Physics formulas from Mechanics, Waves, Optics, Heat and Motion in a straight line with constant a:

too
Thermodynamics, Electricity and Magnetism and Modern
Physics. Also includes the value of Physical Constants. Helps v = u + at, s = ut + 21 at2 , v 2 − u2 = 2as
in quick revision for CBSE, NEET, JEE Mains, and Advanced.
Relative Velocity: ⃗vA/B = ⃗vA − ⃗vB
0.1: Physical Constants
Sn 44 2nd
Speed of light c 3 × 108 m/s
u y
Planck constant h 6.63 × 10−34 J s

u sin θ
hc 1242 eV-nm H
x
Projectile Motion:
Gravitation constant G 6.67×10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2 θ
Boltzmann constant k 1.38 × 10−23 J/K O u cos θ
Molar gas constant R 8.314 J/(mol K) R

Avogadro’s number NA 6.023 × 1023 mol−1

Charge of electron e 1.602 × 10−19 C x = ut cos θ, y = ut sin θ − 12 gt2
Permeability of vac- µ0 4π × 10−7 N/A2 g
y = x tan θ − 2 x2
uum 2u cos2 θ
Permitivity of vacuum ϵ0 8.85 × 10−12 F/m 2u sin θ u2 sin 2θ u2 sin2 θ
T = , R= , H=
Coulomb constant 1
4πϵ0 9 × 109 N m2 /C2 g g 2g
Faraday constant F 96485 C/mol
Mass of electron me 9.1 × 10−31 kg
n 1.3: Newton’s Laws and Friction
Mass of proton mp 1.6726 × 10−27 kg
Mass of neutron mn 1.6749 × 10−27 kg Linear momentum: p⃗ = m⃗v
Atomic mass unit u 1.66 × 10−27 kg
Atomic mass unit u 931.49 MeV/c2 Newton’s first law: inertial frame.
Stefan-Boltzmann σ 5.67×10−8 W/(m2 K4 ) p
Newton’s second law: F⃗ = d⃗
dt , F⃗ = m⃗a
constant
Rydberg constant R∞ 1.097 × 107 m−1 Newton’s third law: F⃗AB = −F⃗BA
Bohr magneton µB 9.27 × 10−24 J/T
Bohr radius a0 0.529 × 10−10 m Frictional force: fstatic, max = µs N, fkinetic = µk N
Standard atmosphere atm 1.01325 × 105 Pa
v2 v2 µ+tan θ
Wien displacement b 2.9 × 10−3 m K Banking angle: rg = tan θ, rg = 1−µ tan θ
constant
mv 2 v2
Centripetal force: Fc = r , ac = r
2

t
1 MECHANICS Pseudo force: F⃗pseudo = −m⃗a0 , Fcentrifugal = − mv
r

Minimum speed to complete vertical circle:

1.1: Vectors
" "
vmin, bottom = 5gl, vmin, top = gl
Notation: ⃗a = ax ı̂ + ay ȷ̂ + az k̂
!
Magnitude: a = |⃗a| = a2x + a2y + a2z θ
l
!
l cos θ
Conical pendulum: T = 2π θ T
Dot product: ⃗a · ⃗b = ax bx + ay by + az bz = ab cos θ g

ı̂ mg
a × ⃗b
⃗ ⃗b
Cross product:
θ k̂ ȷ̂
a
⃗
r 1.4: Work, Power and Energy
⃗a ×⃗b = (ay bz − az by )ı̂ + (az bx − ax bz )ȷ̂ + (ax by − ay bx )k̂ Work: W = F⃗ · S
⃗ = F S cos θ, W =
#
F⃗ · dS
⃗

|⃗a × ⃗b| = ab sin θ Kinetic energy: K = 12 mv 2 = p2

2m

Potential energy: F = −∂U/∂x for conservative forces.

1.2: Kinematics
Ugravitational = mgh, Uspring = 12 kx2
Average and Instantaneous Vel. and Accel.:

⃗vav = ∆⃗r/∆t, ⃗vinst = d⃗r/dt Work done by conservative forces is path indepen-
dent and depends only on initial and final points:
⃗aav = ∆⃗v /∆t ⃗ainst = d⃗v /dt $
F⃗conservative · d⃗r = 0.

