Unit 12

Rock Formation and Metamorphism

Table of Contents

Table of Contents 1

Introduction 3

Essential Questions 4

Review 4

Lesson 12.1: Rock Formation 5

Objectives 5
Warm-Up 5
Learn about It 9
Key Points 13
Web Links 14
Check Your Understanding 14
Challenge Yourself 15

Lesson 12.2: What is Metamorphism? 16

Objectives 16
Warm-Up 16
Learn about It 18
Key Points 21
Web Links 22
Check Your Understanding 22
Challenge Yourself 23

Lesson 12.3: Types of Metamorphism 24

Objectives 24
Warm-Up 24
Learn about It 25
Key Points 31
Web Links 32
Check Your Understanding 32
Challenge Yourself 34
Lesson 12.4: Factors Controlling Metamorphism 35
Objectives 35
Warm-Up 35
Learn about It 36
Key Points 39
Web Links 40
Check Your Understanding 40
Challenge Yourself 41

Laboratory Activity 42

Performance Task 44

Self Check 46

Key Words 46

Wrap Up 48

Photo Credits 48

References 49

2
GRADE 11/12 | EARTH SCIENCE

Unit 12
Rock Formation and
Metamorphism

As a kid, you have probably played with rocks at some point. Maybe you have built
yourself a wall or thrown a stone on the water while on the beach. Did you ever
stop and take a look at the rock you were holding? At first glance, most rocks look
the same, but if you study more about rocks, you will notice the differences in their
looks, texture, density, and other features that you did not notice before. How did
these rocks come to be?

Rocks can be found around us but may come from different places. A rock can even
completely change into another kind of rock under certain conditions. These
conditions involve events that happen on Earth such as volcanic activity and
tectonic plate movement. It may take some time but rocks are always changing.

3
 Essential Questions

At the end of this unit, you should be able to answer the following questions.

● How are rocks being formed?

● What causes the transfer of rocks from other places?
● How can rocks change into another rock form?
● How do volcanic and tectonic plate activities change rocks?
● How long does it take for a rock to change?

Review

● There are three types of plate boundaries: convergent, divergent, and

transform plate boundaries.
○ Convergent boundaries refers to regions where two plates move
toward each other causing the collision of rocks
○ Divergent boundaries are areas where plates move away from one
another. This is seen along mid-ocean ridges.
○ Transform boundaries are areas where plates slide past one another.
● The type of rocks are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.
○ Igneous rocks are formed from magma.
○ Sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks and fossils of
organisms.
○ Metamorphic rocks form from pre-existing rocks through intense
heat and pressure.

4
 Lesson 12.1: Rock Formation

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● explain how rocks undergo change using the rock cycle; and
● describe the formation of the igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic rocks.

Rocks are everywhere on Earth’s surface and interior, yet we often take its presence
for granted. The rock that you pick up and throw maybe millions of years old and
may have once been a different rock before. How did the rocks today turn into
its present form?

Warm-Up
Cycle of Changes
Material:
● script

Procedure:
1. The students should know the positions to be taken for the game. The
positions are shown in the pictures below.
2. Divide the students into groups of at least four members.
3. As the teacher or narrator reads the script, the students listen and then
portray what is being described in the situation. The bold words in the script
should be emphasized by the teacher or the assigned narrator.

a. Most mountains are made up of granite.

b. Water and wind erode parts of the mountain and these parts
separate into sediments.
c. Water carries the sand in the sediments and eventually the sand

5
 particles compact into sandstone.
d. Under the sea, the sediments come from the different remains of
sea creatures and plants.
e. These remains become compacted and cemented with calcium
carbonate and form limestone.
f. Because of the movement of tectonic plates, the limestone is
experiencing intense heat and pressure and forms marble.
g. Tectonic plates continue to move and melt the marble into magma.
h. The magma goes up and cools into lava and then into basalt.
i. The rock becomes buried deep underground and experiences
tremendous heat and pressure. It eventually changes into gneiss.

Positions:
a. Basalt: Students should hold hands with arms relaxed.

b. Granite: Students should raise their hands sideward and touch each
other’s fingertips.

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c. Magma: Students should kneel on the floor with hands on the sides.

d. Gneiss: Students should raise one hand up on one side and the other
hand down on the other side.

e. Marble: Students should put their hands on their hips and touch
elbows with other students.

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f. Limestone: Students should raise their arms and touch their palms
together above their head. They should also touch elbows with the
students on their side.

g. Sandstone: Students should put their right hand on the left shoulder
of another student.

h. Sediments: Students should separate and just stand.

8
Guide Questions:
1. What are the rocks involved? Classify them as igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic.
2. What are the factors involved in the activity that led to the changes in the
rocks?
3. Do the rocks stay permanent in their form?

Learn about It

Rock Types
A rock is an aggregate of minerals or minerals which may or may not contain
organic matter. Rocks are classified into three types: igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic rocks.

● Magma, which is formed primarily within the Earth’s crust and upper mantle,
form igneous rocks. As magma ascends to the surface, the molten rock
solidifies to form igneous rocks.
● Exposure of igneous rocks to the surface allows them to undergo
disintegration forming loose particles called sediments. These sediments
undergo compaction and cementation to form sedimentary rocks.
● Resulting sedimentary rocks sometimes undergo burial, and the intense
pressure and temperature change they experience turns them into
metamorphic rocks.

The rock cycle is a model used to describe how rocks are formed, broken down,
and reformed into other types of rocks. This cycle shows the relationship among
the three major types of rocks, the igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks,
as shown in Figure 1. Igneous and sedimentary rocks may undergo burial instead of
uplift and exposure to form metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic and igneous rocks
may also be exposed to weathering agents, form sediments, and be transformed
into sedimentary rocks. Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks may be
buried deep enough to melt them forming magma, which when cooled, form
igneous rocks.

