Reinforced Concrete Design

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Concrete is a mixture of sand, gravel, crushed 1. It has a very low tensile strength requiring the
rock, or other aggregates held together in a rocklike use of tensile reinforcing.
mass with a paste of cement and water. Sometimes one 2. Forms are required to hold the concrete in
or more admixtures are added to change certain place until it hardens sufficiently.
characteristics of the concrete such as its workability, 3. The low strength per unit weight of concrete
durability, and time of hardening. leads to heavy members.
4. The low strength per unit of volume of
As with most rocklike substances, concrete has concrete means members will be relatively
a high a compressive strength and a very low tensile large, an important consideration for tall
strength. Reinforced Concrete is a combination of buildings and long-span structures.
concrete and steel wherein the steel reinforcement 5. The properties of concrete vary widely due to
provides the tensile strength lacking in the concrete. variations in its proportioning and mixing.
Steel reinforcing is also capable of resisting Furthermore, the pacing and curing of concrete
compression forces and is used in columns as well as is not as carefully controlled as is the
in other situations. productions of other materials.

Concrete and reinforced concrete are used as HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF CONCRETE

building construction materials in every country AND REINFORCED CONCRETE AS
especially in the Philippines. Plain concrete and STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
reinforced concrete are used in buildings of all sorts,
underground structures, water tanks, wind turbine Lime and mortar was first used in structures in
foundations and towers, offshore oil exploration and the Minoan Civilization in Crete about 2000 B.C. and
production structures, dams, bridges, and even still used in some areas. About the third century B.C.,
ships.This material has tremendous advantage, these the Romans discovered a fine sandy volcanic ash that,
include the following: when mixed with lime mortar, gave a much stronger
mortar, which could be used under water.
1. It has considerable compressive strength.
2. Has a great resistance to the actions of fire and The English engineer John Smeaton
water and, in fact, is the best structural discovered that a mixture of burned lime-stone and
material available for situations where water is clay could be used to make a cement that would set
present. under water and be water resistant. In the ensuing
3. It is very rigid. years a number of people used Smeaton’s material, but
4. A low-maintenance material. the difficulty of finding limestone and clay in the same
5. Has a very long service life quarry greatly restricted its use.
6. It is usually the only economical material
available for footings, basement walls, piers, In 1824, Joseph Aspdin mixed ground
and similar applications. limestone and clay from different quarries and heated
7. A special feature of concrete is its ability to be them in a kiln to make cement. Aspdin named his
cast into an extraordinary variety of shapes. product Portland Cement because concrete made
8. A lower grade of skilled labor is required for from it resembled Portland stone, a high-grade
erection as compared to other materials. limestone from the Isle of Portland in the south of
England.
To use concrete successfully the designer must be
completely familiar with its weak points as well as The first uses of reinforced concrete are not
with its strong ones. Among of its disadvantages very well known. Much of the early work done by two
are the following: Frenchmen, Joseph Lambot and Joseph Monier. In
about 1850 Lambot built a concrete boat reinforced
with a network of parallel wires or bars. Credit is
1
Reinforced Concrete Design
usually given to Monier, however, for the invention of  Maintenance of high ethical and professional
reinforced concrete. From 1867 to 1881 Monier standards in the practice of structural
received patents for reinforced concrete railroad ties, engineering.
floors slabs, arches, footbridges, buildings and other  Advancement of structural engineering
items in both France and Germany. knowledge
 Promotion of good public and private clientele
Another Frenchman, Francois Coignet, built relationship, and
simple reinforced concrete structures and developed  Fellowship among structural engineers and
basic method of design. He was the first person to professional relations with other allied
realize that the addition of too much water in the mix technical and scientific organizations.
greatly reduced concrete strength. Other Europeans
who were early experimenters with reinforced concrete PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
included the Englishmen William Fairbarn and
William B. Wilkinson, the German G. A. Wayss, and Compressive Strength
another Frenchman, Francois Hennebique.
The compressive strength of concrete f ' c is
William E. Ward built the first reinforced determined by testing to failure 28 day old 6-in by 12-
concrete building in the United States in Port Chester, in concrete cylinders at a specified rate of loading.
N.Y., in 1875. In 1883 he presented a paper before the Although concretes are available with 28-day ultimate
American Society of Mechanical Engineers in which strengths from 2500 psi up to as high as 10,000 to
he claimed that he got the idea of reinforced concrete 20,000 psi.
by watching English laborers in 1867 trying to
removed hardened cement for their iron tools. Modulus of Elasticity

Thaddeus Hyatt, an American, was probably Concrete has no clear-cut modulus of

the first person to correctly analyze the stresses in elasticity. Its value varies with different concrete
reinforced concrete beam, and in 1877 he published a strengths, concrete age, type of loading, and the
28 page book on the subject, entitled An Account of characteristics of the cement and aggregates.
Some Experiments with Portland Cement Concrete, Furthermore, there are several different definitions of
Combined with Iron as a Building Material. In this the modulus:
book he praised the use of reinforced concrete and said
that “rolled beams have to be taken largely on faith.” a. The initial modulus is the slope of the stress-
Hyatt put a great deal of emphasis on the high strain diagram at the origin of the curve,
resistance of concrete. b. The tangent modulus is the slope of a tangent
to the curve at some point along the curve-for
E.L. Ransome of San Francisco is supposed to instance, at 50% of the ultimate strength of the
have used reinforced concrete in early 1870s and was concrete.
the originator of deformed (or twisted) bars, for which c. The slope of a line drawn from the origin to a
he received a patent in 1884. These bars, which were point on the curve somewhere between 25%
square in cross section, were cold-twisted with one and 50% of its ultimate compressive strength
compete turn in a length of not more than 12 times tha is referred to as a secant modulus.
bar diameter. d. The apparent modulus or the long-term
modulus is determined by using the stresses
DESIGN CODES and strains obtained after the load has been
applied for a certain length of time.
The most important code in the Philippines for
reinforced concrete design the National Structural Poisson’s Ratio
Code of the Philippines (NSCP) which is published
by the Association of Structural Engineers of the As a concrete cylinder is subjected to
Philippines, Inc. (ASEP). This professional compressive loads, it not only shortens in length but
association is founded in 1961 to represent the also expands laterally. The ratio of this lateral
structural engineering community nationwide. The expansion to the longitudinal shortening is referred to
NSCP is published in keeping with the association’s as Poisson’s Ratio. Its value from about 0.11 for the
objectives: higher-strength concretes to as high as 0.21 for the
2
Reinforced Concrete Design
weaker grade concretes, with average values of about DEVELOPMENT LENGTH is a length of embedded
0.16. reinforcement, including prestressing strand, required
to develop the design strength of reinforcement at a
Creep critical section.

Under sustained compressive loads concrete DROP PANEL is a projection below the slab used to
will continue to deform for long periods of time. This reduce the amount of negative reinforcement over a
additional deformation is called creep or plastic flow. column or the minimum required slab thickness, and to
If a compressive load is applied to a concrete member, increase the slab shear strength.
an immediate or instantaneous or elastic shortening
occurs. EFFECTIVE DEPTH OF SECTION is a distance
measured from extreme compression fiber to centroid
DEFINITION OF TERMS of tension reinforcement.

ANCHOR is a steel element either cast into concrete HOOP is a closed tie or continuously wound tie. A
or post-installed into a hardened concrete member and closed tie, made up of one or several reinforcement
used to transmit applied loads to the concrete. elements, each having seismic hooks at both ends. A
closed toe shall not be made up of interlocking headed
BEAM is a member subjected primarily to flexure and deformed bars. Section 425.7.4.
shear, with or without axial force or torsion; beams in
a moment frame that forms part of the lateral-force- REINFORCEMENT is a steel element or elements
resisting systems are predominantly horizontal embedded in concrete and conforming to Sections
members; a girder is a beam. 420.2 through 420.5. Prestressed reinforcement in
external tendons is also considered reinforcement.
COLUMN is a member, usually vertical or
predominantly vertical, used primarily to support axial SHEAR CAP is a projection below the slab used to
compressive load, but that can also resist moment, increase the slab shear strength.
shear, or torsion. Columns used as part of a lateral-
force-resisting system resist combined axial load, SPACING is a center-to-center distance between
moment, and shear. Refer to moment frame. adjacent items, such as longitudinal reinforcement,
transverse reinforcement, prestressing reinforcement,
CONCRETE are mixture of Portland cement or any or anchors.
other hydraulic cement, fine aggregate, coarse
aggregate and water, with or without admixtures. SPACING, CLEAR is a least dimension between the
outermost surfaces of adjacent items.
CONCRETE, LIGHTWEIGHT is a concrete
containing lightweight aggregate and an equivalent SPAN LENGTH is a distance between supports.
density, as determined by ASTM C567, between 1440
and 1840 kg/m3. STIRRUP is an reinforcement used to resist shear and
torsion stresses in a structural member, typically
CONCRETE, NON-PRESTRESSED is a reinforced deformed bars, deformed wires, or welded wire
concrete with at least the minimum amount of non- reinforcement either single leg or bet into L, U or
prestressed reinforcement and no prestressed rectangular shapes and located perpendicular to or at
reinforcement; or any two-way slabs with less than the an angle to longitudinal reinforcement.
minimum amount of prestressed reinforcement.
STRENGTH, DESIGN is a nominal strength
CONCRETE, SPECIFIED COMPRESSIVE multiplied by a strength reduction factor, Ø.
'
STRENGTH (f c ) is a compressive strength of
concrete used in design and evaluated in accordance STRENGTH, NOMINAL is strength of a member or
with provisions of the NSCP 2015, MPa. Whenever cross section calculated in accordance with provisions
the quantity is under a radical sign, square root of and assumptions of the strength design method of this
numerical value only is intended, and result has units chapter before application of any strength reduction
of MPa. factors.

3
Reinforced Concrete Design
TIE is a loop of reinforcing bar or wire enclosing 2. Development of project concept. Based on
longitudinal reinforcement; a continuously wound bar the client’s needs and priorities, a number of
or wire in the form of a circle, rectangle, or other possible layouts are developed. Preliminary
polygon shape without re-entrant corners is acceptable; cost estimates are made, and the final choice
refer to stirrup or hoop; or a tension member in a strut- of the system to be used is based on how well
and-tie model. the overall design satisfies the client’s needs
within the budget available.
DESIGN PROCESS 3. Design of individual systems. Once the
overall layout and general structural concept
A structural engineer is a member of a team have been selected, the structural system can
that works together to design a building, bridges or be designed. Structural design involves three
other structure. In the case of a building, an architect main steps. Based on the preliminary design
generally provides the overall layout, and mechanical, selected in phase 2, a structural analysis is
electrical and structural engineers design individual carried out to determine the moments, shear,
systems with the building. torques, and axial forces in the structure. The
individual members are the proportioned to
The structure should satisfy four major resist these load effects. The proportioning,
criteria: sometimes referred to as member design, must
also consider overall aesthetics, the
1. Appropriateness. The arrangement of spaces,
constructability of the design, coordination
spans, ceiling height, access and traffic flow
with mechanical and electrical systems, and
must complement the intended use. The
the sustainability of the final structure. The
structure should fit its environment and be
final stage in the design process is to prepare
aesthetically pleasing.
construction drawings and specifications.
2. Economy. The overall cost of the structure
should not exceed the client budget. CODES SPECIFIED IN THE NSCP Vol. 1 7th Ed.
Frequently, teamwork in design will lead to
overall economies. Chapter 4 refers to the structural concrete
3. Structural Adequacy. Structural adequacy provision of the National Structural Code of the
involves two major aspects. Philippines, Volume 1 (NSCP Vol. 1), 7th Edition and
a. A structure must be strong enough to may be cited as such, and will be referred to herein as
support all anticipated loadings safely. “this code”
b. A structure must not deflect, tilt,
vibrate, or crack in a manner that This chapter provides minimum requirements
impairs its usefulness. for the design and construction of structural concrete
4. Maintainability. A structure should be elements of any building or other structure under
designed so as to a require minimum amount requirements of the National Building Code of the
of simple maintenance procedures. Philippines. This chapter also covers the strength
evaluation of existing concrete structures.
The design process is a sequential and iterative
decision-making process. The three major phases For structural concrete, f ' c shall not be less
are the following: than 17 MPa. No maximum value of f ' c shall apply
1. Definition of the client’s needs and unless restricted by a specific code provision.
priorities. All buildings or other structures are
built to fulfill a need. It is important that the
owner or user be involved in determining the LOADS (Section 405)
attributes of the proposed building. These
include functional requirements, aesthetic Loads shall include self-weight; applied loads; and
requirements, and budgetary requirements. effects of prestressing, earthquakes, restraint of volume
The latter include initial cost, premium for change, and differential settlement. Loads and seismic
rapid construction to allow early occupancy, zones shall be in accordance with the general building
maintenance, and other life-cycle costs. code, or determined by another authority having
jurisdiction in areas without a legally adopted building
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Reinforced Concrete Design
code. Live load reductions shall be permitted in a. Direct design method in Section 408.10;
accordance with the general building code or, in the b. Equivalent frame method in Section 408.11
absence of a general building code, in accordance with
ASCE/SEI 7.
Slender walls shall be permitted to be analyzed in
Load Factors and Combinations (Sec. 405.3) accordance with Section 411.8 for out-of-plane effects.
Table 405.3.1 Diaphragms shall be permitted to be analyzed in
Load Combinations accordance with Section 412.4.2.

