Measure the work piece and adjust the tool bit for the proper depth of cut.
7. Cut along for about .250 inch, stop the lathe and check the diameter for size. The diameter
should be about .030 inch over the finish side.
8. Re-adjust the depth of cut, if necessary.
For exercise turning, the operator will engage the lathe at a low speed to practice basic
operations such as facing, straight turning, and chamfering. The cutting tool should be
adjusted to achieve the desired depth of cut while maintaining proper feed rates.
Measurements are taken frequently using calipers or micrometers to ensure accuracy
throughout the process.
In step turning, multiple diameters are created along a single workpiece by adjusting the
position of the cutting tool after each pass. This requires careful planning of dimensions before
starting the operation. The operator will mark reference points on the workpiece to guide
where each diameter change occurs. After setting up these reference points, successive cuts
are made until all required diameters are achieved.
Finishing operations involve using finer cutting tools or adjusting parameters such as speed
and feed rate to enhance surface quality further. This stage may also include polishing or
applying coatings if necessary for specific applications. Throughout all steps, continuous
monitoring of tool wear and adjustment of cutting parameters ensures optimal performance.
OBJECTIVE:
To operate and learn the functions of lathe machine. To handle cylindrical work piece, check its
dimensions and properly clamp work piece.

Job Planning & Time Estimation:

S.No Job Description Time

01 Study the drawing thoroughly.

02 Secure the workpiece in the lathe chuck and set the speed and feed rate.

03 Perform straight turning to achieve the initial cylindrical shape.

04 Conduct step turning by adjusting the cutting tool for each required diameter.

05 Measure the diameters and make necessary adjustments to ensure accuracy.

06 Perform finishing operations for desired surface finish and Clean the workpiece.
 EXERCISE NO. 05:
THREADING (MANUAL ,AUTOMATIC):
5. THREADING( MANUAL,AUTOMATIC):
I. Introduction
Threading is a critical operation in machining that involves creating helical grooves on a
cylindrical or conical surface. This process is essential for producing screws, bolts, and other
fasteners that require precise dimensions and fit. Threading can be performed manually or
automatically, each method having its own advantages and applications.

II. Theoretical Background

Threading involves cutting a spiral groove into a workpiece, which can be done using various
tools such as taps, dies, or single-point cutting tools on a lathe machine. The choice of method
depends on factors like production volume, required precision, and material type.
Manual Threading: This traditional method requires skilled operators to control the lathe
manually. It involves setting up the lathe at lower RPMs to ensure accuracy while feeding the
tool into the workpiece gradually.
Automatic Threading: This modern approach utilizes CNC (Computer Numerical Control) lathes
that automate the threading process. These machines are programmed to perform precise
cuts with minimal human intervention, significantly increasing efficiency and reducing errors.
IV. Equipment Used
Lathe Machine
Single-point cutting tool
Taps and dies (for manual threading)
CNC lathe (for automatic threading)
Measuring instruments (thread pitch gauge, micrometer)
V. Procedure for Manual Threading
Setup:
Secure the workpiece in the lathe chuck.
Set the lathe speed to approximately one-quarter of that used for turning.
Adjust the quick-change gearbox for desired threads per inch (TPI).
Tool Preparation:
Install a 60-degree threading tool bit.
Set the tool height to align with the center of the workpiece.
Cutting Process:
Chamfer the end of the workpiece slightly below minor diameter.
Mark the length of thread by making a light groove with the tool.
Engage the split-nut lever at appropriate points on the thread-chasing dial.
Take successive cuts until achieving desired thread depth.

Measurement:
Use a thread pitch gauge to check accuracy after each cut.
Adjust settings as necessary based on measurements taken.
VI. Procedure for Automatic Threading
Setup:
Load program into CNC machine specifying thread dimensions and parameters.
Secure workpiece in CNC chuck.
Tool Preparation:
Select appropriate tooling based on material and thread specifications.
Cutting Process:
Initiate program; machine automatically performs threading operation based on pre-set
parameters.
Monitor operation through CNC interface for any adjustments needed during processing.
Measurement:
Post-process measurement using automated gauging systems integrated within CNC
machinery to ensure precision.