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 Fig. 1. The rock cycle.

Formation of Igneous Rocks

An igneous rock is formed from the cooling of magma or lava. As magma ascends
to the surface, the temperature drops. The drop in temperature causes ions in the
molten rock to form orderly patterns. This process is called crystallization.
Continuous cooling of magma allows the crystal to grow until it is large enough that
the process ceases. This results in the formation of solid rock with interlocking
crystals. The size of crystals is strongly affected by the rate of cooling. Slow cooling
results in the formation of fewer and larger crystals. In contrast, fast cooling
produces rocks with smaller crystals.

Types of Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks can be classified into intrusive or extrusive. Intrusive rocks form in
the interior of Earth, where the rate of cooling is slower. compared to extrusive
rocks, which are exposed on the surface. As a result, intrusive rocks generally have
larger crystals compared to extrusive rocks. In some instances, molten rocks are
cooled instantly in the process called quenching. This happens during violent
volcanic eruptions. Volcanic glass (or simply glass) is formed in this process.

10
 Fig. 2. From left to right: granitic rock, basaltic rock

Igneous rocks are diverse in terms of composition. It can be divided into groups
according to the proportion of light and dark minerals. Rocks composed of almost
entirely light-colored minerals are described as felsic and often referred to as
granitic rocks. Basaltic rocks are mafic in composition, meaning they are
composed mainly of dark minerals. In between the continuum are intermediate
rocks which are composed of both light and dark minerals.

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

The formation of sedimentary rocks starts with the process of weathering. In this
process, rocks and minerals are broken down through the action of mechanical and
chemical agents. The products of weathering undergo erosion or the movement
through various agents like gravity, water, ice, and wind. Transported sediments are
then settled down in different depositional environments. The sediments then
undergo lithification. This involves the processes of compaction and
cementation to form sedimentary rocks. Common examples of sedimentary rocks
are sandstones, limestones, and conglomerates.

Fig. 3. From left to right: sandstone, conglomerate

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Formation of Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks which have undergone
mineralogical and textural changes. To form metamorphic rocks, pre-existing rocks
undergo metamorphism, a process where the rock changes in response to vastly
different conditions from its formational environment. Metamorphism may
transform the parent rock into a completely different looking rock. Metamorphic
rocks can be classified as foliated or non-foliated.

Fig. 4. Foliated gneiss on the left and non-foliated hornfels on the right.

Foliation refers to the sub-planar orientation of mineral grains or the layering

found in the rocks. Foliated metamorphic rocks usually occur in areas where rocks
are deformed by stresses while non-foliated rocks are formed in areas where
deformation is minimal. Examples of metamorphic rocks are slate, phyllite, schist,
and gneiss.

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 Key Points

● A rock is an aggregate of minerals or minerals, which may or may not

contain organic matter.
● The rock cycle is a model that shows how each type of rock is formed from
each other.
● The three types of rocks are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
rocks.
○ Igneous rocks form from cooling magma or lava. It can be classified
as intrusive or extrusive, depending on where they cool down.
■ The size of crystals is strongly affected by the rate of cooling.
Slow cooling results in the formation of fewer and larger
crystals. By contrast, fast cooling produces rocks with
smaller crystals.
■ Granitic igneous rocks are light-colored, while basaltic igneous
rocks are dark-colored.
○ Sedimentary rock formation starts with weathering, which is the
breakdown of rocks and minerals into sediments through mechanical
or chemical means.
■ Sediments are moved around by agents like gravity, water, and
wind in a process called erosion.
■ Sediments settle in depositional environments, where they
are lithified and form sedimentary rocks.
○ Metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks, which have
undergone changes in its mineral content and texture.
■ Foliation refers to the sub-planar orientation of mineral grains
or the layering found in the rocks.
■ Metamorphic rocks can be classified as foliated, which have
clear layers, and nonfoliated, which have no defined layers.

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 Web Links

For further readings, you can check the following web links:

● What happens when lava meets water?

National Geographic. 2015. ‘When Magma Meets Water.’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0XgpYXVN-Kk

● Can you identify a metamorphic rock? Use this guide and test
out some samples.
Harwood, Richard. 2011. ‘Metamorphic Rock Identification.’
https://web.archive.org/web/20160316181841/http://facweb.bhc.edu/academics/sci
ence/Harwoodr/Geol101/labs/metamorf/index.htm

Check Your Understanding

A. Complete the sentence by proving the needed information.

1. Igneous rocks are formed from _____.
2. Metamorphic rocks form when rocks undergo _____ where they are formed
due to temperature and pressure change.
3. Sediments undergo _____ and _____ to form sedimentary rocks.
4. When sedimentary rocks are melted, they form _____ rocks.
5. When metamorphic rocks are eroded and weathered, they form _____
rocks.
6. When magma cools, ions in the molten rock form __________.
7. Igneous rocks that form in the interior of Earth are called _____ rocks.
8. After being broken down from bigger rocks or minerals, sediments settle
down into __________.
9. Quenching happens when molten rock cools _____.
10. The process of forming a sedimentary rock is called _____.

B. Write true if the statement is correct, write false if otherwise.

1. Extrusive rocks that form on the surface of Earth cool faster.
2. Intrusive rocks generally have smaller crystals compared to extrusive rocks.

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 3. Granitic rocks are darker compared to basaltic rocks.
4. Erosion is the process of breaking down rocks and minerals through
mechanical or chemical means.
5. Lithified sediments are known as sedimentary rocks.
6. Metamorphism may transform the parent rock into a completely different
looking rock.
7. Foliated metamorphic rocks are formed in areas where deformation is
minimal.
8. A foliated metamorphic rock undergoes a lot of stress.
9. Weathering involves the pressure of the top layer to the sediments at the
bottom.
10. Large crystals in igneous rocks are a result of slow cooling.