Primary A member or region shall be permitted to be analyzed

Load Designation Equation
Load and designed using the strut-and-tie method in
U = 1.4D (405.3.1a) D accordance with Section 423.
U = 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5 (Lr
(405.3.1b) L Slenderness effects shall be permitted to be neglected
or R)
U = 1.2D + 1.6 (Lr or R) + if (a) or (b) is satisfied:
(405.3.1c) Lr or R
(1.0L or 0.5W)
a. For columns not braced against sidesway
U = 1.2D + 1.0W + 1.0L +
(405.3.1d) W
0.5 (Lr or R) k lu
U = 1.2D + 1.0E + 1.0L (405.3.1e) E ≤22
r
U = 0.9D + 1.0W (405.3.1f) W
U = 0.9D + 1.0E (405.3.1g) E b. For columns braced against sidesway

Required strength, U, shall be at least equal to the

effects of factored loads in Table 405.3.1, with
exceptions and additions in Section 405.3.3 through
k lu
r
≤34 +12
M1
M2 ( )
405.3.11. k lu
and ≤ 40
r

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS (Sec. 406) where ( M 1 / M 2 ) is negative if the column is bent in

single curvature, and positive for double curvature.
Members and structural systems shall be permitted to
The radius of gyration, r , shall be permitted to be
be modelled in accordance with Section 406.3. All
calculated by (a), (b) or (c):
members and structural systems shall be analyzed for

√
the maximum effects of loads including the
Ig
arrangements of live load in accordance with Section a. r=
406.4. Ag
b. 0.30 times the dimension in the direction
Methods of analysis permitted in this Section shall be stability is being considered for rectangular
(a) through (e). columns.
c. 0.25 times the diameter of circular columns.
a. The simplified methods for analysis of
continuous beams and one-way slabs for For composite columns, the radius of gyration, r , shall
gravity loads in Section 406.5; not be taken greater than:

√
b. First-order in Section 406.6;
c. Elastic second-order in Section 406.7;
d. Inelastic second-order in Section 406.8;
r=
( 5 )
E I c
(E I )
g
s sx

e. Finite element in Section 406.9.

Additional analysis methods that are permitted include

( E 5A ) ( E A )
c g
s sx

Sections 406.2.4.1 through 406.2.4.4.

Longitudinal bars located within a concrete core
Two-way slabs shall be permitted to be analyzed for encased by structural steel or within transverse
gravity loads in accordance with (a) or (b): reinforcement surrounding a structural steel core shall
be permitted to be used in calculating A sx and I sx .
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Reinforced Concrete Design
T-beam Geometry (Sec. 406.3.2) Member built
2
integrally with wu l n
For non-prestressed T-beams supporting monolithic or Interior supporting 24
composite slabs, the effective flange width b f shall face of spandrel beam
include the beam web width b w plus an effective exterior Member built
2
overhanging flange width in accordance with Table support integrally with wu l n
406.3.2.1, where ℎ is the slab thickness and sw is the supporting 16
column
clear distance to the adjacent web. 2
Exterior wu l n
face of Two spans
Table 406.3.2.1 9
Dimensional Limits for Effective Overhanging Flange first 2
interior More than two wu l n
Width for T-beams spans
support 10
Flange Effective overhanging Flange Negativ Face of 2
wu l n
Location Width, beyond face of web e other All
8ℎ supports 11
Each side of sw /2 (a) Slabs with
Least of:
web spans not
l n /8
exceeding 3 m
6ℎ (b) Beams
One side of sw /2 Face of
Least of: where ratio of
web all 2
l n /12 the sum of wu l n
supports
column 12
satisfying
stiffness to
Simplified Method of Analysis for Non-Prestressed (a) or (b)
beam stiffness
Continuous Beams and One-way Slabs (Sec. 406.5) exceeds 8 at
each end of
It shall be permitted to calculate M u and Vu due to span
gravity loads in accordance with this section for
continuous beams and one-way slabs satisfying (a)
through (e): Vu due to gravity loads shall be calculated in
accordance with Table 406.5.4
a. Members are prismatic;
b. Loads are uniformly distributed; Table 406.5.4
c. ¿ ≤ 3 DL Approximate Shears for Non-Prestressed Continuous
d. There are at least two spans; Beams and One-Way Slabs
e. The longer of two adjacent spans does not Location Vu
exceed shorter by more than 20 percent. Exterior face of first ❑
1.15 wu l n
Mu due to gravity loads shall be calculated in interior support
2
❑
accordance with Table 406.5.2. Face of all other wu l n
supports
Table 406.5.2 2
Approximate Moments for Non-Prestressed
Continuous Beams and One-way Slabs Slenderness Effects, Moment Magnification Method
Moment Location Condition Mu (Section 406.6.4)
Discontinuous 2
wu l n Unless Section 406.2.5 is satisfied, columns and
end integral
14 stories in structures shall be designated as being
with support
End Span nonsway or sway. Analysis of columns in nonsway
Discontinuous 2
Positive wu l n frames or storeys shall be in accordance with Section
end
unrestrained 11 406.6.4.5. Analysis of columns in sway frames or
2 storeys shall be in accordance with Section
Interior wu l n
All 406.6.4.6.
Spans 16

6
Reinforced Concrete Design
It shall be permitted to analyze columns and stories 0.2 Ec I g
in structures as nonsway frames if (a) or (b) is ( EI )eff = + E s I sx (406.6.4.4.5)
1+ β dns
satisfied:
Moment Magnification Method: Nonsway Frames
a. The increase in column end moments due to
(Sec.406.6.4.5)
second order effects does not exceed 5 percent
pf the first order end moments; The factored moment used for design of columns
b. Q in accordance with Section 406.6.4.4.1 does and walls, Mc, shall be the first-order factored
not exceed 0.05. moment M2 amplified for the effects of member
curvature.
Mc = δ M2

Magnification factor δ shall be calculated by:

Stability Properties (Section 406.4.4)
Cm
The stability index for a storey, Q shall be calculated δ= ≥ 1.0
by: Pu
1−
0.75 Pc
Q=
∑ Pu ∆ o
V us l c C m shall be calculated be in accordance with (a) or
(b):
Where ∑ Pu and V us are the total factored vertical
a. For columns without traverse loads applied
load and horizontal storey shear, respectively, in the
between supports:
story being evaluated, and ∆ o is the first-order relative M1
lateral deflection between the top and the bottom of C m=0.6 − 0.4
M2
that storey due to V us.
b. For columns with transverse loads applied
The critical buckling load Pc , shall be calculated by: between supports.

2 C m=1.0
π ( EI )eff
Pc = 2
( k lu ) M2 shall be at least M 2,min calculated about each axis
separately.
The effective length factor k shall be calculated using
Ec in accordance with Section 419.2.2 and I in M2,min = Pu (15+ 0.03ℎ)
accordance with Section 406.6.3.1.1. For nonsway
members, k shall be permitted to be taken as 1.0 and If M2,min exceeds M2, C m shall be taken equal to 1.0 or
for sway members, k shall be at least 1.0. calculated based on the ratio of the calculated end
For non-composite columns, ( EI )eff shall be calculated moments M 1 / M 2.
in accordance with (a), (b) or (c):
Moment Magnification Method: Sway Frames (Sec.
0.4 E c I g 406.6.4.6)
a. ( EI )eff = (406.6.4.4.4a)
1+ β dns
Moment M1 and M2 at the ends of an individual
0.2 Ec I g + E s I se column shall be calculated by (a) and (b):
b. ( EI )eff =
1+ β dns
(406.6.4.4.4b) a. M1 = M1ns + δ s M1s
Ec I b. M2 = M2ns + δ s M2s
c. ( EI )eff = (406.6.4.4.4c)
1+ β dns
The moment magnifier δ s shall be calculated by (a),
For composite columns, ( EI )eff shall be calculated by (b), or (c). If δ s exceeds 1.5, only (b) or (c) shall be
Eq. 406.6.4.4.4b, Eq. 406.6.4.4.5, or from a more permitted:
detailed analysis.

7
Reinforced Concrete Design
1 walls
a. δ s= ≥1 [1]
1 −Q The limit is permitted to be exceeded where demonstrated by
1 experimental evidence that members made with lightweight
δ s= ≥1 concrete provide strength and toughness equal to or exceeding
b.
1−
∑ Pu those of comparable members made with normal weight concrete o
0.75 ∑ Pc
the same strength

c. Second-order elastic analysis Modulus of Elasticity (Section 419.2.2)

Modulus of elasticity, Ec , for concrete shall be

permitted to be calculated as (a) or (b):
EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT STRUCTURES
(Section 418)
a. For values of w c between 1440 and 2560
This section shall apply to the design of non- kg/m3.
Ec =wc 0.043 √ f ' c
1.5
prestressed and prestressed concrete structures
assigned to seismic zone 4, including, where b. For normal weight concrete
applicable: Ec =4700 √ f ' c
a. Structural systems designated as part of the Modulus of Rupture (Section 419.2.3)
seismic-force-resisting system, including
diaphragms, moment frames, structural walls, Modulus of rupture, f r for concrete shall be calculated
and foundations; by:
b. Members not designated as part of the seismic-
force-resisting system but required to support f r=0.62 λ √ f ' c
other loads while undergoing deformations
associated with earthquake effects. Where the value of λ is in accordance with Section
419.2.4.

CONCRETE: DESIGN AND DURABILITY

REQUIREMENTS (Section 419)
Lightweight Concrete (Section 419.2.4)
Concrete Design Properties (Sec. 419.2)
To account for the properties of lightweight concrete, a
modification factor λ is used as a multiplier of √ f ' c in
The value of f ' c shall be specified in construction
documents and shall be in accordance with (a) through all applicable provision of this code.
(c):
The value of λ shall be based on the composition of
a. Limits in Table 419.2.1.1; the aggregate in the concrete mixture in accordance
b. Durability requirements in Table 419.3.2.1; with Table 419.2.4.2 or as permitted in Section
c. Structural strength requirements. 419.2.4.3

Table 419.2.1.1 Table 419.2.4.2

Limits for f ' c Modification Factor
Composition of
Application Concrete Mi. f ' c, Ma. f ' c, Concrete λ
Aggregates
MPa MPa Fine: ASTM C330M
General Normal All-lightweight 0.75
Coarse: ASTM C330M
weight and 17 None Fine: Combination of 0.75
lightweight Lightweight,
ASTM C330M and C33M to
Special Normal fine blend
21 None Coarse: ASTM C330M 0.85
moment weight Sand- Fine: ASTM C33M
frames and Lightweight 21 35[1] 0.85
lightweight Coarse: ASTM C330M
special
Sand- Fine: ASTM C33M 0.85
structural
8
Reinforced Concrete Design
lightweight, Coarse: Combination of to and 58 mm
coarse blend ASTM C330M and C33M 1.00 joists dia. bars
Fine of Coarse: ASTM and 36 mm dia.
Normal-weight 1.00
C33M walls bar and 20
exposed to
smaller
weather or
Beams,
in contact Primary
columns,
STEEL REINFORCEMENT PROPERTIES, with ground reinforcement
pedestal,
DURABILITY, AND EMBEDMENTS , stirrups, ties, 40
and
(Section 420) spirals and
tension
hoops
bars
This section shall apply to steel reinforcement, and
shall govern (a) through (c):

a. Material properties;
b. Properties to be used for design;
c. Durability requirements, including minimum
specified cover requirements.

Table 420.6.1.3.2
Specified Concrete Cover for Cast-in-Place Prestressed
Concrete Members
Specified Concrete Cover Requirements
Specif
Table 420.6.1.3.1 Concrete Reinforce- ied
Member
Specified Concrete Cover for Cast-in-Place Non- Exposure ment Cover
, mm
Prestressed Concrete Members
Cast against
Specif and
Concrete Reinforce- ied permanently All All 75
Member in contact
Exposure ment Cover
, mm with ground
Cast against Slabs,
and Exposed to joists,
All 25
permanently All All 75 weather to and
in contact weather or walls
with ground in contact
20 mm dia. with ground All other All 40
through 58 50
Exposed to Slabs,
mm dia. bars
weather to Not joists
16 mm dia. All 20
weather or All exposed to and
bar, MW200
in contact weather or walls
or MD200 40
with ground in contact
wire, and Beams, Primary
with ground 40
smaller columns, reinforcement
Not Slabs, 40 mm dia. 40
9
Reinforced Concrete Design
and Stirrups, ties,
tension spirals, and 25
bars hoops STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTORS

For bundled bars, specified concrete cover shall be at (Section 421)

least the smaller of (a) and (b):
Strength Reduction Factors for Structural Concrete
a. The equivalent diameter of the bundle; Members and Connections (Sec. 421.2)
b. 50 mm
Strength reduction factors, ∅ , shall be in accordance
And for concrete cast against and permanently in with Table 421.2.1, except as modified by Sections
contact with ground, the specified cover shall be 75 421.2.2, 421.2.3, and 421.2.4.
mm.

Table 421.2.1
Strength Reduction Factors, ∅

Action or Structural Element ∅ Exceptions

0.65 to 0.90 in Near ends of pretensioned members where
Moment, axial force, or combined
(a) accordance with strands are not fully developed, ∅ shall be
moment and axial force
Section 421.2.2 in accordance with Section 421.2.3
Additional requirements are given in
(b) Shear 0.75 Section 421.2.4 for structures designed to
resist earthquake effects.
(c) Torsion 0.75 -
(d) Bearing 0.65 -
(e) Post-tensioned anchorage zones 0.85 -
(f) Brackets and corbels 0.75 -
Struts, ties, nodal zones and bearing
(g) areas designed in accordance with 0.75 -
strut -and-tie method in Section 423
Components of connections of
(h) precast members controlled by 0.90 -
yielding of steel elements in tension
(i) Plain concrete elements 0.60 -
0.45 to 0.75 in
(j) Anchors in concrete elements accordance with -
Section 417

Table 421.2.2
Strength Reduction Factor, ∅ , for Moment, Axial Force, or Combined Moment and Axial Force

∅
Net Tensile Type of Transverse Reinforcement
Classification
Stain, ε t Spirals conforming to Sec.
Other
425.7.3
ε t ≤ ε ty Compression
0.75 (a) 0.65 (b)
controlled
( ε t − ε ty ) ( ε t − ε ty )
ε ty <ε t <0.005 Transition 0.75+ 0.15 (c) 0.65+ 0.25 (d)
( 0.005 − ε ty ) ( 0.005 − ε ty )
ε t ≥0.005 Tension Controlled 0.90 (e) 0.90 (f)

10
Reinforced Concrete Design
fy Values of β 1 for Equivalent Rectangular Concrete
For deformed reinforcement, ε ty shall be . For
Es Stress Distribution
Grade 280 deformed reinforcement, it shall be
f ' c, MPa β1
permitted to take equal to 0.002. For all prestressed '
17 ≤ f c ≤ 28 0.85 (a)
reinforcement ε tyshall be taken as 0.002.
' 0.05 ( f ' c − 28 )
28< f c < 55 0.85 − (b)
7
'
f c ≥55 0.65 (c)

Axial Strength or Combined Flexural and Axial

Strength (Section 422.4)

Nominal flexural and axial strength shall be calculated

SECTIONAL STRENGTH (Section 422) in accordance with the assumptions of Section 422.2.