Work-energy theorem: W = ∆K
 Mechanical energy: E = U + K. Conserved if forces are Rotation about an axis with constant α:
conservative in nature.
ω = ω0 + αt, θ = ωt + 21 αt2 , ω 2 − ω0 2 = 2αθ
Power Pav = ∆W
∆t , Pinst = F⃗ · ⃗v

mi ri 2 , r2 dm
! "
Moment of Inertia: I = I=
i 1.5: Centre of Mass and Collision i

! "
" xdm
2
!xi mi ,
1 2 2
Centre of mass: xcm = xcm = mr 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 mr 2 2 mr m(a +b )
mi dm 2 mr 3 mr 5 mr 12 ml 12

b
a
CM of few useful configurations: ring disk shell sphere rod hollow solid rectangle

m1 r m2
1. m1 , m2 separated by r: C
m2 r m1 r I∥ Ic
m1 +m2 m1 +m2
Theorem of Parallel Axes: I∥ = Icm + md2 d
cm
h
2. Triangle (CM ≡ Centroid) yc = 3 h
C
h
3
z y
Theorem of Perp. Axes: Iz = Ix + Iy
2r
x
3. Semicircular ring: yc = π
C
2r
r π
$
Radius of Gyration: k = I/m
4r
4. Semicircular disc: yc = 3π C 4r
r ⃗ = ⃗r × p⃗, ⃗ = I⃗
3π Angular Momentum: L L ω
r
5. Hemispherical shell: yc = 2 C r ⃗
y
P θ ⃗
r 2
Torque: ⃗τ = ⃗r × F⃗ , ⃗τ = dL
dt , τ = Iα F
⃗
r x
O
3r
6. Solid Hemisphere: yc = 8 C 3r
r 8 ⃗ ⃗τext = 0 =⇒ L
Conservation of L: ⃗ = const.
7. Cone: the height of CM from the base is h/4 for Equilibrium condition:
!⃗
F = ⃗0,
!
⃗τ = ⃗0
the solid cone and h/3 for the hollow cone.
Kinetic Energy: Krot = 21 Iω 2

Motion of the CM: M =

!
mi Dynamics:
!
mi⃗vi F⃗ext ⃗τcm = Icm α
⃗, F⃗ext = m⃗acm , p⃗cm = m⃗vcm
⃗vcm = , p⃗cm = M⃗vcm , ⃗acm = 1 2 1 2 ⃗ = Icm ω
M M K = 2 mvcm + 2 Icm ω , L ⃗ + ⃗rcm × m⃗vcm

Impulse: J⃗ = F⃗ dt = ∆⃗
"
p
1.7: Gravitation i
Before collision After collision
Collision: m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 F F m2
Gravitational force: F = G mr1 m
2
2

v1 v2 v1′ v2′ r
Momentum conservation: m1 v1 +m2 v2 = m1 v1′ +m2 v2′
2
Elastic Collision: 12 m1 v1 2+ 21 m2 v2 2 = 21 m1 v1′ + 12 m2 v2′
2 Potential energy: U = − GMr m
Coefficient of restitution: GM
Gravitational acceleration: g = R2
−(v1′ − v2′ )
#
1, completely elastic
e= = % h
&
v1 − v2 0, completely in-elastic Variation of g with depth: ginside ≈ g 1 − R

Variation of g with height: goutside ≈ g 1 − 2h

% &
If v2 = 0 and m1 ≪ m2 then v1′ = −v1 . R

If v2 = 0 and m1 ≫ m2 then v2′ = 2v1 . Effect of non-spherical earth shape on g:

Elastic collision with m1 = m2 : v1′ = v2 and v2′ = v1 . gat pole > gat equator (∵ Re − Rp ≈ 21 km)

Effect of earth rotation on apparent weight:

1.6: Rigid Body Dynamics
r Angular velocity: ωav = ∆θ dθ
∆t , ω= dt , ⃗v = ω
⃗ × ⃗r
∆ω dω
Angular Accel.: αav = ∆t , α= dt , ⃗a = α
⃗ × ⃗r
 ω
⃗ ⃗
A
⃗2
A
Superposition of two SHM’s: ϵ δ
mg mω 2 R cos θ
mgθ′ = mg − mω 2 R cos2 θ ⃗1
A
θ
R
x1 = A1 sin ωt, x2 = A2 sin(ωt + δ)
x = x1 + x2 = A sin(ωt + ϵ)
! !
GM
Orbital velocity of satellite: vo = R A = A1 2 + A2 2 + 2A1 A2 cos δ
! A2 sin δ
Escape velocity: ve = 2GM tan ϵ =
R A1 + A2 cos δ
vo
Kepler’s laws: 1.9: Properties of Matter
a
F/A ∆P F
First: Elliptical orbit with sun at one of the focus. Modulus of rigidity: Y = ∆l/l , B = −V ∆V , η= Aθ
⃗
Second: Areal velocity is constant. (∵ dL/dt = 0). 1
2 3 2 4π 2 3 Compressibility: K = = − V1 dV
Third: T ∝ a . In circular orbit T = GM a . B dP

lateral strain ∆D/D

Poisson’s ratio: σ = longitudinal strain = ∆l/l

1.8: Simple Harmonic Motion 1

Elastic energy: U = 2 stress × strain × volume
Hooke’s law: F = −kx (for small elongation x.)
d2 x k
Acceleration: a = dt2 = −m x = −ω 2 x Surface tension: S = F/l
2π
= 2π m
"
Time period: T = ω k
Surface energy: U = SA