Challenge Yourself

Answer the following questions.

1. Why do extrusive rocks cool faster than intrusive rocks?
2. What causes sediments to undergo lithification?
3. What causes the foliation of metamorphic rocks?
4. Is it possible for the rock cycle to end?
5. Can humans affect the rock cycle? Why or why not?

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 Lesson 12.2: What is Metamorphism?

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● explain metamorphism and how it happens; and
● describe some processes involved in metamorphism such as
recrystallization, neocrystallization, phase change, pressure
solution, and plastic deformation.

A lot of things can happen to a rock. Rocks on the surface of Earth may be broken
to pieces during a landslide or they may be pounded continuously by waves if they
are near the sea. Rocks beneath Earth experience even more extreme conditions.
What happens to rocks that are exposed to these extreme conditions?

Warm-Up

What Changed?
The teacher will demonstrate how metamorphism may take place.

Materials:
● petri dish (a small and shallow transparent dish or bowl will do)
● 100 cm3 beaker
● bunsen burner, tripod, gauze
● small table placemat
● cloth or kitchen gloves for handling the hot beaker
● raw egg white from one egg
● salt

Procedure:
1. Set up the bunsen burner, tripod, and wire gauze to heat 50 cm3 of water
inside the beaker. Add half a teaspoon of salt to increase the boiling point.

16
 Heat the salt solution until boiling point.
2. While the salt solution is heating up, lay the placemat on the table and place
the Petri dish on it. Then add the raw egg white into the Petri dish.

Experimental setup

3. When the water is boiling, put out the flame and use kitchen gloves or cloth
to carefully lift the beaker and place it in the center of the Petri dish, as
shown in the figure. Leave for 10 minutes and observe the egg white.

Guide Questions:
1. What happened to the raw egg white? What caused this change?
2. Is this a physical change or a chemical change? Why?
3. Can the egg white revert back to its original state?
4. Is it possible that other substances, such as a rock, can be changed in the
same manner as the egg white?
5. What can act as a heat source inside the interior of Earth that can cause
change in rocks?

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 Learn about It

Metamorphism and Protolith

Metamorphism comes from the Greek words ‘meta,’ which means to change and
‘morph,’ which means form. It is the process of changing the characteristics of a
rock as a result of changes in temperature, pressure, or reactions with hot fluids.
This process takes place when the pre-existing rock is subjected to a physical or
chemical environment that is different from where it was formed. It can range from
slight to considerable changes of the parent rock. An example is the formation of
Lapis lazuli from a pre-existing limestone shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Lapis lazuli forms from limestone.

The pre-existing rock that undergoes metamorphism is called the protolith. The
protolith can be igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic. Weathering and diagenesis
are also processes that change pre-existing rocks, but these are restricted to
temperatures below 200 oC and pressures below 300 MPa. Metamorphism of a
protolith occurs at temperature and pressure conditions higher than the latter
values. The upper limit, on the other hand, occurs at temperature and pressure
where the rock begins to melt. Partial melting of the rock (>5%) would suggest an
igneous process.

Metamorphism of the protolith changes the texture and mineralogy (mineral

composition) of the original rock. This occurs usually during burial, tectonic
movements, heating, and the presence of chemically active fluids. Some processes

18
involved in metamorphism are recrystallization, neocrystallization, phase change,
pressure solution, and plastic deformation.

Processes Involved in Rock Metamorphosis

Recrystallization
Recrystallization refers to the growth of mineral grains of pre-existing minerals.
This solid-state process changes the mineral’s size and shape. An example of this
process can be observed in the formation of quartzite, where quartz minerals fuse
together to form a more interlocking state.

Fig. 6. Quartzite may be formed from recrystallization of quartz in sandstones.

Neocrystallization
Neocrystallization is the process where new minerals are formed from the
decomposition of old minerals. Chemical reactions decompose the old minerals
and produce new ones. In this rather slow process, atoms diffuse through solid
crystals.

Fig. 7. Formation of quartz, mica, and garnet from neocrystallization of shale.

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Phase Change
Phase change is characterized by a change in mineral structure, while retaining the
same chemical composition. Minerals involved in this process are called
polymorphs of one another. Polymorphs are chemically similar to but structurally
different from each other (e.g., quartz and cristobalite, both SiO2). Minerals change
according to which polymorph is most stable under existing conditions.

Pressure Solution
Pressure solution takes place when mineral grains dissolve in areas where there is
higher pressure. The dissolved grains then recrystallize in areas with lower
pressure. This usually occurs when rocks are squeezed in one direction with the
presence of water.

Fig. 8. Changes that happen in a pressurized solution.

Plastic Deformation
Usually, when rocks are subjected to deformational forces, they break. In some
instances, when temperature is high, minerals can behave like plastic and stretch
instead of break. This process is called plastic deformation.

Fig. 9. Left to right: Shape of minerals in the protolith and shape of the minerals in
the metamorphic rock after plastic deformation.

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 Key Points

● The protolith is the pre-existing rock that undergoes metamorphism.

● Metamorphism changes the texture and mineralogy of the protolith and
involves processes such as recrystallization, neocrystallization, phase change,
pressure solution, and plastic deformation.
● Recrystallization is the growth of mineral grains of pre-existing materials.
● Neocrystallization is the formation of new minerals from the pre-existing
minerals.
● Phase change refers to the change in mineral structure but with the same
chemical formula.
○ Minerals with the same chemical formula but different mineral
structure are called polymorphs of each other.
● Pressure solution takes place when minerals are dissolved in areas with
high pressure and recrystallize in other areas with low pressure.
● Plastic deformation occurs when mineral grains soften and deform at high
temperatures.