This section shall apply to calculating nominal strength Nominal axial compressive strength, Pn, shall not
at sections of members, including (a) through (g): exceed Pn , max in accordance with Table 422.4.2.1,
where Po is calculated by Eq. 422.4.2.2 for non-
a. Flexural strength; prestressed members and composite steel and concrete
b. Axial strength or combined flexural and axial members, and by Eq. 422.4.2.3 for prestressed
strength; members.
c. One—way shear strength;
d. Two-way shear strength;
e. Torsional strength;
f. Bearing;
g. Shear Friction

Sectional strength requirements of this chapter shall be

satisfied unless the member or region of the members
is designed in accordance with Section 423.
Table 422.4.2.1
Design Assumptions for Concrete (Section 422.2.2) Maximum Axial Strength

Maximum strain at the extreme concrete compression Transverse Pn , max

Member
Reinforcement
fiber shall be assumed equal to 0.003.
Ties conforming to
0.80 Po (a)
Non- Section 422.4.2.4
Concrete stress of 0.85 f ' c shall be assumed uniformly prestressed Spirals conforming
0.85 Po (b)
distributed over an equivalent compression zone to Section 422.4.2.5
bounded by edges of the cross-section and a line Ties 0.80 Po (c)
Prestressed
parallel to the neutral axis located a distance α from Spirals 0.85 Po (d)
the fiber of maximum compressive strain, as calculated Composite steel
by: and concrete
columns in All 0.85 Po (e)
α =β 1 c accordance with
Section 410
Distance from the fiber of maximum compressive For non-prestressed members and composite steel and
strain to the neutral axis, c shall be measured
concrete members, Po shall be calculated by
perpendicular to the neutral axis.
Po =0.85 f ' c ( A g − A st ) + f y A st (422.4.2.2)
Values of β 1 shall be in accordance with Table
422.2.2.4.3.
where A st is the total area of non-prestressed
Table 422.2.2.4.3 longitudinal reinforcement.
11
Reinforced Concrete Design
Tie reinforcement for lateral support of longitudinal For non-prestressed members with axial compression,
reinforcement in compression members shall satisfy V c shall be calculated by:
Sections 410.7.6.2 and 425.7.2.

Spiral reinforcement for lateral support of longitudinal

reinforcement in compression members shall satisfy
(
V c =0.17 1+
Nu
14 A g )
λ √ f ' c bw d (422.5.6.1)

Sections 410.7.6.3 and 425.7.3.

unless a more detailed calculation is made in
One-way Shear Strength (Section 422.5) accordance with Table 422.5.6.1, where N u is positive
for compression.
Nominal one-way shear strength at a section V n, shall
be calculated by: One-way Shear Reinforcement (Section 422.5.10)

V n=V c +V s (422.5.1.1) At each section where V u >∅ V c, transverse

reinforcement shall be provided such that Eq.
Cross-sectional dimension shall be calculated to satisfy 422.5.10.1 is satisfied
Eq. 422.5.1.2.
Vu
Vs≥ −V c (422.5.10.1)
V u ≤∅ ( V c +0.67 √ f ' c b w d ) (422.5.1.2) ∅

For non-prestressed members, V c shall be calculated in For one-way members reinforced with transverse
accordance with Section 422.5.5, 422.5.6, or 422.5.7. reinforcement, V s shall be calculated in accordance
with Section 422.5.10.5.
V s shall be calculated in accordance with Section
422.5.10. One-way Shear Strength Provided by Transverse
Reinforcement (Section 422.5.10.5)
Effect of any openings in members shall be considered
In non-prestressed and prestressed members, shear
in calculating V n.
reinforcement satisfying (a), (b) or (c) shall be
Effect of axial tension due to creep and shrinkage in permitted:
restrained shall be considered in calculating V c .
a. Stirrups, ties, or hoops perpendicular to
longitudinal axis of member,
Effect of inclined flexural compression in variable
b. Axial welded wire reinforcement with wires
depth members shall be permitted to be considered in
located perpendicular to longitudinal axis of
calculating V c . members,
c. Spiral reinforcement.
For calculation of V c and V s in solid, circular sections,
d shall be permitted to be taken as 0.8 times the V s for shear reinforcement in Section 422.5.10.5.1
diameter and b w shall be permitted to be taken as the shall be calculated by:
diameter.
A v f yt d
The value of √ f ' c used to calculate V c , V ct , and V cw
V s= (422.5.10.3)
s
for one-way shear shall not exceed 8.3 MPa, unless
allowed in Section 422.5.3.2. where s is the spiral pitch or the longitudinal spacing
of the shear reinforcement and A v is given in Section
For non-prestressed members without axial force, V c 422.5.10.5.5 or 422.5.10.5.6.
shall be calculated by:
For each rectangular tie, stirrup, hoop, or crosstic, A v
V c =0.17 λ √ f ' c bw d (422.5.5.1) shall be the effective area of all bar legs or wires
within spacing s.
unless a more detailed calculation is made in
accordance with Table 422.5.5.1

12
Reinforced Concrete Design
For each circular tie or spiral, A v shall be two times prestressed two-way members, v c shall be calculated
the area of the bar or wire within spacing s. in accordance with (a) or (b):

Two-Way Shear Strength (Section 422.6) a. Section 422.6.5.2

b. Section 422.6.5.5, if the conditions of Section
Provisions Sections 422.6.1 through 422.6.8 apply to 422.6.5.4 are satisfied
the nominal shear strength of two-way members with v c shall be calculated in accordance with Table
and without shear reinforcement. Where structural
422.6.5.2.
steel I- or channel-shaped sections are used as shear
heads, two-way members shall be designed for shear in Table 422.6.5.2
accordance with Section 422.6.9. Calculation of v c for Two-way Shear
vc
Nominal shear strength for two-way members without
shear reinforcement shall be calculated by 0.33 λ √ f ' c (a)

v n=v c Least of (a),

(b) and (c):
( )2
0.17 1+ λ √ f ' c
β
(b)

Nominal shear strength for two-way members with

shear reinforcement other than shear heads shall be (
0.083 2+
as d
bo ) λ √f 'c ©

calculated by Note: β is the ratio of long side to short side of the column,
concentrated load, or reaction area and α s is given in
v n=v c + v s Section 422.6.5.3.
Two-way shear shall be resisted by a section with a
The value of a s is 40 for interior columns, 30 for edge
depth d and an assumed critical perimeter b o as
columns, and 20 for corner columns.
defined in Section 422.6.4.
v c for two-way shear shall be calculated in accordance SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS
(Section 424)
with Section 422.6.6. For two-way members with
shear reinforcement, v c shall not exceed the limits in This section shall apply to member design for
Section 422.6.6.1. minimum serviceability, including (a) through (d):
For calculation of v c, λ shall be in accordance with
a. Section 424.2 deflection due to service-level
Section 419.2.4.
gravity loads;
For two-way members reinforced with single or multi- b. Section 424.3 distribution of flexural
leg stirrups, v s shall be calculated in accordance with reinforcement in one-way slabs and beams to
Section 422.6.7. control cracking;
c. Section 424.4. permissible stresses in
For two-way members reinforced with headed shear prestressed flexural members.
stud reinforcement, v s shall be calculated in
accordance with Section 422.6.8. Deflection calculated in accordance with Sections
424.2.3 through 424.2.5 shall not exceed the limits in
Two-way Shear Strength Provided by Concrete (Sec. Table 424.2.2.
422.6.5)
Immediate deflection shall be calculated using
For non-prestressed two-way members, v c shall be methods or formulas for elastic deflections,
calculated in accordance with Section 422.6.5.2. For considering effects of cracking and reinforcement on
member stiffness.

Table 424.2.2
Maximum Permissible Calculated Deflection

Deflection
Member Condition Deflection to be considered
Limitation

13
Reinforced Concrete Design
Not supporting or attached to non- Immediate deflection due to [1]
Flat roofs l/180
structural elements likely to be damaged maximum of Lr and R
Floors by large deflections Immediate deflection due to L l/360
Likely to be That part of the total deflection
[ 3]
damaged by large occurring after attachment of non- l/480
Supporting or deflections structural elements, which is the sum
Roof or floors attached to non- of the time-dependent deflection due
Not likely to be
structural elements to all sustained loads and the [4 ]
damaged by large l/240
immediate deflection due to any
deflections
additional live load[2]
[1]
Limit not intended to safeguard against ponding. Ponding shall be checked by calculations of deflection, including added
deflections due to ponded water, and considering time-dependent effects of sustained leads, camber, construction tolerances, and
reliability of provisions for drainage.
[2]
Time-dependent deflections shall be calculated in accordance with Section 424.2.4, but shall be permitted to be reduced by
amount of deflection calculated to occur before attachment of non-structural elements. This amount shall be calculated on basis of
accepted engineering data relating to time-deflection characteristics of members similar to those being considered.
[3]
Limit shall be permitted to be exceeded if measures are taken to prevent drainage to supported or attached elements.
[4]
Limit shall not exceed tolerance provided for nonstructural elements

For non-prestressed members, effective moment of ℰ

λ ∆= (424.2.4.1.1)
inertia, I e shall be calculated by Eq. 424.2.3.5a unless 1+50 ρ'
obtained by a more comprehensive analysis, but I e
shall not be greater than I g. In Eq. 424.2.4.1.1, ρ ' shall be calculated at mid-span
for simple and continuous spans, and at the support for

[ ( )]
cantilevers.

( )
3 3
M M cr
I e = cr I g + 1 − I cr (424.2.3.5a)
Ma Ma In Eq. 424.2.4.1.1, values of the time dependent factor
for sustained loads, ℰ , shall be in accordance with
where M cr is calculated by Table 424.2.4.1.3.

Table 424.2.4.1.3
f r Ig
M cr = (424.2.3.5b) Time-dependent Factor for Sustained Loads
yt
Sustained load Time-dependent factor,
For continuous one-way and beams, I e shall be duration, months E
permitted to be taken as the average of values obtained 3 1.0
from Eq. 424.2.3.5a for the critical positive and 6 1.2
negative moment sections. 12 1.4
60 or more 2.0
For prismatic one-way slabs and beams, I e shall be
permitted to be taken as the value obtained from Eq.
424.2.3.5a at mid-span for simple and continuous Non-Prestressed Reinforcement (Section 424.4.3)
spans, and at the support for cantilevers.
Deformed reinforcement to resist shrinkage and
Calculation of Time-Dependent Deflection (Section temperature stresses shall conform to Table
424.2.4.1) 420.2.2.4(a) and shall be in accordance with Sections
424.4.3.2 through 424.4.3.5.
Unless obtained from a more comprehensive analysis,
additional time-dependent deflection resulting from The ratio of deformed shrinkage and temperature
creep and shrinkage of flexural members shall be reinforcement area to gross concrete area shall satisfy
calculated as the product of the immediate deflection the limits in Table 424.4.3.2.
caused by sustained load and the factor λ ∆
Table 424.4.3.2

14
Reinforced Concrete Design
Minimum Ratios of Deformed Shrinkage and g. Post-tensioning anchorages and couplers.
Temperature Reinforcement Area to Gross Concrete
Area Minimum Spacing of Reinforcement (Sec. 425.2)

Reinforcement fy Minimum Reinforcement  For parallel non-prestressed reinforcement in a

Type MPa Ratio
horizontal layer, clear spacing shall be at least the
Deformed greatest of 50 mm, db, and (4/3)dagg.
<420 0.0020
bars  For parallel non-prestressed reinforcement placed in
Deformed 0.0018 ×420 two or more horizontal layers, reinforcement in the
bars or fy
Greater upper layers shall be placed directly above
welded wire ≥ 420
of: reinforcement in the bottom layer with a clear
reinforcemen 0.0014
t spacing between layers of at least 25 mm.
 For longitudinal reinforcement in columns,
The spacing of deformed shrinkage and temperature pedestals, struts, and boundary elements in walls,
reinforcement shall not exceed the lesser of 5 ℎ and clear spacing between bars shall be at least the
450 mm. greatest of 40 mm, 1.5db and (4/3)dagg

REINFORCEMENT DETAILS (Section 425) Standard Hooks, Seismic Hooks, and Minimum Inside
Bend Diameters (Sec. 425.3)
This section shall apply to reinforcement details
including:  Standard Hooks for the development of deformed
bars in tension shall conform to table 425.3.1
a. Minimum spacing;  Minimum inside bend diameters for bars used as
b. Standard hooks, seismic hooks, and crossties; traverse reinforcement and standard hooks for bars
c. Development of reinforcement; used to anchor stirrups, ties, hoops, and spirals shall
d. Splices; conform to Table 425.3.2. Standard hooks shall
e. Bundled reinforcement; enclose longitudinal reinforcement.
f. Transverse reinforcement;

15
Reinforced Concrete Design

 Seismic hooks used to anchor stirrups, ties, hoops, Transverse Reinforcement (Section 425.7)
and cross-ties shall be in accordance with (a) and (b):
a. Minimum bend of 90 degrees for circular hoops Stirrups shall extend as close to the compression and
and 135 degrees for all other hoops; tension surfaces of other member as cover
b. Hook shall engage longitudinal reinforcement requirements and proximity of other reinforcement
and the extension shall project into the interior of permits and shall be anchored at both ends. Where
the stirrup or hoop. used as shear reinforcement, stirrups shall extend a
distance d from extreme compression fiber.
Bundled Reinforcement (Section 425.6)
Between anchored ends, each bend in the continuous
For Non-prestressed Reinforcement portion of a single or multiple U-stirrup and each bend
in a closed stirrup shall enclose a longitudinal bar or
 Group of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact strand.
to act as a unit shall be limited to four in any one
bundle. Anchorage of deformed bar and wire shall be in
 Bundled bars shall be enclosed within transverse accordance with (a), (b), or (c):
reinforcement. Bundled bars in compression
members shall be enclosed by transverse a. For 16 mm ∅ bar and MD200 wire, and
reinforcement at least 12 mm diameter in size. smaller, and for 20 mm∅ through 25 mm ∅
 Bars larger than a 36 mm dia. shall not be bundled in bars with f yt ≤ 280 MPa, a standard hook
beams. around longitudinal reinforcement;
 Individual bars within a bundle terminated within the b. For 20 mm ∅ through 25 mm ∅ bars with
span of flexural members shall terminate at different f yt > 280 MPa , a standard hook around a
points with at least 40db stagger.
longitudinal bar plus an embedment between
 A unit of bundled bars shall be treated as a single bar
mid-height of the member and the outside end
with an area equivalent to that of the bundle and a
of the hook equal to or greater than
centroid coinciding with that of the bundle.