Displacement: x = A sin(ωt + φ) Excess pressure in bubble:

√
Velocity: v = Aω cos(ωt + φ) = ±ω A2 − x2 ∆pair = 2S/R, ∆psoap = 4S/R

2S cos θ
Capillary rise: h = rρg

Potential energy: U = 21 kx2 U

x
−A 0 A
Hydrostatic pressure: p = ρgh

Kinetic energy K = 21 mv 2 K
x Buoyant force: FB = ρV g = Weight of displaced liquid
−A 0 A
Equation of continuity: A1 v1 = A2 v2 v2
v1
Total energy: E = U + K = 21 mω 2 A2
Bernoulli’s equation: p + 12 ρv 2 + ρgh = constant
√
! Torricelli’s theorem: vefflux = 2gh
l
Simple pendulum: T = 2π g l
dv
Viscous force: F = −ηA dx

! F
I
Physical Pendulum: T = 2π mgl Stoke’s law: F = 6πηrv
v

Volume flow πpr 4 r

Poiseuilli’s equation: =
!
I
Torsional Pendulum T = 2π k
time 8ηl
l

2r 2 (ρ−σ)g
Terminal velocity: vt = 9η

1 1 1
Springs in series: keq = k1 + k2
k1 k2

Springs in parallel: keq = k1 + k2 k2

k1
2 Waves
"
2 T
4. 1st overtone/2nd harmonics: ν1 = 2L µ
"
2.1: Waves Motion 5. 2nd overtone/3rd harmonics: ν2 = 3 T
2L µ
∂2y 2
1 ∂ y
General equation of wave: ∂x2 = v 2 ∂t2 . 6. All harmonics are present.

Notation: Amplitude A, Frequency ν, Wavelength λ, Pe-

riod T , Angular Frequency ω, Wave Number k, L

1 2π 2π
T = = , v = νλ, k= String fixed at one end: N A
ν ω λ A N

λ/2
Progressive wave travelling with speed v:
1. Boundary conditions: y = 0 at x = 0
y = f (t − x/v), ! +x; y = f (t + x/v), ! −x "
T
2. Allowed Freq.: L = (2n + 1) λ4 , ν = 2n+1
4L µ, n =
y 0, 1, 2, . . ..
A "
x 1 T
λ λ 3. Fundamental/1st harmonics: ν0 = 4L µ
Progressive sine wave: 2
"
3 T
4. 1st overtone/3rd harmonics: ν1 = 4L µ
y = A sin(kx − ωt) = A sin(2π (x/λ − t/T ))
"
5 T
5. 2nd overtone/5th harmonics: ν2 = 4L µ

w 2.2: Waves on a String 6. Only odd harmonics are present.

Speed of waves on a string
! with mass per unit length µ
and tension T : v = T /µ √ "
1 √1 . n T
2 2 2
Sonometer: ν ∝ L, ν∝ T, ν ∝ µ ν= 2L µ
Transmitted power: Pav = 2π µvA ν

Interference: 2.3: Sound Waves

y1 = A1 sin(kx − ωt), y2 = A2 sin(kx − ωt + δ) Displacement wave: s = s0 sin ω(t − x/v)

y = y1 + y2 = A sin(kx − ωt + ϵ) Pressure wave: p = p0 cos ω(t − x/v), p0 = (Bω/v)s0
"
A = A1 2 + A2 2 + 2A1 A2 cos δ Speed of sound waves:
A2 sin δ & & &
tan ϵ = B Y γP
A1 + A2 cos δ vliquid = , vsolid = , vgas =
# ρ ρ ρ
2nπ, constructive;
δ=
(2n + 1)π, destructive.
2π 2 B 2 2 p0 2 v p0 2
Intensity: I = v s0 ν = 2B = 2ρv
2A cos kx

x
Standing Waves: A N A N A
Standing longitudinal waves:
λ/4
p1 = p0 sin ω(t − x/v), p2 = p0 sin ω(t + x/v)
y1 = A1 sin(kx − ωt), y2 = A2 sin(kx + ωt) p = p1 + p2 = 2p0 cos kx sin ωt
y = y1 + y2 = (2A cos kx) sin ωt
n + 21 λ2 , nodes; n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
# $ %
x=
n λ2 , antinodes. n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
L
Closed organ pipe:
L