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 Web Links

For further readings, you can check the following web links:
● Check out this assorted gallery of metamorphic rocks and
minerals.
University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee. 2014. ‘Metamorphic Rocks and Associated
Minerals.’
https://web.archive.org/web/20180624031252/http://www4.uwm.edu/course/geosci-
100/Mineral_Rocks/metamorphic.html

● The presence of minerals can tell a lot about a rock’s history.

Arizona State University. 2014. ‘Examining minerals in metamorphic rock.’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XAWwB4dqhNE

Check Your Understanding

A. Identify the following terms being described below.

1. The slow process where older minerals decompose and form minerals.
2. This process takes place when dissolved mineral grains from high pressure
areas recrystallize in areas with lower pressure.
3. This happens when minerals stretch instead of breaking when they are
subjected to deformational forces in high temperatures.
4. This process occurs when mineral grains change in size and shape from the
original mineral.
5. This happens when there is a change in the mineral structure while
retaining the same chemical composition.

B. Write true if the statement is correct, and write false if it is otherwise.

1. A protolith is always an igneous rock.
2. Weathering changes the protolith into metamorphic rocks.
3. If a rock begins to melt under high temperature, it will form an igneous
rock.
4. The change in the protolith refers to the change in the texture and

22
 mineralogy from the original rock.
5. Rocks on the surface of Earth that are exposed to the sun will always
undergo metamorphism.
6. A polymorph of pyrite (FeS2) is troilite (FeS).
7. When limestone changes to marble, calcite crystals found in limestone
become larger crystals in the process known as recrystallization.
8. The weathering of potassium-rich feldspar by rainwater resulting in the
formation of muscovite crystals in rocks is a form of neocrystallization.
9. Pressure solution occurs when pressure is applied to the protolith and it
bends instead of breaking.
10. Plastic deformation occurs when the minerals in a rock dissolve in hot
water and recrystallize elsewhere when the rock is subjected to intense
pressure.

Challenge Yourself

Answer the following question.

1. Why are metamorphic rocks formed beneath Earth's surface?
2. Why is texture a basis for metamorphism?
3. How are we able to gain access to metamorphic rocks?
4. What is the difference between the formation of igneous rocks and
metamorphic rocks?
5. Is it possible to control what kind of metamorphic rocks will be made in the
future? Why or why not?

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 Lesson 12.3: Types of Metamorphism

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● explain metamorphic grade;
● distinguish prograde and retrograde metamorphism; and
● differentiate the types of metamorphism.

Rocks that undergo metamorphism will be commonly found in places deep

underground, with very high temperatures and great amounts of pressure. How
does metamorphism occur in these places?

Warm-Up
Crayon Art
As previously discussed, metamorphism involves subjecting rocks into intense heat
and pressure. Important processes involved include recrystallization,
neocrystallization, pressure solution, and plastic deformation. In this activity, you
will demonstrate metamorphism by turning crayon shavings into art pieces.

Materials:
● crayons (at least four different colors)
● sharpener
● white sheet of paper
● aluminum foil or wax paper
● metal pot with hot water

Procedure:
1. Place the white sheet of paper on the desk.
2. Make some crayon shavings by sharpening the crayons. Make sure that the
shavings land on the paper. Spread the shavings around.
3. Cover the white paper and the crayon shavings with the wax paper. Make

24
 sure the edges are covered.
4. FIll a metal pot with hot water and then put the pot over the wax paper.
5. Move the metal pot around the wax paper. Make sure that the pot is always
touching the paper, similar to ironing clothes. Do this for at least two
minutes.
6. After two minutes, remove the wax paper and observe what happened to the
crayon shavings.

Guide Questions:
1. How did the heat and pressure from the pot affect the crayons?
2. If the crayons were rocks, how would the heat and pressure affect rocks? Is it
possible that the rocks will change into a new kind of rock?
3. Inside the interior of Earth, what would be the sources of heat and pressure?

Learn about It

Metamorphic Grade
Metamorphic grade refers to the relative temperature and pressure conditions
during the formation of the metamorphic rocks. The spectrum includes low-grade,
intermediate, and high-grade metamorphism.

Fig. 10. Graphical view of metamorphic grade of some metamorphic rocks. Slate
falls under low grade regime while gneiss borders to high grade conditions.

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Low grade metamorphism occurs in environments where temperature is between
200 oC and 320 oC and low pressure values. High-grade metamorphism, on the
other hand, takes place at temperatures greater than 320 oC.

Prograde and Retrograde Metamorphism

Prograde Metamorphism
Prograde metamorphism takes place
when temperature and pressure are
increased. This occurs when rocks are
buried deeply. The process forms minerals
that are stable at higher temperature and
pressure. In prograde metamorphism,
water molecules from minerals are usually
squeezed out, forming “drier” rocks. An
example of rocks under prograde
metamorphism is phyllite, which is shown
in Fig. 11. It forms from slate and changes
into schist if the pressure and temperature
continues to increase.

Retrograde Metamorphism
Retrograde metamorphism, on the other hand, happens when temperature and
pressure decrease. This process requires the addition of hydrothermal fluids or
water. Without these fluids, high-grade rocks cannot be turned into retrograde
ones. In this process, rocks are usually
brought back to the surface in a process
called exhumation. An example of rocks
under retrograde metamorphism is
chlorite schist, which is shown in Fig. 12. It
forms from muscovite schist when
pressure and temperature cause
muscovite to change into chlorite.

Retrograde metamorphism is not a

common process. This is because chemical
reactions take place more slowly at lower
temperatures. Another reason is that fluids
that speed up chemical reactions are usually squeezed
out during prograde metamorphism. The absence of

26
these fluids means the unavailability of substances that could speed up chemical
reactions.