16
Reinforced Concrete Design
0.17 d b f yt / ( λ √ f ' c ), with λ as given in Table Rectilinear ties shall be arranged to satisfy (a) and (b):
425.4.3.2;
a. Every corner and alternate longitudinal bar
c. In joist construction, for 12 mm ∅ bar and
shall have lateral support provided by the
MD130 wire and smaller, a standard hook.
corner of a tie with an included angle of not
more than 135 degrees;
Anchorage of each leg of welded plain wire
b. No unsupported bar shall farther than 150 mm
reinforcement forming a single U-stirrup shall be in
clear on each side along the tie from a laterally
accordance with (a) or (b):
supported bar.
a. Two longitudinal wires spaced at a 50 mm
Spirals (Sec. 425.7.3)
spacing along the member at the top of the U;
b. One longitudinal wire located not more than
Spirals shall consist of evenly spaced continuous bar or
d / 4 from the compression face and a second wire with clear spacing conforming to (a) and (b):
wire closer to the compression face and spaced
not less than 50 mm from the first wire. The
second wire shall be permitted to be located on
the stirrup leg beyond a bend, or on a bend
a. At least the greater of 25 mm and ( 43 ) d agg;

b. Not greater than 75 mm.

with an inside diameter of bend of at least 8 d b
. For cast-in-place construction, spiral bar or wire
diameter shall be at least 10 mm.
Stirrups used for torsion or integrity reinforcement
shall be closed stirrups perpendicular to the axis of the
Volumetric spiral reinforcement ratio ρ s shall satisfy
member. Where welded wire reinforcement is used,
transverse wires shall be perpendicular to the axis of
the member. Such stirrups shall be anchored by (a) or
(b):
ρ s ≥ 0.45
( Ag
Acℎ
−1
)f 'c
f yt

a. Ends shall terminate with 135-degree standard Where the value of f yt shall not be taken greater than
hooks around a longitudinal bar; 700 MPa.
b. In accordance with Section 425.7.1.3(a) or (b)
or Section 425.7.1.4, where the concrete Spirals shall be anchored by 1-1/2 extra turns of spiral
surrounding the anchorage is restrained against bar or wire at each end.
spalling by a flange or slab or similar member.
ALTERNATE DESIGN METHOD (Section 429)
Ties (Sec. 425.7.2)
Load factors and strength reduction factors shall be
Ties shall consist of a closed loop of deformed bar or taken as unity for members designed by the Alternate
deformed wire with spacing in accordance with (a) and Design Method.
(b):
Permissible Service Load Stresses (Section 429.4)
a. Clear spacing of at least
4
()
d ;
3 agg Stresses in concrete shall not exceed the following:
b. Center-to-center spacing shall not exceed the
1. Flexure
least of 16 d b of longitudinal bar, 48 d b of tie
Extreme fiber stress in compression . . . . . .
bar, and smallest dimension of member. 0.45 f ' c
Diameter of tie bar or wire shall be at least (a) or (b):
2. Shear
a. 10 mm Ø enclosing 32 mm Ø or smaller Beams and one-way slabs and footings:
longitudinal bars; Shear carried by concrete, v c . . . . . . . .
b. 12 mm Ø enclosing 36 mm Ø or larger 1
longitudinal bars or bundled longitudinal bars.
11
√ f 'c

17
Reinforced Concrete Design
Maximum shear carried by concrete plus shear v=V / ( b w d )
reinforcement, v c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 where V is design shear force at section considered.
8
√ f 'c
When the reaction, in direction of applied shear,
Joists: introduces compression into the end regions of a
Shear carried by concrete, v c . . . . . . . . member, sections located less than a distance d from
1 face of support shall be permitted to be designed for
11
√ f 'c the same shear v as that computed at a distance d .

Two-way slabs and footings: Shear Stress Carried by Concrete (Section 429.8.4)
Shear carried by concrete, vc .
For members subject to shear and flexure only, shear
1
12 ( )√f '
1+
2
βc c
stress carried by concrete v c shall not exceed
0.09 √ f ' c unless a more detailed calculation is made in
But not greater than . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . accordance with Section 429.8.4.5.
1
6
√ f 'c Spacing Limits for Shear Reinforcement (Section
429.8.5.4)
3. Bearing on loaded area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 f ' c Spacing of shear reinforcement placed perpendicular to
axis of members shall not exceed d /2 nor 600 mm.
Tensile stress in reinforcement f s shall not exceed the
following: 1
When (v − v c ) exceeds
6
√ f ' c, maximum spacing
1. Grade 280 reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . 140 given in Section 429.8.5.4.1 and 429.8.5.4.2 shall be
MPa reduced by one-half.
2. Grade 420 reinforcement or greater and
welded wire fabric (plain or deformed) . . . . . Minimum Shear Reinforcement (Section 429.8.5.5)
170 MPa
3. For flexural reinforcement, ∅ 10 mm or less, A minimum area of shear reinforcement shall be
in one-way slabs of not more than 4 m span provided in all reinforced concrete flexural members
but not greater than 200 MPa . . . . . . . . . . where designed shear stress v is greater than one-half
0.5 f y the permissible shear stress v c carried by concrete
except:
Flexure (Section 429.6)
1. Slabs and footings;
It shall be permitted to take the modular ratio, 2. Concrete joist construction defined by Section
n=Es /E c, as the nearest whole number (but not less 408.8 of this section;
than 6). Except in calculations for deflections, value of 3. Beam with total depth not greater than 250
n for lightweight concrete shall be assumed to be the mm, 2.5 times thickness of flange or one-half
same as for normal weight concrete of the same the width of web, whichever is greatest.
strength.
Minimum shear reinforcement requirements of Section
In doubly reinforced flexural members, an effective 429.8.5.5.1 shall be permitted to be waived if shown
modular ratio of 2 Es / E c shall be used to transform by test that required ultimate flexural and shear
compression reinforcement for stress computations. strength can be developed when shear reinforcement is
Compressive stress in such reinforcement shall not omitted.
exceed permissible tensile stress.
Where shear reinforcement is required by Section
Shear and Torsion (Section 429.8) 429.8.5.5.1 or by analysis, minimum area of shear
reinforcement shall be computed by:
Design shear stress v shall be computed by:

18
Reinforced Concrete Design
A v =b w s/3 f y various types separately. In such computations, v c
shall be included only once.
where b w and s are in mm.
3
Design of Shear Reinforcement (Section 429.8.5.6)
Value of (v − v c ) shall not exceed
8
√ f 'c
Where design shear stress v exceeds shear stress Special Provision for Slabs and Footings (Section
carried by concrete v c, shear reinforcement shall be 429.8.7)
provided in accordance with Section 429.8.5.6.2
through 429.8.5.6.8. Shear capacity of slabs and footings in the vicinity of
concentrated loads or reactions is governed by the
When shear reinforcement perpendicular to axis of more severe of two conditions:
member is used:
Beam action for slab or footing, with a critical section
A v =( v − v c ) bw s /f y (329.8.5.6.2) extending in a plane across the entire width and
located at a distance d from face of concentrated load
When inclined stirrups are used as shear or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or footing
reinforcement: shall be designed in accordance with Section 429.8.1
through 429.8.5.
(v − v c ) bw s
A v= (429.8.5.6.3) Two-way action for slab or footing, with a critical
f s ( sin α +cos α ) section perpendicular to plane of slab and located so
that its perimeter is a minimum, but need not approach
When shear reinforcement consists of a single bar or a closer than d /2 to perimeter of concentrated load or
single group of parallel bars, all bent up at the same
reaction area. For this condition, the slab or footing
distance from the support:
shall be designed in accordance with Sections
429.8.7.2 and 429.8.7.3
(v − v c )b wd
A v=
f s sin α Design shear stress v shall be computed by:
(429.8.5.6.4)
v=V / ( b o d )
1
where (v − v c ) shall not exceed
8
√ f 'c
where V and b o, shall be taken at the critical section
defined in Section 429.8.7.1.2.
When shear reinforcement consists of a series of
parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent-up bars Design shear stress v shall not exceed v c given by Eq.
at different distances from support, required area shall
429.8.7.3 unless shear reinforcement is provided
be computed by Eq. 429.8.5.6.3.

Only the center three-quarters of the inclined portion

of any longitudinal bent bar shall be considered
vc=
1
12 ( )√f '
1+
2
βc c (429.8.7.3)

effective for shear reinforcement.

1
When more than one type of shear reinforcement is
but v c shall not exceed
6
√ f ' c β c is the ratio of long
used to reinforce the same portion of a member, side to short side of concentrated load or reaction area.
required area shall be computed as the sum of the When lightweight aggregate concrete is used, the
modifications of Section 429.8.4.6 shall apply.

19
Reinforced Concrete Design

CHAPTER II
SLAB
Slabs are classified as being one-way or two- slabs can deflect in two directions, that are usually
way. Slabs that primarily deflect in one direction are referred to as two-way slab.
referred to as one-way slab. When slabs are supported
Two-way slabs may be strengthened by the
by columns arranged generally in rows so that the
addition of beams between the columns, by thickening
20
Reinforced Concrete Design
the slabs around the columns (drop panels) and by
flaring the columns under the slabs (column capitals).
Flat Plates are solid concrete slabs of uniform
depths that transfer loads directly to the supporting
columns without the aid of beam or capitals or drop
panels. This can be quickly constructed due to their
simple formwork and reinforcing bar arrangements.
They need the smallest overall story heights to provide
specified headroom requirements, and they also give
the most flexibility in the arrangement of columns and
partitions. They also provide little obstruction to light
and have high fire resistance because there are few
sharp corners where spalling of the corners might
occur.
For flat plates there may be a problem in
transferring the shear at the perimeter of the columns.
In other words, there is a danger that the columns may
punch through the slabs. As a result, it is frequently
necessary to increase column sizes or slab thickness or
to use shearheads. Shearheads consists of steel I or
channel shapes places in the slab over the columns.
Flat Slabs include two-way reinforced
concrete slabs with capitals, drop panels, or both.
These slabs are very satisfactory for heavy loads and To design a slab any procedure that satisfies
long spans. Although the formwork is more expensive both equilibrium and geometric compatibility,
that for flat plates. provided that every section has a strength at least equal
to the required strength and that serviceability
Two-way Slab with Beams is usually used
conditions are satisfied. Two procedures for flexural
where its costs are less than the costs of flat plates or
analysis and design of two-way floor systems are used,
flat slabs. In other words, when the loads or spans or
these are the Direct-Design Method and the
both become quite large, the slab thickness and column
Equivalent-Frame Design Method.
size required for flat plates or flat slabs are of such
magnitude that it is more economical to use two-way
In Direct-Design Method, the calculation of
slabs with beams, despite of the higher formwork
moments is based on the total statical moment, the slab
costs.
is considered panel by panel, and is used to compute
the total moment in each panel and in each direction.
The statical moment then is divided between positive
and negative moments, and these are further divided
between middle strips and column strips.

In Equivalent-Frame Design Method, the slab

is divided into a series of two-dimensional frames (in
each direction), and the positive and negative moments
are known, they are divided between middle strips and
column strips in exactly the same way as in the direct-
design method.

ONE-WAY SLAB

Reinforce concrete slabs are large flat plates that are

supported at its sides by reinforced concrete beams,
walls, columns, steel beams, or by the ground. If a slab
21
Reinforced Concrete Design
is supported on two opposite sides only, they are For non-prestressed composite slabs made of a
referred to a one-way slab since the bending occurs in combination of lightweight and normal weight
one direction only. If the slab is supported on all four concrete that are shored during construction, where the
sides, it is called two-way slab since the bending lightweight concrete is in compression, the modifier of
occurs in both direction. Section 407.3.1.1.2 shall apply.