Job Planning & Time Estimation:

S.No Job Description Time

01 Study the drawing thoroughly.

02 Secure the workpiece in the vise with the soft jaws.

03 Select and prepare the appropriate hand threading die and holder.

04 Align the die with the workpiece and manually start the threading operation.

05 Alternate between clockwise and counterclockwise rotations to loosen chips and ensure
precise threading.

06 Inspect the threads for accuracy and clean the workpiece.

 EXERCISE NO. 06:
DICE FORMATION USING LATHE (AUTOMATIC&
MANUAL):

5.DICE FORMATION
 (AUTOMATIC&MANUAL)
1. Introduction
The fabrication of dice involves precise machining processes to ensure that each die is uniform
and fair in its design. This report outlines the procedures followed in a fabrication workshop
for creating dice using both manual and automatic lathe machines. The aim is to compare the
effectiveness, efficiency, and accuracy of both methods.
3. Methodology
Manual Lathe Machining Process
Preparation:
Select the appropriate material block for the dice.
Secure the block in the lathe chuck.
Setting Up the Lathe:
Adjust the speed of the lathe according to the material being used.
Ensure all safety measures are in place before starting.
Turning Process:
Begin by turning down the outer diameter of the block to achieve a cylindrical shape.
Gradually reduce the diameter until it reaches approximately 16mm (standard size for dice)
Shaping Edges:
Use cutting tools to create flat surfaces on opposite sides of the cylinder.
This process is repeated until a cube shape is formed.
Drilling Pips:
Switch to a drill bit suitable for creating pips (the dots on dice).
Carefully drill holes at specified locations on each face of the cube according to standard die
designs.

Finishing:
Sand down any rough edges using sandpaper.
Polish surfaces for aesthetic appeal and smoothness.
Quality Check:
Measure dimensions using calipers to ensure compliance with standards.
Verify that pips are evenly spaced and correctly sized.
Automatic Lathe Machining Process
Preparation:
Load material into an automatic lathe machine equipped with CNC capabilities.
Programming:
Input design specifications into the CNC software, including dimensions and pip placements.
Machining Cycle:
The machine automatically performs turning operations similar to manual machining but with
higher precision.
It can execute multiple operations such as drilling, cutting, and finishing without manual
intervention.
Quality Control During Operation:
Sensors monitor dimensions during machining, allowing for real-time adjustments if necessary.
Post-Processing:
After machining, parts may undergo additional automated processes like polishing or coating if
required.
Final Inspection:
Conduct a thorough inspection using digital measuring tools to ensure all specifications are
met accurately.

Job Planning & Time Estimation:

S.N Job Description Time
o
01 Study the drawing thoroughly.

02 Cut the piece to the required dimensions for the dice.

03 Form the dice shape using a bastard file to rough out the edges.

04 Smooth and level the surface of the dice using a smooth file.

05 Bevel the edges of the dice for a refined finish.

06 Drill holes in the dice to mark the numbers.

07 Chamfer the holes for a clean and professional looks

08 Apply paint to the dice for a finished appearance.

EXERCISE NO.07:
 THREADING AND TAPPING:

7.THREADING AND TAPPING:

1. Theoretical Background
Threading involves creating a helical ridge on a cylindrical surface, while tapping refers to
cutting threads inside a hole. Both processes require precise calculations for pitch, depth, and
diameter to ensure compatibility with fasteners.
2. Procedure for Threading
Setup:
Mount the workpiece securely in the lathe chuck.
Select the appropriate threading tool and set it at the correct height relative to the lathe
centerline.
Adjust the lathe speed to approximately one-quarter of that used for turning operations.
Execution:
Engage the lead screw and begin cutting by moving the tool longitudinally along the
workpiece.
Take successive cuts until achieving desired thread depth while applying cutting fluid to reduce
friction.
Measurement:
After completing threading, measure with a thread pitch gauge to verify accuracy.
3. Procedure for Tapping
Preparation:
Drill a hole in the workpiece using a tap drill size appropriate for the chosen tap (e.g., #7 drill
for ¼ – 20 UNC tap).
Chamfer the edge of the hole to facilitate easier entry for the tap.
Tapping Process:
Mount workpiece in lathe chuck securely.
Set lathe speed between 40 to 60 RPM; apply plenty of cutting fluid during operation.
Use a tap guide if necessary to ensure alignment; apply gentle pressure while turning.
Completion:
Once tapped to desired depth, remove tap carefully without applying excess pressure that
could cause breakage

Job Planning & Time Estimation:

S.No Job Description Time
01 Study the drawing thoroughly to understand the threading and tapping
requirements.

02 Secure the dice in a vise, ensuring it is stable and properly aligned,

especially at the corner.