Fig. 13. Path of prograde and retrograde metamorphism.

There are many types of metamorphism which differ in the environment where
they occur and temperature and pressure conditions. This includes contact, burial,
dynamic, regional, hydrothermal, and shock metamorphism.

Types of Metamorphism
Contact Metamorphism
Contact or thermal metamorphism
occurs adjacent to igneous intrusions.
An igneous intrusion is a large and hot
body of igneous rock that is cooling
below the surface of Earth and is
known as a pluton. Heat is transferred
from the hot body to nearby rocks,
which are relatively cooler. As a
result, metamorphic aureoles are
formed. These are zones where
metamorphism has taken place.

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Outside this zone, the rocks are not metamorphosed. The grade of metamorphism
increases towards the intrusion. Contact metamorphism is a high-temperature,
low-pressure metamorphism. Hornfels is usually formed in this type of
metamorphism.

Fig. 15. A hornfels forms near a pluton and undergoes contact metamorphism,
while a slate forms when shale undergoes burial metamorphism.

Burial Metamorphism
Burial metamorphism, as the name implies, occurs when rocks are buried to
depths of several hundred meters. Temperature change is due to the geothermal
gradient. This process may form new minerals and produce low-grade rocks.

Dynamic Metamorphism
Dynamic metamorphism occurs when two
bodies of rock slide past each other along
faults. The sliding action produces heat and
crushes and pulverizes the rocks. This
usually occurs along plate boundaries. Rocks
called mylonites are formed once the
conditions permit ductile (plastic)
deformation. They are characterized by very
fine grains, usually hard and splintery.

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 Fig. 17. A mylonite on the left forms from dynamic metamorphism. Gneiss on the
right forms over time when regional metamorphism occurs.

Regional Metamorphism
Regional metamorphism occurs over large areas that experience differential
stress. Differential stress is the stress produced by deformational forces, which
occur at convergent boundaries. Rocks formed in this type of metamorphism are
foliated and of varying grades, such as slate, schist, and gneiss.

Fig. 18. Rocks at point A undergo regional metamorphism as it is buried to a

deeper level during collision of two plates.

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 Fig. 19. Hydrothermal metamorphism along a mid-ocean ridge.

Hydrothermal Metamorphism
Hydrothermal metamorphism usually takes place along mid-ocean ridges. Ocean
water seeps through cracks and is heated up by nearby magma to form
hydrothermal fluids. These hydrothermal fluids alter rocks to form hydrous
minerals such as talc and chlorite. Hydrous minerals are those that contain water in
their crystal structure. Since chlorite is a green mineral, rocks formed in this type of
metamorphism are usually green and are often called greenstones.

Fig. 20. Greenschist on the left formed from basaltic during hydrothermal
metamorphism. Shocked quartz on the right formed from during shock
metamorphism.

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Shock Metamorphism
When meteorites reach the Earth, their kinetic energies are transformed into a
large amount of heat. The impact of these bodies causes rocks in contact to melt or
even vaporize. Metamorphic rocks may form in the process of shock
metamorphism. In this type of metamorphism, high pressure polymorphs of
quartz are usually formed. This includes coesite and stishovite.

Key Points

● Metamorphic grade refers to the relative temperature and pressure

conditions during the formation of metamorphic rocks.
● Prograde metamorphism takes place when pressure and temperature are
increased.
● Retrograde metamorphism takes place when pressure and temperature
are decreased.
● Types of metamorphism include contact, burial, dynamic, regional,
hydrothermal, and shock.
● Contact or thermal metamorphism occurs when heat is transferred from
igneous intrusions to nearby rocks.
● Burial metamorphism occurs when rocks are buried to depths of several
hundred meters and form new rocks due to the temperature increase.
● Dynamic metamorphism occurs when two bodies of rock slide past each
other along faults, where some rocks are heated and pulverized to form new
rocks.
● Regional metamorphism occurs over large areas that experience stress,

31
 such as in convergent boundaries, where one tectonic plate goes under
another tectonic plate.
● Hydrothermal metamorphism takes place mostly along mid-ocean ridges,
where ocean water is heated by nearby magma to form hydrothermal
fluids, which causes chemical reactions to take place in rocks.
● Shock metamorphism takes place when a meteorite hits the surface of
Earth and transfers a lot of heat to the place of impact, causing rocks to
change.

Web Links

For further information, you can check the following web links:
● Volcanic eruptions are a common occurrence in mid-ocean
ridges. Check out this video to see an underwater volcanic
eruption.
Discovery. 2009. ‘Undersea Volcano Eruptions Caught on Video.’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hmMlspNoZMs

● Read more about shock metamorphism from the website of

renowned Canadian scientist and crater explorer Charles
O’Dale:
O’Dale, Charles. ‘Shock Metamorphism.’
http://craterexplorer.ca/shock-metamorphism/

Check Your Understanding

A. Identify the type of metamorphism being referred to in each description.

1. During the collision of two plates, a rock on the surface may be buried to a
deeper level, causing it to undergo metamorphism.
2. This type of metamorphism occurs when the impact of a large body such as a
meteorite transfers extreme amounts of heat to rocks.
3. Hornfels is formed when rocks receive large amounts of heat from nearby
igneous intrusions.
4. Rocks along plate boundaries are heated, grounded, and crushed when the

32
 plates slide past each other, eventually forming new rocks such as mylonite
5. Ocean water is heated by nearby magmas coming out from mid-ocean ridges
and seeps through cracks in rocks, altering them to form hydrous minerals.
6. Metamorphism that occurs when rocks are buried to great depths, where
increased temperature and pressure allows the formation of low-grade
rocks.