If a rectangular slab is supported in all four sides but The thickness of a concrete floor finish shall be
the long side is two or more times than the shorter permitted to be included in ℎ if it is placed
side, the slab will act as a one-way slab, with bending monolithically with the floor slab, or if the floor finish
occur in the short direction. is designed to be composite with the floor slab in
accordance with Section 416.4.
A one-way slab is considered as a wide, shallow,
rectangular beam. The reinforcing steel is usually Calculated Deflection Limits (Section 407.3.2)
spaced uniformly over its width. One-way slabs are
analyzed by considering one-meter strip, which is For non-prestressed slabs not satisfying Section
assumed independent of the adjacent strips. 407.3.1 and for prestressed slabs, immediate and time-
dependent deflections shall be calculated in
accordance with Section 424.2 and shall not exceed the
limits in Section 424.2.2.
DESIGN CODES
For non-prestressed composite concrete slabs
Minimum Slab Thickness satisfying Section 407.3.1, deflection occurring after
the member becomes composite need not be
For sol,lid non-prestressed slabs not supporting or calculated. Deflections occurring before the member
attached to partitions or other construction likely to be becomes composite shall be investigated, unless the
damaged by large deflection, overall slab thickness, h, pre-composite thickness also satisfies Section 407.3.1.
shall not be less than the limits in Table 407.3.1.1,
unless the calculated deflection limits of Section Design Strength (Section 407.5)
407.3.2 are satisfied.
For each applicable factored load combination design
Table 407.3.1.1 strength at all sections shall satisfy ∅ S n ≥ U including
Minimum Thickness of Solid Non-Prestressed One- (a) and (b):
way Slabs

Support Condition Minimum, h[1] a. ∅ M n ≥ M u

Simply Supported l / 20 b. ∅ V n ≥ V u
One End Continuous l / 24
Both Ends Continuous l / 28 Interaction between load effects shall be considered.
Cantilever l / 10
[1]
Expression applicable for normal weight and f y = 420 MPa. For M n shall be calculated in accordance with Section
other cases, minimum h shall be modified in accordance with 422.3.
Section 407.3.1.1.1 through 407.1.1.3, as appropriate.
V n shall be calculated in accordance with Section
422.5.
For f y other than 420 MPa, the expressions in Table
fy Reinforcement Limits (Section 407.6)
407.3.1.1 shall be multiplied by (0.4 + ).
700
A minimum area of flexural reinforcement A s ,min shall
For non-prestressed slabs made of lightweight concrete be provided in accordance with Table 407.6.1.1.
having wc in the range of 1440 to 1840 kg/m 3, the
expression in Table 407.3.1.1 shall be multiplied by Table 407.6.1.1
the greater of (a) and (b): A s ,min for Non-Prestressed One-Way Slabs
a. 1.65 – 0.0003wc Reinforcement f y,
b. 1.09 A s ,min
Type MPa
22
Reinforced Concrete Design
Deformed bars ¿ 420 0.0020 A g Concrete cover for reinforcement shall be in
0.0018 ×420 accordance with Section 420.6.1
Deformed bars Ag
Greate fy
or welded wire ≥ 420 r of:
reinforcement Development length of deformed and prestressed
0.0014 A g reinforcement shall be in accordance with Section
425.4.
Minimum Shear Reinforcement (Section 407.6.3)
Splices of deformed reinforcement shall be in
A minimum area of shear reinforcement, A v ,min shall accordance with Section 425.5.
be provided in all regions where V u >∅ V c. For precast
prestressed hollow-core slabs with untopped ℎ>315 Bundled bars shall be in accordance with Section
mm, A v ,min shall be provided in all regions where 425.6.
V u >0.5 ∅ V cw. If shear reinforcement is required,
Reinforcement Spacing (Section 407.7.2)
A v ,min shall be in accordance with Section 409.6.3.3.
Minimum spacing s shall be in accordance with
Minimum Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement Section 425.2
(Section 407.6.4)
Maximum spacing s of deformed reinforcement shall
Reinforcement shall be provided to resist shrinkage be the lesser of 3h and 450 mm.
and temperature stresses in accordance with Section
424.4 Spacing of reinforcement required by Section
407.5.2.3 shall not exceed the lesser of 5h and 450
Reinforcement to resist shrinkage and temperature mm.
stresses shall be provided in one-way slabs in the
direction perpendicular to the flexural reinforcement in
accordance with:
DESIGN OF ONE-WAY SLAB
a. Deformed reinforcement to resist shrinkage
and temperature stresses shall conform to Steps in the Design of One-way Slabs
Table 420.2.2.4(a) and shall be in accordance
with Sections 424.4.3.2 through 424.4.3.5 1.Identify the uniform floor pressure (Pa) to be carried
b. The ratio of deformed shrinkage and by the slab. This load may consist of:
temperature reinforcement area to gross a. Live load pressure
concrete area shall satisfy the limits in Table b.Dead load pressure
424.4.3.2 c. Ceiling load and other attachments below
the slab
Table 424.4.3.2 2.Determine the minimum slab thickness h. If
Minimum Ratios of Deformed Shrinkage and necessary adjust this value depending to your
Temperature Reinforcement Area to Gross Concrete judgment.
Area 3.Compute the weight of slab (Pa)
4.Calculate the factored moment (Mu) to be carried by
Reinforcement f y, Minimum the slab.
Type MPa Reinforcement Ratio Uniform load, wu = Factored pressure x 1m
Deformed bars < 420 0.0020 5.Compute the effective depth, d:
Deformed bars 0.0018 ×420 d = h – concrete cover – ½ (main bar dia.)
Greater fy
or welded wire ≥ 420 6.Compute the required steel ratio ρ:
of:
reinforcement 0.0014 2
Solve for ω from Mu = ϕ f ' c b d ω (1− 0.59 ω)
ω f 'c
The spacing of deformed shrinkage and temperature Solve for ρ from ρ=
fy
reinforcement shall not exceed the lesser of 5h and 450
mm. And Solve for ρmax and ρmin
If ρ is less than ρmax and greater than ρmin ,
Reinforcement Detailing (Section 407.7) use ρ .

23
Reinforced Concrete Design
If ρ is greater than ρmax , increase the depth A drop panel in a non-prestressed slab, where used to
of slab to ensure ductile failure. reduce the minimum required thickness in accordance
If ρ is less than ρmin , use ρ=ρmin. with Section 408.3.1.1 or the quantity of deformed
negative moment reinforcement at a support in
7.Compute the required main bar spacing: accordance with Section 408.5.2.2, shall satisfy (a) and
(b):
A s=ρbd=ρ ( 1000 ) d
Check for minimum steel area, A s ,min a. The drop panel shall project below the slab at
A¯¿ least ¼ of the adjacent slab thickness;
Spacing, S= × 1000 ¿
As b. The drop panel shall extend in each direction
Use the smallest of the following for the main from the centerline of support a distance not
bar spacing: less than 1/6 the span length measured from
a. S center-to-center of supports in that direction.
b. 3 ×ℎ
A shear cap, where used to increase the critical section
c. 450 mm
for shear at a slab-column joint, shall project below the
8.Temperature bars:
slab soffit and extend horizontally from the face of the
A st =ρt bℎ
column a distance at least equal to the thickness of the
A projection below the slab soffit.
St = ¯¿ ×1000 ¿
As
Check for minimum steel area Minimum Slab Thickness (Section 408.3.1)
Use the smallest of the following for the
temperature bar spacing: For non-prestressed slabs without interior beams
a. S spanning between supports on all sides, having a
b. 5 ×ℎ maximum ratio of long-to-short span of 2, overall slab
c. 450 m thickness ℎ shall not be less than value in (a) or (b),
unless the calculated deflection limits on Section
408.3.2 are satisfied:
TWO-WAY SLAB
a. Slabs without drop panels as given in Section
Two-way slabs bend under load into dish- 408.2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125 mm
shaped surfaces, so there is bending in both principal b. Slabs drop panels as given in Section 408.2.4 .
directions. As a result, they must be reinforced in both . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100 mm
directions by layers of bars that are perpendicular to
each other. A theoretical elastic analysis for such slabs
is a very complex problem due to their highly
indeterminate nature. Table 408.3.1.1
Minimum Thickness of Non-Prestressed Two-way
DESIGN CODES Slabs without Interior Beams (mm)[1]

Without drop panels With drop panels

A slab system shall be permitted to be designed by any
fy Int. Int.
procedure satisfying equilibrium and geometric Exterior panels Exterior Panels
Panel Panel
compatibility, provided that design strength at every MP
W/out With W/out With
section is at least equal to required strength, and all a
edge edge Edge Edge
serviceability requirements are satisfied. The direct beams beams Beams Beams
design method of Section 408.10 or the equivalent 280 l n /33 l n /36 l n /36 l n /36 l n /40 l n /40
frame method of Section 408.11 is permitted for 420 l n /30 l n /33 l n /33 l n /33 l n /36 l n /36
design where applicable.
520 l n /28 l n /31 l n /31 l n /31 l n /34 l n /34
The effects of concentrated loads and openings shall
For non-prestressed slabs with beams spanning
be considered in design. Slabs prestressed with an
average effective compressive stress less than 0.9 MPa between supports on all sides, overall slab thickness ℎ
shall be designed as non-prestressed slabs. shall satisfy the limits of Section 408.3.2 are satisfied

24
Reinforced Concrete Design
a. Non-prestressed slabs not satisfying Section
408.3.1;
b. Non-prestressed slabs without interior beams
spanning between the supports on all sides and
having a ratio of long-to-short span exceeding
2.0;
Table 408.3.1.2 c. Prestressed slabs.
Minimum Thickness of Non-Prestressed Two-way
Slabs with Beams Spanning between Supports on All DESIGN STRENGTH (Section 408.5.1)
Sides
For each applicable factored load combination, design
α fm[1] Minimum h , mm
strength shall satisfy ∅ S n ≥ U , including (a) through
α fm ≤ 0.2 Section 408.3.1.1 applies (a)
(d). Interaction between load effects shall be

0.22< α fmGreater
≤2.0
l n 0.8
fy
1400 ( ) (b)[2][3]
considered.

of: 36+5 β ( α fm −0.2 ) a. ∅ M n ≥ M u at all sections along the span in

125 (c) each direction;
b. ∅ M n ≥ γ f M sc within b slab as defined in

α fm >2.0 Greater
(
l n 0.8
fy
1400 ) (d)[2][3]
Section 408.4.2.3.3;
c. ∅ V n ≥ V u at all sections along the span in
of: 36+ 9 β each direction for one-way shear;
90 (e)
d. ∅ v n ≥ v u at the critical sections defined in
[1]
α fm is the average of α f for all beams on edges of a panel and
Section 408.4.4.1 for two-way shear.
α f shall be calculated in accordance with Section 408.10.2.7
[2]
l n is the clear span in the long direction, measured face-to-face ∅ shall be in accordance with Section 421.2.
of beams (mm)
[3]
β is the ratio of clear spans in long to short directions of slabs. If shear heads are provided, Section 422.6.9 and
408.5.1.1 (a) shall be satisfied in the vicinity of the
column. Beyond each arm of the shear head, Section
At discontinuous edges of slabs conforming to Section
408.5.1.1 (a) through (d) shall apply.
408.3.1.2, an edge beam with α f ≥ 0.80 shall be
provided, or the minimum thickness required by (b) or Mn shall be calculated in accordance with Section
(d) of Table 408.3.1.2 shall be increased by at least 10 422.3. To calculate Mn for non-prestressed slabs with a
percent in the panel with a discontinuous edge. drop panel, the thickness of the drop panel below the
slab shall not be assumed to be greater than ¼ the
A column strip is a design strip with a width on each distance from the edge of drop panel to the face of
side of a column centerline equal to the lesser of 0.25 l 2 column or column spiral.
and 0.25l 2. A column strip shall include beams within
the strip, if present. Design shear strength of slabs in the vicinity of
columns, concentrated loads, or reaction areas shall be
A middle strip is a design strip bounded by two the more severe of Section 408.5.3.1.1 and 408.5.3.1.2.
column strips.
For one-way shear, where each critical section to be
A panel is bounded by column, beam, or wall investigated extends in a plane across the entire slab
centerlines on all sides. width, Vn shall be calculated in accordance with
Section 422.5.
Calculated Deflection Limits (Section 408.3.2)
For two-way shear, vn shall be calculated accordance
Immediate and time-dependent deflections shall be with Section 422.6.
calculated in accordance with Section 424.2 and shall
not exceed the limits in Section 424.2. for two-way
slabs given in (a) through (c):
REINFORCEMENT LIMITS (Section 408.6)

25
Reinforced Concrete Design
A minimum area of flexural reinforcement, Asmin shall Spacing
be provided near the tension face in the direction of the Parallel to between
2d
span under consideration in accordance with Table column face vertical legs
408.6.1.1 of stirrups

TABLE 408.6.1.1
As,min for Non-Prestressed Two-Way Slabs DIRECT DESIGN METHOD (Section 408.10)

Reinforcement Fy, As,min Two-way slabs satisfying the limits in Section

Type (MPA (mm2) 408.10.2 shall be permitted to be designed in
) accordance with this section. Circular or regular
Deformed bars < 420 0.0020 Ag polygon-shaped supports shall be treated as square
Deformed bars 0.0018 ×420 supports with the same areas.
Greater Ag
or welded wire ≥ 420 fy
of: Limitations for Use of Direct Design Method (Section
reinforcement 0.0014 A g
408.10.2)

There shall be at least three continuous spans in each

FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT SPACING direction.
(Section 408.7.2)
Successive span lengths measured center-to-center of
Minimum spacing s shall be in accordance with supports in each direction shall not differ by more than
Section 425.2. one-third the longer span.