03 Select the appropriate tap and die set for the desired thread size.

04 Align the tap with the pre-drilled hole at the corner of the dice.

05 Clean the threaded hole and the dice to remove any metal shavings or
debris.

EXERCISE NO . 08:
MILLING (CONVENTIONAL & CLIMB MILLING)
8.MILLING (CONVENTIONAL & CLIMB):
1. Introduction
Milling is a fundamental machining process used to remove material from a workpiece using
rotary cutters. This report focuses on two primary milling techniques: conventional milling
(also known as up milling) and climb milling (down milling). Understanding the differences
between these methods, their advantages, disadvantages, and applications is crucial for
optimizing machining operations.

2. Methodology

The following steps were taken to conduct the experiments:

Preparation of Workpieces: Two identical workpieces made from aluminum were prepared for
milling tests.
Machine Setup: A CNC milling machine was set up with appropriate tooling for both
conventional and climb milling operations.
Cutting Parameters: The same cutting parameters (spindle speed, feed rate, depth of cut) were
maintained for both methods to ensure a fair comparison.
Execution of Milling Operations:
For conventional milling, the cutter was rotated against the direction of the feed.
For climb milling, the cutter was rotated in the same direction as the feed.
Measurement of Results: Surface finish was measured using a surface roughness tester after
each operation. Tool wear was assessed visually and by measuring cutting edge dimensions
before and after machining.
3. Results
Surface Finish:
Conventional Milling produced a rougher surface finish due to chip recutting as chips were
deposited in front of the cutter.
Climb Milling resulted in a smoother surface finish because chips were removed behind the
cutter, minimizing recutting.
Tool Wear:
Tool wear was significantly higher in conventional milling due to increased friction from chip
recutting and upward forces that lifted the workpiece.
In climb milling, tool life improved by up to 50% due to reduced friction and better heat
dissipation through chip removal.

Machining Efficiency:
Climb Milling required less power compared to conventional milling because it generated
downward forces that helped stabilize the workpiece during cutting.
Conventional Milling required more power due to upward forces that could potentially lift or
shift the workpiece.
4. Discussion
The results indicate that while both conventional and climb milling have their respective
advantages, climb milling generally provides superior outcomes in terms of surface finish and
tool longevity when performed on machines with minimal backlash. However, caution must be
exercised when using climb milling on older manual machines where backlash may lead to
dangerous situations such as tool breakage or injury.

Job Planning & Time Estimation:

S.N Job Description Time

o
01 Study the drawing thoroughly!

02 Select the appropriate milling cutter and secure the workpiece on the
milling machine.

03 Choose between climb and conventional milling based on the material and
desired finish.

04 Set the feed rate and spindle speed, then begin the milling process,
monitoring for accuracy.

05 Inspect the workpiece for surface finish and dimensional accuracy after
milling.

EXERCISE NO.09:
Etching and Engraving ,Bending,Finishing
Practice:
 Etching and Engraving ,Bending,Finishing
Practice:
Etching:
Etching is the process of using strong acid or mordant to cut into the unprotected parts of a
metal to create a design in intaglio in the metal (the original process —in modern
manufacturing other chemicals may be used on other types of material). As an intaglio method
of printmaking it is, along with engraving, the most important technique for old master surface
prints, and remains widely used today.
Process:
1. Sheet metal or coil is selected from a comprehensive metal (0.07mm to 1.5mm thickness)
and is cut to the required size.
2. The copperplate is first coated with an acid-resistant substance, called the etching ground,
through which the design is drawn with a sharp tool. The ground is usually a compound of
beeswax, bitumen, and resin.
3. The plate is then exposed to nitric acid or Dutch mordant, which eats away those areas of
the plate unprotected by the ground, forming a pattern of recessed lines.
4. These lines hold the ink, and, when the plate is applied to moist paper, the design transfers
to the paper, making a finished print.
5. In the variety of etching known as aquatint, a copperplate is exposed to acid through a layer
of melted granulated resin, leaving an evenly pitted surface that yields broad areas of tone
when the grains are removed and the plate is printed.
6. Etching and aquatint are often combined in a print by means of successive workings of its
plate.
Engraving:
Engraving is the practice of cutting a design into a hard surface such as metal. This process is
often used to produce decorative objects made of such materials as silver, gold, steel, lacquer,
or glass. In addition, the process may be applied to produce intaglio printing plates, of copper
or other metal, for printing images on paper, which are called engraving