B. Use the graph to answer the questions that follow:

1. What are the estimated minimum temperature and pressure values for
phyllite to form?
2. Which rock in the graph is formed through high-grade metamorphism?
3. Which rock in the graph is formed nearest to the surface?
4. Which rock in the graph is formed under the highest pressure?
5. What is the metamorphic grade of slate?

C. Give a short answer for each question.

1. What happens to the pressure during prograde metamorphism?
2. What happens to the temperature during retrograde metamorphism?
3. What causes the removal of water molecules during prograde
metamorphism?
4. What happens to high-grade rocks if no water is present during
metamorphism?

33
 Challenge Yourself

Answer the following questions.

1. Why do metamorphic rocks have different properties?
2. What kind of metamorphism would we expect to happen on the moon?
3. Describe a place where you would expect to find metamorphic rocks.
4. Where will contact metamorphism likely take place: near the surface of the
earth or far below the surface? Why?
5. Describe a condition that must be met for hydrothermal metamorphism to
occur inland.

34
 Lesson 12.4: Factors Controlling
Metamorphism

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● explain how heat changes rocks;
● describe how rocks behave under different types of stress;
● explain how chemically active fluids affect rocks; and
● explain how a rock takes a long time to undergo metamorphosis.

Rocks do not just undergo metamorphism randomly. Most rocks that change are
usually underground, and their degree of change may vary, depending on certain
factors. What controls the change in rocks?

Warm-Up

Chocolate Marshmallow
Pressure is an important factor that transforms a protolith into a specific
metamorphic rock. In this activity, you will learn and demonstrate the role of
pressure on metamorphism by making chocolate marshmallows.

Materials:
● marshmallows (one piece per student)
● chocolate candies (one piece per student)
● metal spoon (one per student)
● tissue paper
● sheet of pad paper

Procedure:
1. Place the pad paper on the table then place the tissue paper on the pad
paper.
2. Distribute the marshmallows and chocolates. Each student must have one of

35
 each.
3. Cut the top of the marshmallow and then place the chocolate on top of the
marshmallow. Place the marshmallow on the tissue paper.
4. Hold the spoon with your thumb inside the curved part. Press down on the
chocolate, while it is on top of the marshmallow. Make sure that the
chocolate cracks, while it is inside the marshmallow.

Guide Questions:
1. What happened to the chocolate in the marshmallow when it was under
immense pressure from your hand?
2. If the chocolate and marshmallow were two different rocks with pressure
coming down on both, what change will occur in the rocks? Is it possible that
the combined rocks will become one rock?
3. Is pressure alone enough to change the two rocks into one single rock with
uniform composition? What are other factors needed?

Learn about It

ㅡ
The process of metamorphism is controlled by four factors temperature,
pressure, chemically active fluids and time. These factors determine the degree
of metamorphism the protolith will experience.

Effects of Thermal Energy on Rock Formation

Heat or thermal energy produced by an increase in temperature triggers chemical
reactions, which can cause recrystallization and/or neocrystallization. Thermal
energy that causes metamorphism comes from two sources. First source is the heat
that comes from ascending magmas as in the case of contact metamorphism.
Intrusive bodies or plutons alter the texture and mineralogy of the surrounding
rocks to form metamorphic rocks. Another source of heat comes from Earth’s
geothermal gradient. Rocks on the surface may experience an increase in
temperature if they are subjected to burial. Clay minerals become unstable at
depths of about 8 km where temperature ranges from 150 to 200oC. These
minerals recrystallize to form other more stable minerals such as chlorite and
muscovite.

Effects of Pressure on Rock Formation

36
Just like temperature, pressure also increases with depth. When minerals with
spaces in their lattices are subjected to high amounts of pressure, they collapse
forming much denser crystals. At depths of about 40 to 100 km, pressure is 10,000
to 30,000 times greater than that on the surface. Rocks and minerals that are
buried that deep experience two types of pressure or stress: uniform stress and
differential stress.

Uniform Stress
Uniform stress or hydrostatic stress is defined as the pressure with the same
magnitude in all directions. This type of stress is usually experienced by rocks that
are far from fault lines or tectonic boundaries.

Fig. 21. Confining pressure works by squeezing rocks together,

decreasing their volume.

Differential Stress
Differential stress is the type of stress where forces are unequal in different
directions. This can be visualized through mountain building processes. Differential
stress can cause ‘shortening’ of rocks in the direction parallel to the stress and
‘elongation’ in the direction perpendicular to it. Differential stress can be normal or
shear.
● Normal stress compresses objects in the direction of maximum stress and
extends them where stress is minimal.

37
 ● Shear stress, on the other hand, smears out objects in the direction of the
stress.

Rocks tend to be brittle at low temperatures and pressures. This causes rocks to
fracture when differential stress is applied to them. In contrast, materials at higher
temperatures and pressures are ductile. Instead of breaking, rocks tend to flow,
elongating the minerals.

Fig. 22. Differential stress in a convergent boundary causes rocks to deform.

Effects of Fluids on Rock Formation

Fluids that surround mineral grains are important in the process of
metamorphism. These fluids (usually water) contain ions. Chemically active fluids
enhance chemical reactions as they provide a medium for the migration of ions.
Metasomatism refers to the alteration that occurs as a result of these fluids. Other
sources of fluids are groundwater percolating downward, water and volatiles from
magma, and water from metamorphic processes.

Effects of Time on Rock Formation

Metamorphism is a slow process that involves several subprocesses. These
processes are slow since metamorphic rocks are formed with the protolith rock
remaining in solid form. They do not go into a molten state, unlike igneous rocks,
which are formed from molten magma, which flows.

Metamorphic rocks which contain large crystals need time to form, on a scale of
tens of millions of years. Recrystallization and neocrystallization are slow processes

38
that are aided by pressure from Earth’s interior and tectonic plate activities. The
addition of hydrothermal fluids is aided by volcanic activity.