For non-prestressed solid slabs, maximum spacing s of Panels shall be rectangular, with the ratio of longer to
deformed longitudinal reinforcement shall be the lesser shorter panel dimensions, measured center-to-center of
of 2h and 450 mm at critical sections, and the lesser of supports, not to exceed 2.
3h and 450 mm at other sections.
Column offset shall not exceed 10 percent of the span
in direction of offset from either axis between
centerlines of successive columns.
SHEAR REINFORCEMENT – STIRRUPS
(Section 408.7.6) All loads shall be due to gravity only and uniformly
over an entire panel.
Single-leg, simple-U, multiple-U and closed stirrups
shall be permitted as shear reinforcement. Stirrup Unfactored live load shall not exceed two times the
anchorage and geometry shall be in accordance with unfactored dead load.
Section 425.7.1. If stirrups are provided, location and
For a panel with beams between supports on all sides,
spacing shall be in accordance with Table 408.7.6.3
shall be satisfied for beams in the two perpendicular
Table 408.7.6.3 directions.
First Stirrup Location and Spacing Limits 2
α f 1 l2
Direction of Description Maximum 0.2 ≤ 2
≤5.0
α f 2 l1
Measurement of Distance or
Measurement Spacing, mm
Distance from Where α f 1 and α f 2 are calculated by
column face d /2
Perpendicular E cb I b
to first stirrup
to column
Spacing
αf =
face E cs I s
between d /2
stirrups

26
Reinforced Concrete Design
TOTAL FACTORED STATIC MOMENT FOR A FACTORED MOMENTS IN COLUMN STRIPS
SPAN (Section 408.10.3) (Section 408.10.5)

Total factored static moment, Mo, for a span shall be The column strip shall resist the portion of interior
calculated for a strip bounded laterally by the panel negative moment in accordance with Table 408.10.5.1
centerline on each side of the centerline of supports.
Table 408.10.5.1
2 Portion of Interior Negative Moment in Column Strip
q u l2 ln
M o=
8 α f 1 l2 l 2 /l 1
l1 0.5 1.0 2.0
l n is the clear span length the direction that moments
0 0.75 0.75 0.75
are considered, shall extend from face to face of
≥1.0 0.90 0.75 0.45
columns, capitals, brackets, or walls, and shall be at
least 0.65 l 1. If the traverse span of panels on either The column strip shall resist the portion of exterior
side of the centerline of supports varies, l 2 shall be negative moment in accordance with Table 408.10.5.2
taken as the average of adjacent transverse spans.
Table 408.10.5.2
DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL FACTORED Portion of Exterior Negative Moment in Column Strip
STATIC MOMENT (Section 408.10.4)
α f 1 l2 l 2 /l 1
βt
In an interior span, M o shall be distributed as follows: l1 0.5 1.0 2.0
0.65 M o to negative moment and 0.35 M o to positive 0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0
moment. In an end span, M o shall be distributed in ≥2.5 0.75 0.75 0.75
0 1.0 1.0 1.0
accordance with Table 408.10.4.2 ≥ 1.0
≥2.5 0.90 0.75 0.45
Note: Linear interpolations shall be made between values
Table 408.10.4.2
shown, β t is calculated using the equation below where C is
Distribution Coefficients for End Spans
calculated using the equation below.
Slab W/out
Slab Beams Ecb C
Exterior
with Between Exterior βt=
Beam Interior Edge 2 Ecs I s
Edge Un-
s B/w Supports fully Un-
restraine
all W/ With restraine

( )
d 3
x x y
Sup- out Edge d C=∑ 1− 0.63
ports Edge Bea y 3
Beam m
Interior 0.75 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.65
The column strip shall resist the portion of positive
Negativ
moment in accordance with Table 408.10.5.5
e
Positive 0.63 0.57 0.52 0.50 0.35
Table 408.10.5.5
Exterior 0 0.16 0.26 0.30 0.65
Negativ Portion of Positive Moment in Column Strip
e α f 1 l2 l 2 /l 1
Modification of negative and positive factored l1 0.5 1.0 2.0
moments by up to 10 percent shall be permitted if the 0 0.60 0.60 0.60
total factored moment for a panel, M o, in the direction ≥1.0 0.90 0.75 0.45
considered is at least that calculated. Moment
redistribution in accordance with Section 406.6.5 is not
permitted. FACTORED MOMENTS IN BEAMS (Section
408.10.5.7)

27
Reinforced Concrete Design
Beams between supports shall resist the portion of The gravity load moment to be transferred between
column strip M u in accordance with Table slab and edge column in accordance with Section
408.10.5.7.1 408.4.2.3 shall not less than 0.3 M o.

Table 408.10.5.7.1 Factored Shear in Slab Systems with Beams (Section

Portion of Column Strip M u in Beams 408.10.8)

α f 1 l2 Distribution Beams between supports shall resist the portion of

l1 Coefficient shear in accordance with Table 408.10.8.1 caused by
0 0 factored loads on tributary areas in accordance with
≥ 1.0 0.85 Figure 408.10.8.1

FACTORED MOMENTS IN MIDDLE STRIPS Table 408.10.8.1

(Section 408.10.6) Portion of Shear Resisted by Beam

That portion of negative and positive factored ( α f 1 l2 /l1) Distribution Coefficient

moments not resisted by column strips shall be 0 0
proportionately assigned to corresponding half middle ≥ 1.0 1.0
strips. Each middle strip shall resist the sum of the
moments assigned to its two half middle strips. A
middle strip adjacent and parallel to a wall supported
edge shall resist twice the moment assigned to the half
middle strip corresponding to the first row of interior
supports.

FACTORED MOMENTS IN COLUMNS AND

WALLS (Section 408.10.7)

Columns and walls built integrally with a slab system

shall resist moments caused by factored loads on the
slab system. At an interior support, columns or walls
above and below the slab shall resist the factored
moment in direct proportion to their stiffnesses unless
a general analysis is made.
In addition to shears calculated according to Section
M SC =0.07 [ ( q Du +0.5 q lu ) l 2 l n2 −q Du ' l 2 ' ( l n ) 2 ] 408.10.8.1, beams shall resist shears caused by
factored loads applied directly to the beams, including
Where q Du ' , l 2 ' , and l n ' , refer to the shorter span. the weight of the beam stem above and below the slab.

28
Reinforced Concrete Design

CHAPTER III
FLEXURAL ANALYSIS OF BEAMS
In this section it is assumed that a small yield strength, compute the resistance or
transverse load is placed on a concrete beam with strength. In analysis there should be one
tensile reinforcing and that the load is gradually unique answer.
increased in magnitude until the beam fails. As this 2. Design, given a factored design moment,
takes place we will find that the beam will go through normally designated as M u, select a suitable
three distinct stages before collapse occurs. These are: cross-section, including dimensions, concrete
(1) the uncracked concrete stage, (2) the concrete strength, reinforcement, and so on. In design
cracked-elastic stresses range, and (3) the ultimate there are many possible solutions.
strength stage.

Uncracked Concrete Stage, at small loads

when the tensile stresses are less than the modulus of CRACKING MOMENT
rupture (the bending tensile stress at which the
concrete begins to crack), the entire cross section of The stress in the concrete at any point a
the beam resists bending, with compression on one distance y from the centroid of the cross-section can
side and tension on the other. be determined from the following flexure formula in
which M is the bending moment, which is equal to or
Concrete Cracked-Elastic Stresses Stage, as less than the cracking moment of the section, and I g is
the load is increased after the modulus of rupture of the the gross moment of inertia of the cross section:
beam is exceeded, cracks begin to develop in the
bottom of the beam. The moment at which these cracks My
begin to form-that is, when the tensile stress in the f=
Ig
bottom of the beam equals the modulus of rupture-is
referred to as the cracking moment, M cr . Section 419.2.3 says that f r may be taken as
Beam Failure-Ultimate Strength Stage, as the 7.5 λ √ f ' c for normal weight concrete with f ' c in psi
load is increased further so that the compressive or as 0.62 λ √ f ' c when f ' c is in SI units. The cracking
stresses are greater than one-half of f ' c the tensile moment is as follows:
cracks move further upward, as does the neutral axis,
and the concrete stresses begin to change appreciably f r Ig
M cr =
form a straight line. For this initial discussion it is yt
assumed that the reinforcing bars have yielded.
ELASTIC STRESSES-CONCRETE CRACKED
Two different types of problems arise in the
study of reinforced concrete: The cracking moment of a beam is normally
quite small compared to the service load moment.
1. Analysis, given a cross-section, concrete Thus, when the service loads are applied, the bottom of
strength, reinforcement size and location, and the beam cracks.

29
Reinforced Concrete Design
On the tensile side of the beam as assumption stresses in the concrete and the steel are computed with
of perfect bond is made between the reinforcing bars the flexure formula.
and the concrete. Thus, the strain in the concrete and in
the steel will be equal at equal distances from the Compression steel is generally thought to be
neutral axis. But if the strains in the two materials at a uneconomical, but there are occasional situations
particular point are the same, their stresses cannot be where its use is quite advantageous. Compression steel
the same since they have different moduli of elasticity. is quite in reducing long-term deflections, and such
Thus, their stresses are in proportion to the ratio of steel is useful for positioning stirrups or shear
their moduli of elasticity. The ratio of the steel reinforcing.
modulus to the concrete modulus is called the modular
ratio. The transformed area of the compression side
equals the gross compression area of the concrete plus
Es 2 n A ' s minus the area of the holes in the concrete
n= '
Ec (1 A s ), which theoretically should not have been
included in the concrete part. This equals the
If the modular ratio for a particular beam is compression concrete area plus (2 n −1) A ' s.
10, the stress in the steel will be 10 times the stress in Similarly, 2 n −1 is used in the moment of inertial
the concrete at the same distance from the neutral axis. calculations. The stresses in the concrete bars are
determined by multiplying 2 n times the stresses in the
concrete located at the same distance from the neutral
axis.

ULTIMATE OR NOMIAL FLEXURAL

MOMENTS

In this section a very brief introduction to the

calculation of the ultimate or nominal flexural strength
of beams is presented. To obtain the nominal or
theoretical moment strength of a beam the simple steps
to follow are used:

In this figure, the steel bars are replaced with 1. Compute total tensile force T = A s f y .
an equivalent area of fictitious concrete (n A s) , which 2. Equate total compression force
supposedly can resist tension. This area is referred to C=0.85 f ' c ab to A s f y and solve for a . In
as the transformed area. The resulting revised cross- this expression ab is the assumed area stressed
section of transformed section is handled by the usual in compression at 0.85 f ' c.
methods for elastic homogeneous beams. 3. Calculate the distance between the centers of
gravity of T and C . (For a rectangular section
The first step in determining the stresses and
it equals d −a /2).
resisting moments for reinforced concrete beams is to
locate the neutral axis, which is assumed to be located 4. Determine M n which equals T or C times the
a distance x from the compression surface of the beam. distance between the centers of gravities.
The moment of the compression area of the beam
cross-section about the neutral axis must equal the
moment of the tensile area about the neutral axis. The
resulting quadratic equation can be solved by
completing the squares.

After the neutral axis is located, the moment of

inertia of the transformed section is calculated, and the

30
Reinforced Concrete Design

CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
OF BEAMS
WORKING-STRESS AND WORKING - Underreinforced Design is a design in which the steel
STRENGTH DESIGN METHODS reinforcement is lesser than what is required for
balanced condition. If the ultimate load is approached,
From the early 1900s until the early 1960s, the steel will begin to yield although the compression
nearly all reinforced concrete design in the United concrete is still understressed. If the load is further
States was performed by the working-stress design increased, the steel will continue to elongate, resulting
method (also called allowable-stress design or in appreciable deflections and large visible cracks in
straight-line design). In this method, frequently the tensile concrete. Failure under this condition is
referred to as WSD, the dead and live load to be ductile and will give warning to the user of the
supported, called working loads or service loads, were structure to decrease the load.
first estimated. Then the members of the structure were
proportioned so that stresses calculated by transformed Overreinforced Design is a design in which the steel
area did not exceeds certain permissible or allowable reinforcement is more than what is required for
values. balanced condition. If the beam is overreinforced, the
steel will not yield before failure. As the load is
Since 1963 the ultimate-strength design increased, deflections are not noticeable although the
method has rapidly gained popularity because: (1) it compression concrete is highly stressed, and failure
makes use of a more rational approach than does occurs suddenly without warning to the user of the
WSD; (2) a more realistic consideration of safety is structure.
used; and (3) it provides more economical designs.
With this method (now called strength design) the LOCATION OF REINFORCEMENT
working dead and live loads are multiplied by certain
factor loads (equivalent to safety factors) and the Concrete cracks due to tension and (as a
resulting values are called factored loads result) reinforcement is required where flexure, axial
loads or shrinkage effects cause tensile stresses. A
Balanced Design refers to a design so proportioned uniformly loaded, simple supported beam deflects as
that the maximum stresses in concrete (with strain of shown in Fig. 5-19a and has the moment diagram
0.003) and steel (with strain of f y / Es ) are reached shown in Fig. 5-19b. Because this beam is in positive
simultaneously once the ultimate load is reached, moment throughout, tensile flexural stresses and
causing them to fail simultaneously. cracks are developed along the bottom of the beam.
Longitudinal reinforcement is required to resist these
31
Reinforced Concrete Design
tensile stresses and is placed close to the bottom side Minimum Depth of Non-Prestressed Beams
of the beam, as shown in Fig. 5-19c. Because the
moments are greatest at midspan, more reinforcement Support Condition Minimum, h [1]
is required at the midspan that at the ends, and it may Simply Supported l/16
not be necessary to extend all the bars into the One End Continuous l/18.5
supports. Both Ends Continuous l/21
Cantilever l/8
[1]
Expressions applicable for normal weight concrete and
f y =420 MPa . For other cases, minimum ℎ shall be modified
in accordance with Sections 409.3.1.1.1 through 409.3.1.1.3, as
appropriate.

For f y other than 420 MPa, the expressions in Table

(
409.3.1.1 shall be multiplied by 0.4 +
fy
700
.)
A cantilever beam develops negative moment For non-prestressed beams made of lightweight
throughout and deflects as shown in Fig. 5-20 with the concrete having w c in the range of 1440 tto 1840
concave surface downward, so that the flexural kg/m3, the expressions in Table 409.3.1.1 shall be
tensions and cracks develop on the top surface. In this multiplied by the greater of (a) and (b):
case, the reinforcement is placed near the top surface,
as shown in Fig. 5-20c. Because the moments are a. 1.65 −0.0003 wc
largest at the fixed end, more reinforcement is required b. 1.09
there than at any other point.
For none-prestressed composite beams made of a
combination of lightweight and normal-weight
concrete shored during construction, and where the
lightweight concrete is in compression, the modifier of
Section 409.3.1.1.2 shall apply.