Process:
1. A burin produces a unique type of line characterized by its steady, deliberate appearance
and clean edges. Usually made of hardened steel, the burin is traditionally used to engrave
copper plates.
2. The angle tint tool has a slightly curved tip that is commonly used in printmaking.
3. Florentine liners are flat-bottomed tools with multiple lines incised into them, used to do
fill work on larger areas.
4. Flat gravers are used for doing fill work on letters, as well as most musical instrument
engraving work. 5. Round gravers are commonly used on silver to create bright cuts (also
called bright cut engraving), as well as other hard-to-cut metals such as nickel and steel.
5. Round gravers are commonly used on silver to create bright cuts (also called bright cut
engraving), as well as other hard-to-cut metals such as nickel and Steel.
Bending Process
Preparation of Material: Select appropriate thickness of sheet metal (typically between 0.4mm
to 6mm).
Marking Lines: Use a ruler and scriber to mark bend lines on the sheet metal accurately.
Cutting: Cut excess material using snips if necessary before bending.
Bending Operation:
Position the marked sheet metal in the bending machine.
Adjust settings according to material thickness and desired angle (usually between 30° to 90°).

Finishing Process
Deburring: Remove sharp edges from cut areas using files or sanders to ensure safety and
improve aesthetics.
Smoothing Surfaces: Use sanding pads or polishing wheels to smooth out any rough areas
created during cutting or bending.
Cleaning: Clean the finished product with a suitable solvent to remove any oils or residues
from machining processes
Objective:
To practice etching on metal plate and engraving by engraving machine.

Job Planning & Time Estimation:

S.No Job Description Time
01 Set up the engraving machine, including power, speed, and depth settings.

02 Mark the Center and Secure the metal sheet on the worktable.

03 Perform a dry run for alignment, then initiate the engraving process.

04 Monitor the engraving process for accuracy and clean the metal sheet
after finished

EXERCISE NO.10:
CNC MACHINE:
10: CNC MACHINE:
1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this lab report is to document the fabrication process using a Computer
Numerical Control (CNC) machine. CNC machining is a manufacturing process that utilizes
computer-controlled tools to create parts and components with high precision. This report
outlines the objectives, methodology, results, and conclusions drawn from the fabrication
process.
Setup of CNC Machine
Machine Preparation: The CNC machine was powered on and calibrated according to
manufacturer specifications.
Tool Installation: Required tools were installed in the tool holder of the CNC machine based
on the operations planned (facing, drilling, pocketing).
Workpiece Setup: The workpiece was securely mounted onto the machine table using clamps
or vises to prevent movement during machining.
Zero Point Setting: Using an edge finder or probe, the zero point for all axes (X, Y, Z) was
established to ensure accurate machining.
Components of CNC Machine
Computer Control Unit: The brain of the CNC machine that interprets the G-code and controls
the machine’s movements.
Drive Mechanism: Includes motors (servo or stepper) that move the machine’s components
according to the instructions from the control unit.
Feedback System: Sensors that provide real-time data to ensure accuracy in positioning and
movement.
Machine Tool: The actual cutting tool or spindle that performs the machining operations.
Workpiece Holder: Fixtures or clamps that secure the material being machined.
Power Supply: Provides electrical energy necessary for operation.

Difference Between CNC and Traditional Machine

Automation: CNC machines are automated and can operate without human intervention once
programmed, while traditional machines require manual operation.
Precision and Repeatability: CNC machines offer higher precision and repeatability due to
computer control, whereas traditional machines may have variability based on operator skill.
Programming: CNC machines use G-code for programming, allowing complex shapes to be
machined easily, while traditional machines often rely on manual setups and adjustments.
Setup Time: CNC machines typically have longer initial setup times but can produce parts
faster once set up; traditional machines may have shorter setup times but slower production
rates.

4. MACHINING PROCESS
The following operations were performed sequentially:
Facing Operation: A facing cutter was used to flatten one side of the workpiece to achieve a
uniform thickness.
Pocketing Operation: An end mill was employed to create pockets in specified areas as per
design requirements.
Drilling Operation: Drill bits were used to create holes at designated locations with precise
depths as defined in G-code.
Tapping Operation: Tapping was performed on drilled holes where threads were required for
assembly purposes.
Finishing Operations: Any additional finishing processes such as sanding or deburring were
conducted post-machining to enhance surface quality.