Tectonic plates move very slowly, which means that dynamic and regional
metamorphism all proceed slowly as well. Igneous intrusions only form when
volcanoes become active or when magma deposits are pushed up from the ground.
These processes can take place over thousands of years.

Key Points

● The process of metamorphism is controlled by four factors─temperature,

pressure, chemically active fluids, and time.
● Temperature is affected by heat or thermal energy, which can come from
two sources─from igneous intrusions and from Earth’s geothermal
gradient.
● The geothermal gradient of Earth is the rate of increase in temperature
with increasing depth from Earth’s surface.
● Pressure increases with depth, and it can be classified into two types─
uniform stress and differential stress.
● Uniform stress or hydrostatic stress refers to pressure with equal
amounts of force coming from all directions.
● Differential stress refers to pressure that is unequal in different directions.
● Differential stress can either be a normal stress or a shear stress.
● Normal stress compresses objects from two opposing directions.
● Shear stress smears objects in the direction of the stress.

39
 ● Chemically active fluids enhance the rate of chemical reactions, which can
alter the chemical composition of rocks.
● Metasomatism is the change in the composition of rocks due to the addition
or removal of certain substances or elements.
● Metamorphic rocks that contain large crystals need time to form, usually on
a scale of tens of millions of years.

Web Links

For further readings, you can check the following web links:

● Read more about how uniform and differential stress affects

rocks and view a gallery of deformed rocks.
DeMets, Chuck. University of Wisconsin, Madison. Accessed 2018. ‘How do Rocks
Deform?’
http://geoscience.wisc.edu/~chuck/Classes/Mtn_and_Plates/rock_deformation.html

● Check out a vishnu schist deposit and how it was formed.

Arizona State University. 2014. ‘Vishnu Schist Metamorphic Rock.’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z6t-psF1jSo

● Do a virtual field trip in the Marble Bar Chert in Western

Australia and check out what geologists found out about
Earth’s history.
Arizona State University. 2014. ‘Marble Bar Australia.’
https://vft.asu.edu/VFTMarbleBar/panos/MarbleBar/MarbleBar.html

Check Your Understanding

A. Write true if the statement is correct and false if it is otherwise.

1. Metamorphism is a slow process.
2. Heat is absorbed by intrusive bodies from rocks.
3. Fluids only increase the size of rocks, but they cannot alter the chemical
composition of minerals.

40
 4. Rocks at higher temperatures and pressures crack easily.
5. Uniform stress increases the volume of rocks.
6. A rock undergoes metamorphism through a combination of all the factors.
7. An igneous intrusion increases the pressure on nearby rocks.
8. A hydrothermal fluid has a low temperature that aids chemical reactions.
9. Foliation occurs because a rock has been underground for a long period of
time.
10. The average temperature of Earth’s interior increases as one goes deeper
into the interior.

B. Complete the sentences below by providing the right term/phrase that would
complete the statements correctly.
1. Metamorphic rocks that are left alone underground over a long period of
time grow _____ crystals.
2. Surface rocks that are buried experience an increase in _____ because of
Earth's geothermal gradient.
3. Rocks found along transform boundaries experience ____ stress when the
plates slide past each other.
4. Chemically active fluids contain _____ that alter rocks, forming different
crystals.
5. High pressure will cause minerals that have space in their crystalline
structure to _____.

Challenge Yourself
Answer the following questions.
1. Give one reason why new minerals grow in existing rocks.
2. How can humans affect metamorphism of rocks?
3. Is the time required to produce metamorphic rocks fixed? Why or why not?
4. Explain how differential stress can affect the appearance of a metamorphic
rock.
5. Can lava on Earth’s surface start the metamorphism of nearby rocks? Why or
why not?

Laboratory Activity

41
 Activity 12.1
Rocks Change

Objective
At the end of this laboratory activity, the students should be able to:
● explain the effects of change in pressure and temperature on a rock.

Materials and Equipment

● aluminum foil
● frozen clay
● timer
● blow drier
● brick or heavy book

Procedure
A. Before the day of the experiment:
1. Roll the clay bars into balls. They should be as big as ping pong balls.
2. Put them in a ziplock bag or a plastic bag, and store them in a freezer
overnight.
3. Bring the frozen clay balls to class.

B. During the day of the experiment:

1. Spread the aluminum foil flat on the table. Place the clay balls on top of the
foil and arrange them in a line.
2. Fold one side of the foil over the clay. Make sure that the clay is still exposed.
3. Ready the timer. Press down the brick on the clay. Make sure to add weight
to the brick.

Fig. 1. Relative orientation of the brick, aluminum foil, and clay balls.

42
 4. Blow dry the clay for one minute. Observe and note the changes in your data
sheet.
5. After making observations, blow dry the clay again at the following time
duration: 2 mins, 3 mins, 4 mins, 5 mins. Make sure that the brick is pressed
on the clay while blow drying. Record your observations on the data table.

Waste Disposal
Dispose of the materials in the trash bin.

Data and Results.

Table 1. Pressed clay on different time duration
Time (in minutes) Observations

Guide Questions
1. What happened to the clay? Describe the changes.
2. What are the factors that caused the change in the clay? How are these
factors represented in the experiment?
3. How does the clay represent metamorphic rocks undergoing
metamorphism?

43
 Performance Task

Box of Rock
Goal
● Your group's task is to create a 3D model of the rock cycle by using a
shoebox and art materials such as crayons, art paper, clay, etc.

Role
● You are a group of artists whose next project is to design and build a
portable art installation by using a shoe box that will showcase the rock cycle
and metamorphic grade.

Audience
● The audience is composed of young students who are studying science and
artists who are keen proponents of science topics being represented as art.