The thickness of a concrete floor finish shall be

permitted to be included in ℎ if it is placed
monolithically with the beam, or if the floor finish is
designed to be composite with the beam in accordance
with Section 416.4
DESIGN CODES FACTORED MOMENT (Section 409.4.2)
Design properties for concrete shall be selected to be
For beams built integrally with supports, M u at the
in accordance with Section 419. Design properties for
support shall be permitted to be calculated at the face
steel reinforcement shall be selected to be in
of support.
accordance with Section 420. Materials, design, and
detailing requirements for embedments in concrete
FACTORED SHEAR (Section 409.4.3)
shall be in accordance with Section 420.7.
For beams built integrally with supports, V u at the
Minimum Beam Depth (Section 409.3.1)
support shall be permitted to be calculated at the face
For non-prestressed beams not supporting or attached of support. Sections between the face of support and a
to partitions or other construction likely to be damaged critical section located d from the face of support for
by large deflections, overall beam depth ℎ shall satisfy non-prestressed beams and ℎ /2 from the face of
the limits in Table 409.3.1.1, unless the calculated support for prestressed beams shall be permitted to be
deflection limits of Section 409.3.2 are satisfied. designed for V u at that critical section if (a) through
(c) are satisfied:
Table 409.3.1.1

32
Reinforced Concrete Design
a. Support reaction, in direction of applied shear, flange in tension, the value of b w shall be the lesser of
introduces compression into the end region of b f and 2 bw .
the beam;
b. Loads are applied at or near the top of surface 0.25 √ f ' c
of the beam; a. bw d
c. No concentrated load occurs between the face
fy
of support and critical section. 1.4
b. b d
fy w
FACTORED TORSION (Section 409.4.4)
If A s provided at every section is at least one-third
For beams built integrally with supports, T u at the greater than A s required by analysis, Sections
support shall be permitted to be calculated at the face 409.6.1.1 and 409.6.1.2 need not be satisfied.
of support.
MINIMUM SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (Section
Sections between the face of support and a critical 409.6.3)
section located d from the face of support for non-
prestressed beams or ℎ /2 from the face of support for A minimum area of shear reinforcement, A v ,min, shall
prestressed beams shall be permitted to be designed for be provided in all regions where V u >0.5 ∅ V c except
T u at that critical section unless a concentrated
for the cases in Table 409.6.3.1, where at least A v ,min
torsional moment occurs within this distance. In that
shall be provided where V u >∅ V c.
case, the critical section shall be taken at the face of
the support.
Table 409.6.3.1
It shall be permitted to reduce T u in accordance with Cases Where A v ,min is not Required if
Section 422.7.3. 0.5 ∅ V c <V u ≤ ∅ V c

Beam Type Conditions

Shallow Depth ℎ ≤ 250 mm
Integral with ℎ ≤ greater of 2.5 t f ∨0.5 b w
Slab and
MOMENT (Section 409.5.2) ℎ ≤ 600 mm
Constructed
If Pu <0.10 f ' c A g, M n shall be calculated in with steel
fibered
accordance with Section 422.3. If Pu ≥0.10 f ' c A g ,
reinforced
M n shall be calculated in accordance with Section normal-weight
422.4. concrete
ℎ ≤ 600 mm
conforming to
and
SHEAR (Section 409.5.3) Sections
426.4.1.5.1 (a), V u ≤ 0.17∅ √ f ' c b w d
V n shall be calculated in accordance with Section 426.4.2.2 (d),
422.5. For composite concrete beams, horizontal shear and
426.12.5.1 (a)
strength V nℎ shall be calculated in accordance with
and with
Section 416.4. f ' c ≤ 40 MPa
REINFORCEMENT LIMITS (Section 409.6) One-way joist In accordance with Section 409.8
system
A minimum area of flexural reinforcement A s ,min shall
Table 409.6.3.3
be provided at every section where tension
Required A v ,min
reinforcements is required by analysis. A s ,min shall be
the greater of (a) and (b), except as provided in Section Beam A v ,min /S
409.6.1.3. For a statically determinate beam with a Type

33
Reinforced Concrete Design
Non- Greater ' bw d 3ℎ
prestressed of:
0.062 f c
f yt
√ a ≤ 0.33 √ f ' c bw d
Lesser
2 4
and of:
600
prestressed bw d 3ℎ
with 0.35 b Lesser
f yt ¿ 0.33 √ f ' c b w d 4 8
A ps f sc <0.40 ( A ps + f pu + A s + f y ) of:
300
bw
0.062 √ f
'
c c Inclined stirrups and longitudinal bars bent to act as
Grea f yt
shear reinforcement shall be spaced so that every 45-
ter
Prestressed bw degree line, extending d /2 toward the reaction from
Lesser of:
with 0.35 d mid-depth of member to longitudinal tension
A ps f sc ≥ 0.40 ( A of:
ps + f pu + A s+ f y )
f yt
reinforcement, shall be crossed by at least one line of

√
A ps f pu d shear reinforcement.
e
80 f yt d bw Transverse reinforcement shall be provided throughout
the distance where longitudinal compression
reinforcement is required. Lateral support of
longitudinal compression reinforcement shall be
REINFORCEMENT SPACING (Section 409.7.2) provided by closed stirrups or hoops in accordance
with Sections 409.7.6.4.2 through 409.7.6.4.4.
Minimum spacing s shall be in accordance with
Section 425.2. For non-prestressed and Class C Size of transverse reinforcement shall be at least (a) or
prestressed beams with ℎ exceeding 900 mm, (b). Deformed wire or welded wire reinforcement of
longitudinal skin reinforcement shall be uniformly equivalent area shall be permitted.
distributed on both side faces of the beam for a
distance ℎ /2 from the tension face. Spacing of skin a. 10 mm Ø for longitudinal bars 32 mm Ø and
reinforcement shall not exceed s given in Section smaller;
424.3.2, where c c is the clear cover from the skin b. 12 mm Ø for longitudinal bars 36 mm Ø and
reinforcement to the side face. It shall be permitted to larger and for longitudinal bundled bars.
include skin reinforcement in strength calculations if a
Spacing of transverse reinforcement shall not exceed
strain compatibility analysis is made.
the least of (a) through (c):

a. 16 d b of longitudinal reinforcement;
TRANSVERSE REINFORCEMENT (Section b. 48 d b of transverse reinforcement;
409.7.6) c. Least dimension of beam.

Transverse reinforcement shall be in accordance with DEEP BEAMS (Section 409.9)

this section. The most restrictive requirements shall
apply. Details of transverse reinforcement shall be in Deep beams are members that are loaded on one-face
accordance with Section 425.7. and supported on the opposite face such that strut-like
compression elements can develop between the loads
If required, shear reinforcement shall be provided and supports and that satisfy (a) or (b):
using stirrups, hoops, or longitudinal bent bars.
Maximum spacing of shear reinforcement shall be in a. Clear span does not exceed four times the
accordance with Table 409.7.6.2.2. overall member depth, ℎ:
b. Concentrated loads exist within a distance 2 ℎ
Table 409.7.6.2.2 from the face of the support.
Maximum Spacing of Shear Reinforcement
Dimensional Limits (Section 409.9.2)
Maximum s, mm
Vs Non- Prestresse Deep beam dimensions shall be selected such that:
prestressed d Beam
Beam V u ≤ 0.83∅ √ f ' c bw d
34
Reinforced Concrete Design
Reinforcement Limits (Section 409.9.3) The minimum area of flexural tension reinforcement,
A s ,min, shall be determined in accordance with Section
Distributed reinforcement along the side face of deep 409.6.1.
beams shall be at least that required in (a) and (b):
Reinforcement Detailing (Section 409.9.4)
a. The area of distributed reinforcement
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the Minimum spacing for longitudinal reinforcement shall
beam, A v shall be at least 0.0025 b w s, where be in accordance with Section 425.2.
s is the spacing of the distributed transverse
reinforcement; Spacing of distributed reinforcement required in
b. The area of distributed reinforcement parallel Section 409.9.3.1 shall not exceed the lesser of d /5
to the longitudinal axis of the beam, A vℎ, shall and 300 mm.
be at least 0.0025 b w s2 , where s2is the spacing
of the distributed longitudinal reinforcement.

Basic Equations of Ultimate Strength Design

(USD):

Compression on Concrete

C=0.85 f ' c A c Nominal Moment Strength

Steel Tensile Stress at ε conc=0.003 M n=C × ( d − z )

M n=T × ( d − z )
600(d − c)
f s= <f y
c Design Moment Strength

Non- Yielding Tension on Steel, (f s < f y ) M u=0.9 C × ( d − z )

M u=0.9 T × ( d − z )
T = As f s

Yielding Tension on Steel, (f s ≥ f y )

For Singly Reinforced Beam (SRB)
T = As f y
Static Equilibrium
35
Reinforced Concrete Design
As f y ' 2
∅ M n =∅ f c b d ω(1 −0.59 ω )
[ C=T ] ; a=
0.85 f ' c
ω f 'c
ρ=
Design Moment Capacity fy
ρ< ρmin → A s=ρ min bd
M u=0.9 C × d −
a
2 ( ) ρ ≤ A smax → A s= ρbd
M u=0.9 T × d −
a
2 ( ) ρ> A smax →redesign as DRB

Flexure Equations
' 2 DETERMINATION OF MOMENT CAPACITY
M u=0.9 f c b d ω(1 − 0.59 ω)
Given beam dimensions and tension steel bars
Method 1
Balanced Condition
C=T
When there is simultaneous yielding of concrete and
steel 0.85 f ' c ab= A s f y
600 d a=cβ
c b=
600+ f y
600(d − c)
Balanced Steel Ratio f s=
c
'

( )
f c 600 Non-yielding steel, f s < f y ; recalculate c
ρbal =0.85 β
f y 600+ f y
Steel Yields, f s ≥ f y ; f s=f y
DETERMINATION OF STEEL AREA
Method 1 ∅ M n =∅ A s f y d − ( a
2 )
M u=∅ M n

M u=1.2 M DL +1.6 M ¿ Method 2

( ) a As
∅ M n =∅ 0.85 f 'c ab d − ρ=
2 bd
0.85 f ' c ab ρf y
A s= ρ< ρbal; steel yields, ω=
fy f 'c

A s< A smin → A s =A smin =ρmin bd ρf s

ρ> ρbal; non-steel yields, ω=
f 'c
A s> A smin → redesignas DRB
C=T
Method 2
0.85 f ' c ab= A s f s
M u=∅ M n
' 2
M u=1.2 M DL +1.6 M ¿ ∅ M n =∅ f c b d ω(1 −0.59 ω )

Steps in the Design of Singly Reinforced Rectangular 1. Determine the values of loads, DL, LL and
Beam for Flexure other loads.
2. Compute the factored load.
36
Reinforced Concrete Design
3. Compute the factored moment to be carried by 1. Solved for ρmax and M u ,max
the beam, M u ρmax =0.75 ρb
4. Try a value of steel ratio ρ from 0.7 ρ max to '
0.85 f c β (600)
0.8 ρmax , but must not be less than ρmin and not ρmax =0.75
f y (600+ f y )
greater than ρmax . ρmax f y
0.85 f ' c β (600) ω max=
ρb = f 'c
f y (600+ f y ) ' 2
M u ,max =∅ f c b d ω (1− 0.59 ω)
β=0.85 for f ' c ≤ 28 MPa If M u ≤ M u ,max , design as SRB
0.05 ' If M u ≥ M u ,max , design as DRB
β=0.85 − (f c −28)
7 2. Solve for ω
for f ' c > 28 MPa 3. Solve for ρ
ρmax =0.75 ρb 4. Solve for A s
ρmin =
√ f 'c if f ' > 31.36 MPa,
c
4fy Steps in Finding Moment of a Beam with known
1.4 Tension Steel Area and Beam Properties
Otherwise ρmin =
fy
Given: b , d , A s , f ' c , f y
ρf y
5. Compute the value of ω , ω=
f 'c 1. Solve for ρ
6. Solve for the reduction factor ∅ 2. Check if steel yields by computing ρb
Solve for c : If ρ ≤ ρb, steel yields, proceed to Step 3
c=(assumed factor )×c max If ρ> ρb, steel does not yield, proceed to Step
3 4
Where c max = d
7 Note: If ρ< ρmin, the given A s is not adequate
d −c for the beam dimension.
Solve for f s: f s=600
c 3. ρ ≤ ρb
If f s ≥1000 MPa , tension-controlled, ∅ =0.9 Solve for ω and M u
If f s <1000 MPa, transition, 4. ρ> ρb
fs−f y d −c
∅ =0.65+ 0.25 Assume f s=f y , f s=600
1000 − f y c
7. Solve for b d :2
T =C
' 2
M u=∅ f c b d ω (1− 0.59 ω) A s f y =0.85 f ' c ab
8. Assume for the values of b , then solve for d . a=βc
9. Solve for the required steel area and the Solve c for quadratic formula and
number of bars. solve for f s and a
A s=ρbd Solve for M u

Number of bars=
As
Ab ( )a
M u=∅ T d − =∅ A s f s d −
2
a
2 ( )
or
Steps in Finding the Required Tension Steel Area of a

( a2 )=∅ 0.85 f ' ab( d − a2 )

Beam with known Moment and other Beam Properties
M u=∅ C d − c
Given: b , d , f ' c , f y and M u

37
Reinforced Concrete Design

CHAPTER V
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF
T-BEAMS AND
DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS
T-BEAMS The compression block of a T beam may fall
within the flange only or partly in the web. If it falls
Reinforced concrete floor systems normally within the flange as shown, the rectangular beam
consist of slab and beams that are placed formulas apply since the concrete below neutral axis is
monolithically. As a result, the two parts act together assumed to be cracked and its shape has no effect on
to resists loads. In effect the beams have extra widths the flexural calculations. If, however it covers part of
at their tops, called flanges, and the resulting T-shaped the web as shown, the compression concrete no longer
beams are called T beams. The part of a T beam below consists of a single rectangle and thus the rectangular
the slab is referred to as the web or stem. beam formulas do not apply.

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF T BEAMS WITH

FLANGE IN COMPRESSION

38
Reinforced Concrete Design
A sb f y =0.85 f ' c ( bf t +bw z )

0.85 f ' c [ bf t + ( a −t ) bw ]
A sb=
fy

A smax=0.75 A sb

BALANCED AND MAXIMUM STEEL AREA

AND MOMENT For T-Beams
Without T-Action, Wide Rectangular Beam
The balanced value of c for any beam shape is
given by: a< t f

600 d
c b=
600+ f y

If a is less than the slab thickness, the

formulas for rectangular beam may be used, or

'
0.85 f c β (600)
ρb =
f y (600+ f y )

A sb=ρb b f d Given Mu, required As:

( )
ab Assume: a=t f
M bn=0.85 f ' c ab d d −
2

A smax=0.75 A sb
∅ M f =∅ 0.85 f ' c t f b d − ( t2 ) f

∅ M f ≥ M u → design as w/o T-action

a max=0.75 ab
∅ M f < M u → design w/ T-action

(
M nmax=0.85 f ' c amax b d −
amax
2 ) M u=∅ A s f y d − ( a2 )
However, if a is greater than the slab As f y
thickness, the following formula will be used. a=
0.85 f ' c b f
As
ρ=
bw d
ρ> ρmin → ok!

ρ> ρmin → A s=ρ min bw d

Given A s, required ∅ M n :
T =C 1+C 2
Assume as wide rectangular beam:
A sb f y =C 1+C 2

39
Reinforced Concrete Design
As f y From C w =T 1
a=
0.85 f ' c b f
A s1 f y
a=
a ≤ t f → analyze w/o T-action '
0.85 f c b w
a> t f → analyze w/ T-action A smax=0.75 A sbal

∅ M n =∅ A s f s d − ( a
2 ) From C f +C w =T

0.85 f ' c [ t f ( b f −b w ) +a bal b w ]

From C=T A sbal=
fy
0.85 f ' c a b f
A s= a bal =c bal β
fs
Given A s, required ∅ M n
From strain diagram:
∅ M n =∅ M n 1+ ∅ M n 2
600 d a
c= = → calculate f s
600+ f s β
∅ M n 2=∅ 0.85 f ' c t f ( b f −b w ) d − ( ) tf
2

Check: From C f =T 2

If f s ≥ f y , Use f y 0.85 f ' c t f ( b f −b w )= A s 2 f y

If f s < f y , Use f s A s 1=A s − A s 2

Without T-Action,
∅ M n 1=∅ A s 1 f s d − ( a2 )
Check yielding of A s 1:

From C w =T 1

As1 f s
a=
0.85 f ' c bw
From Strain Diagram:
Given M u, required A s
600(d − c)
A s= A s1 + A s 2 f s=
d

( t2 )
∅ M n 2=∅ 0.85 f ' c t f ( b f −b w ) d −
f

DOUBLY REINFROCED BEAM

f (d − )
t f The steel that is occasionally used on the
∅ M n 2=∅ A s 2 y compression sides of beam is called compression steel,
2
and beams with both tensile and compressive steel are
From C f =T 2 referred to as doubly reinforced beams.

0.85 f ' c t f ( b f −b w )= A s 2 f y Occasionally, beams are restricted in small

sizes by space or aesthetic requirements to such extent
∅ M n 1=M u −∅ M n 2 that the compression concrete should be reinforced
with steel to carry compression. Compression
∅ M n 2=∅ A s 1 f y d − ( a2 ) reinforcement is needed to increase the moment

40
Reinforced Concrete Design
capacity of a beam beyond that of a tensilely A s 1=ρmax bd
reinforced beam with a maximum steel area.
From C=T
The important first step in the design
procedure for doubly reinforced beam sections is the As1 f y
a=
selection of a target value for the tension reinforcement 0.85 f ' c b
ratio.
ANALYSIS OF DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAM ∅ M n 1=∅ A s 1 f y d − ( a
2 )
Doubly reinforced beam is analyzed by
∅ M n 2=M u −∅ M n1
dividing the beam into two couples M n 1 and M n 2.
M n 1 is the couple due to the compression steel A ' s ∅ M n 2= A s 2 f y ( d − d ' )
and the other part of the tension steel area A s 2.
A ' s f ' s =A s 2 f y
Compression reinforcement is provided to
ensure ductile failure. For this reason, therefore, the From strain diagram:
stress in tension steel A s is always to f y . On the other
0.003 f ' s /E s
hand, the stress of compression steel A ' s may either be =
c c −d '
f y or below f y . This stress must always be checked.
'
600(c − d )
If the compression steel yields, then A ' s= A s 2, f ' s=
c
otherwise A ' s= A s 2 f y /f ' s, where f ' s is the stress of
compression steel and is given by the following f ' s ≥ f y , Use f y → A ' s= A s2
equation:
fy
f ' s < f y , Use f ' s → A ' s= A s 2
c −d ' f 's
f ' s=600
c
f 's
A smax=0.75 ρb bd + A ' s Given A s & A ' s, required ∅ M n
fy
∅ M n =∅ M n 1+ ∅ M n 2

Steps in Designing Doubly Reinforced Beam

M DRB =M SRB + M Couple Bars
∅ M n =∅ 0.85 f ' c ab d − ( a2 )+∅ A ' f ' ( d − d ' )
s s

From C+ C' =T
A ' s=compression bars
0.85 f ' c ab + A ' s f ' s= A s f y
A s=tension bars= A s 1+ A s 2
From Strain Diagram:
A smax=ρmax bd+ A ' s ( f y /f ' s )
'
600(c − d )
f ' s=
c
Given M u, required A s & A ' s f ' s < f y , use f ' s
A s= A s1 + A s 2 f ' s ≥ f y , use f y → recalculate c

41
Reinforced Concrete Design

CHAPTER VI
SHEAR IN BEAMS
42
Reinforced Concrete Design
Another type of beam failure other than 2. Longitudinal reinforcement with bent portion
bending is shear failure. Shear failures are very making an angle of 30° or more with the
dangerous especially if it happens before flexure longitudinal tension reinforcement,
failure because they can occur without warning. To 3. Combination of stirrups and bent longitudinal
avoid shear failure, the Code provides permissible reinforcement.
shear values that have larger safety factors compared
to bending failure, thus ensuring ductile type of failure. Steps in Vertical Stirrup Design

Without stirrup, there is nothing to stop the 1. Calculate the factored shear force V u at critical
concrete from splitting due to diagonal tension. sections or at any section you want the spacing
Stirrups prevent this occurrence especially if they are to be determined.
closely spaced. 2. Calculate the shear strength provided by
concrete, V c .
Types of Shear Failure
If V u >∅ V c, stirrups are necessary, proceed to
Shear failures on location of the load applied step 3.
relative to the nearest reaction, known as the shear 1
If V u <∅ V c but V u > ∅ V c, proceed to step 5
span. Shear failure may be (a) diagonal tension failure, 2
(b) shear-compression failure, and (c) splitting or true 1
If V u < ∅ V c, beam section is capable to
shear failure. 2
carry the required shear.
Diagonal Tension Failure usually occur when the 3. Calculate the shear strength V s to be provided
shear span is greater than 3 d or 4 d . by the stirrup.
a. V n=V u /∅
Shear-Compression Failure occurs when the shear
b. V s =V n − V c
span is from d to 2.5 d .
If V s ≤ 0.66 √ f ' c bw d , proceed to step 4
Splitting or True Shear Failure occurs when the If V s ≤ 0.66 √ f ' c bw d , adjust the size of the
shear span is less than the effective depth d . beam
4. Spacing of stirrups:
Types of Shear Reinforcement A v f yt d
Spacing, s=
Shear reinforcement may consist of: Vs
If s<25 mm+ d t , increase the value of A v by
1. Stirrups perpendicular to axis of member, either using a bigger size bar or adding more
2. Welded wire fabric with wires located shear area.
perpendicular to axis of member, 1
3. Spirals, circular ties, or hoops. 5. If V u <∅ V c but V u > ∅ V c:
2
For non-prestressed members, shear reinforcement Minimum area of stirrup
may also consist of:
bw s bw s
1. Stirrups making an angle of 45° or more with A vmin =0.062 √ f ' c ≥0.35
longitudinal tension reinforcement, f yt f yt

CHAPTER VII

43
Reinforced Concrete Design
COLUMNS
CLASSIFICATION OF COLUMNS longitudinal bars with ties or spirals or it may
consist of high-strength steel tubing filled with
In general, columns are classified as short concrete.
columns and long columns. If the height of the column
is less than three times its least lateral dimension, it DESIGN CODES
may be designed as short compression blocks or
pedestal. Pedestals may be designed without Design properties for concrete shall be selected to be
reinforcement with a maximum permissible in accordance with Section 419. Design properties for
compressive strength of 0.85 ∅ f ' c . If the compressive steel reinforcement and structural steel used in
strength is greater than this value, the pedestal will composite columns shall be selected to be in
have to be designed as a reinforced concrete short accordance with Section 420. Materials, design, and
column. detailing requirements for embedments in concrete
shall be in accordance with Section 420.7.
If the reinforced column fails due to initial
failure, it is classified as short columns. The load of AXIAL FORCE AND MOMENT (Section 410.5.2)
the short columns depends on the dimension and the
strength of the material of which it is made.
Pn and M n shall be calculated in accordance with
Section 422.4.
If the length of the column is increased, the
chances that will fail by lateral buckling will be SHEAR (Section 410.5.3)
increased. Columns that fail by buckling are called
long column. V n shall be calculated in accordance with Section
422.5.
P-delta Moment
TORSION (Section 410.5.4)
When a column is subjected to primary
moments, such as those caused by applied loads or If T u ≥ ∅ T tℎ, where T tℎ is given in Section 422.7,
joint rotation, the axis of the member deflects laterally. torsion shall be considered in accordance with Section
This deflection causes additional moment applied to 409.
the column, which is equal to the column load times
the lateral deflection. This moment is called secondary REINFORCEMENT LIMITS (Section 410.6)
moment or P-delta moment.
For non-prestressed columns and for prestressed
If the secondary moment becomes too large, columns with average f pe <1.6 MPa, area of
the column is said to be long column and it is longitudinal reinforcement shall be at least 0.01 A g but
necessary to design its section for the sum of both shall not exceed 0.08 A g.
primary and secondary moments.
MINIMUM SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (Section
Types of Columns
410.6.2)
1. Plain Concrete Pedestal - this may be used
A minimum area of shear reinforcement, A v ,min, shall
only if the height does not exceed three times
the least lateral dimension. be provided in all regions where V u >0.5 ∅ V c. If
2. Tied Column – a column in which the shear reinforcement is required, A v ,min shall be the
longitudinal bars are braced with a series of greater of (a) and (b):
closed ties.
3. Spiral Column – a column in which the bw s
a. 0.062 √ f ' c
longitudinal bars and concrete core are f yt
wrapped with a closely spaced helix or spiral. bw s
4. Composite Column – these columns may b. 0.35
f yt
contain a structural steel shape surrounded by

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Reinforced Concrete Design
REINFORCEMENT DETAILING (Section 410.7) a. Large axial load with negligible moment. For
this situation, failure will occur by the
Minimum spacing s shall be in accordance with crushing of the concrete, with all reinforcing
Section 425.2. bars in the column having reached their yield
stress in compression.
For non-prestressed columns and for prestressed b. Large axial load and small moment such that
columns with average f pe <1.60 MPa, the minimum the entire section is in compression. When a
number of longitudinal bars shall be (a), (b), or (c): column is subject to a small bending (that is,
when the eccentricity is small), the entire
a. Three within triangular ties; column will be in compression but the
b. Four within rectangular or circular ties; compression will be higher on one side than
c. Size enclosed by spirals or for columns of on the other. The maximum compressive stress
special moment frames enclosed by circular in the column will be 0.85 f ' c, and failure will
hoops. occur by the crushing of the concrete will all
the bars in compression.
TRANSVERSE REINFORCEMENT (Section
c. Eccentricity larger than in case (b) such that
410.7.6)
tension begins to develop on one side of the
column. Of the eccentricity is increased
Details of transverse reinforcement shall be in
somewhat from the preceding case, tension
accordance with Section 425.7.2 for ties, Section
will begin to develop on one side of the
425.7.3 for spirals, or Section 425.7.4 for hoops.
column and the steel on that side will be in
SHEAR (Section 410.7.6.5) tension but less than the yield stress. On the
far side of the steel will be in compression.
If required, shear reinforcement shall be provided Failure will occur by crushing of the concrete
using ties, hoops, or spirals. on the compression side.
d. A balanced loading condition. As we continue
Maximum spacing of shear reinforcement shall be in to increase the eccentricity, a condition will be
accordance with Table 410.7.6.5.2 reached at which the reinforcing bars on the
tension side will reach their yield stress at the
Table 410.7.6.5.2 same time that the concrete on the opposite
Maximum Spacing of Shear Reinforcement side reaches its maximum compression. This
situation is called balanced loading condition.
Maximum s, mm e. Large moment with small axial load. If the
Vs Non-
prestressed
Prestressed eccentricity is further increased, failure will be
column initiated by the yielding of the bars on the
column
d /2 3 ℎ/ 4 tensile side of the column.
≤ 0.33 √ f ' c bw L
desser of f. Large moment with no appreciable axial load.
600
d/4 3 ℎ/8 For this condition, failure will occur as it does
¿ 0.33 √ f ' c b w dLesser of in a beam.
300

PLASTIC CENTROID

AXIAL LOAD AND BENDING The plastic centroid of a column cross section
is the point through which the resultant column load
All columns are subjected to some bending as must pass to produce uniform strain in failure. It
well as axial forces and they need to be proportioned represents the location of the resultant force produced
to resist both. Column will bend under the action of by the steel and concrete. The eccentricity of a column
moments, and those moments will tend to produce load is the distance from the load to the plastic
compression on one side of the columns and tension on centroid of the column.
the other. Depending on the relative magnitudes of the
moments and axial loads, there are several ways in
which the sections might fail.

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Reinforced Concrete Design

46