Situation
● The students will integrate their lesson on the rock cycle and metamorphism
into a portable art installation.

Product, Performance, and Purpose

● Your artwork must look like a shoebox on the outside but when opened and
expanded, will be revealed as a lesson about the rock cycle and
metamorphism. Some representatives of each rock type must be presented
in the appropriate areas, complete with labels.

Standards and Criteria

● Your performance will be graded by the following rubric.

Below Successful Exemplary

Needs Improvement
Criteria Expectations,
50% to 74%
Performance Performance
0% to 49% 75% to 99% 100%

Creativity Work is Work is somewhat Work is generally Work is

occasionally unique and unique and exceptionally
Presentation
unique and interesting. interesting. unique and

44
 showcased the interesting. Did Explored some Explored ways and interesting.
creativity of the not explore new ways, but ideas to present Explored new ways
student. much in terms of work is mostly mostly original and ideas to
presentation, similar to examples work. present the
and work is shown. original work.
similar to
examples shown.

Craftsmanship Work is done Work is done with Work is done with Work is done with
with minimal basic care and good care and exceptional care,
The output was
care and attention to details attention to details with great
done with great
attention to and neatness. and neatness. attention to details
care and attention
details or and neatness.
to detail.
neatness.

Understanding Minimal Basic Good Exceptional

understanding of understanding of understanding of understanding of
and
project project project project
Completion requirements. requirements. requirements. requirements.
The student Assignment is Assignment was Assignment was Assignment was
completely generally followed, and work followed, and work followed and work
understood what followed, but is somewhat is mostly complete. was fully
the project was work is complete. completed.
about. incomplete.

Effort and Work shows Work shows basic Work shows good Work shows
minimal effort, effort, planning, effort, planning, exceptional effort,
Participation
planning, and and pride. Majority and pride. All planning, and
Group members pride. A few of group members group members pride. All group
participated in the group members contributed to the contributed to the members
planning and contributed to project. project. contributed greatly
completion of the the project. to the project.
project.

Self Check
At the end of this unit, the students are expected to be more familiar with the
process of the rock cycle and the processes that cause changes in rock
transformation. Put a check on the space provided if you agree on each statement.

Check I can…

explain how rocks form and undergo change.

45
 explain how rocks undergo change through metamorphism.

differentiate between the types of metamorphism.

describe the factors that control metamorphism.

Key Words

Brittle This describes an object that is hard but liable to break or

shatters easily.
Cementation This is the process of precipitating ions to form crystalline
materials that bind sediments together.
Compaction This process occurs when sediments lose excess water
and air due to being loaded from above.
Crystallization This is the formation of orderly patterns by ions when
magma cools.
Diagenesis These are the physical and chemical processes that occur
when sediments are lithified to sedimentary rocks.
Ductile This describes an object that is able to be deformed
without losing toughness.
Depositional This is a place where sediments are deposited and
Environments accumulated.
Felsic This is used to describe rocks that crystallize from silicate
minerals at relatively low temperatures.
Hydrothermal fluids These are heated water solutions containing a variety of
elements or compounds.
Hornfel This is a metamorphic rock usually formed from contact
metamorphism.
Kinetic energy This is the energy that is possessed by an object in
motion.
Lava This is the name for magma that is on the surface of
Earth.

46
Lithification This is the process of turning to stone by compaction and
cementation of sediments.
Mafic This is used to describe rocks that crystallize from silicate
minerals at relatively high temperatures.
Magma This refers to the molten rock that is still underground.

Metamorphic These are areas surrounding an igneous intrusion, where

Aureoles metamorphism takes place.
Mid-ocean Ridges These are chains of volcanoes under the ocean where the
new ocean floor is created by the rise of molten rock.
Mylonites This is a metamorphic rock that is flattened due to the
movement of tectonic plates against each other. It is
usually found along major fault lines.
Polymorphs These are minerals that have the same chemical
composition but with different crystal structure.
Protolith This is the original rock from which metamorphic rock
comes from.
Quenching This is the process that occurs when extrusive volcanic
rock cools rapidly.

47
 Wrap Up

Rock Types

Photo Credits

Fig. 1. Carrara 7737 by Harald Bischoff is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via
Wikimedia
Commons; Carrara 5 by Lucarelli is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia
Commons.

Fig. 2. Weathering pits - granitic rock - Glacier Point, Yosemite National Park,
California by Caricologist is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia
Commons; Basalt columns 22897 by Walter Siegmund is licensed under CC
BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

48
Fig. 3. Gneiss by Siim is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia
Commons.Hornfels 3 by Piotr Sosnowski is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 via
Wikimedia Commons.

Fig. 4. Lapislazuli from Afghanistan by Ra'ike is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via
Wikimedia Commons.

References

Dictionary of Geology and Earth Science. 2013. Oxford University Press.

Marshak, Steve. 2015. Earth: Portrait of a Planet 5th Edition. W.W. Norton &
Company.Accessed March 3, 2017.
http://www3.nd.edu/~cneal/PlanetEarth/Chapt-8-Marshak.pdf

Metamorphic Rocks. Accessed March 3, 2017.

http://www.appstate.edu/~marshallst/GLY1101/
lectures/8-Metamorphic_Rocks.pdf

Nelson, Stephen A. 2015. Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks. Tulane

University. Last Updated September 17, 2015. Accessed March 2, 2017.
http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/ eens1110/metamorphic.pdf

Tarbuck, Edward J. and Lutgens, Frederick K. 2015. Earth Science. 14th edition.
Pearson Education Inc. USA

Tauxe, Lisa. The Rock Cycle. University of California, San Diego. Accessed May 7,
2018. http://topex.ucsd.edu/es10/lectures/lecture10/lecture10.html

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