String fixed at both ends: N N

A N A

λ/2 1. Boundary condition: y = 0 at x = 0

v
2. Allowed freq.: L = (2n + 1) λ4 , ν = (2n + 1) 4L , n=
1. Boundary conditions: y = 0 at x = 0 and at x = L
" 0, 1, 2, . . .
n T
2. Allowed Freq.: L = n λ2 , ν = 2L µ , n = 1, 2, 3, . . .. 3. Fundamental/1st harmonics: ν0 = v
4L
"
1 T 3v
3. Fundamental/1st harmonics: ν0 = 2L µ 4. 1st overtone/3rd harmonics: ν1 = 3ν0 = 4L
 5v
5. 2nd overtone/5th harmonics: ν2 = 5ν0 = 4L S1 P
dy y
Path difference: ∆x = D d θ
6. Only odd harmonics are present.
S2 D

2π
Phase difference: δ = λ ∆x
A

N Interference Conditions: for integer n,

Open organ pipe: L A !
2nπ, constructive;
N δ=
(2n + 1)π, destructive,
A

1. Boundary condition: y = 0 at x = 0 !
Allowed freq.: L = n λ2 , ν = n 4L
v
, n = 1, 2, . . . ∆x = "nλ, 1 # constructive;
n + 2 λ, destructive
v
2. Fundamental/1st harmonics: ν0 = 2L
2v Intensity:
3. 1st overtone/2nd harmonics: ν1 = 2ν0 = 2L
$
4. 2nd
overtone/3 rd
harmonics: ν2 = 3ν0 = 3v I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos δ,
2L %$ $ &2 %$ $ &2
5. All harmonics are present. Imax = I1 + I2 , Imin = I1 − I2
I1 = I2 : I = 4I0 cos2 2δ , Imax = 4I0 , Imin = 0

l1 + d
λD
Fringe width: w = d
l2 + d

Resonance column: Optical path: ∆x′ = µ∆x

Interference of waves transmitted through thin film:

l1 + d = λ2 , l2 + d = 3λ
4 , v = 2(l2 − l1 )ν !
nλ, constructive;
∆x = 2µd =
n + 12 λ,
" #
Beats: two waves of almost equal frequencies ω1 ≈ ω2 destructive.

p1 = p0 sin ω1 (t − x/v), p2 = p0 sin ω2 (t − x/v)

y
p = p1 + p2 = 2p0 cos ∆ω(t − x/v) sin ω(t − x/v) Diffraction from a single slit: b θ
y
ω = (ω1 + ω2 )/2, ∆ω = ω1 − ω2 (beats freq.)
D
For Minima: nλ = b sin θ ≈ b(y/D)
Doppler Effect:
1.22λ
Resolution: sin θ = b
v + uo
ν= ν0
v − us θ
Law of Malus: I = I0 cos2 θ I0 I
where, v is the speed of sound in the medium, u0 is
the speed of the observer w.r.t. the medium, consid-
ered positive when it moves towards the source and
negative when it moves away from the source, and us
is the speed of the source w.r.t. the medium, consid-
ered positive when it moves towards the observer and
negative when it moves away from the observer.

2.4: Light Waves

Visit www.concepts-of-physics.com to buy
Plane Wave: E = E0 sin ω(t − xv ), I = I0 “IIT JEE Physics: Topic-wise Complete Solutions”
and our other books. Written by IITians, Foreword

MEEEE
by Dr. HC Verma, Appreciated by Students.
aE0 I0
Spherical Wave: E = r sin ω(t − vr ), I = r2

Young’s double slit experiment

3 Optics
! "
1 1 1
Lens maker’s formula: f = (µ − 1) R1 − R2

3.1: Reflection of Light f

1 1 1 v
normal
Lens formula: v − u = f, m= u
Laws of reflection: (i)
incident i r reflected
u v
Incident ray, reflected ray, and normal lie in the same
plane (ii) ∠i = ∠r Power of the lens: P = f1 , P in diopter if f in metre.

Two thin lenses separated by distance d:

Plane mirror:
d d
(i) the image and the object are equidistant from mir- 1 1 1 d
= + − d
ror (ii) virtual image of real object F f1 f2 f1 f2
f1 f2

I
Spherical Mirror: O
f 3.3: Optical Instruments i
v
u
Simple microscope: m = D/f in normal adjustment.
1. Focal length f = R/2 Objective Eyepiece
1 1 1
2. Mirror equation: v + u = f
O ∞
3. Magnification: m = − uv Compound microscope:
u v fe
3.2: Refraction of Light D
speed of light in vacuum c
Refractive index: µ = speed of light in medium = v 1. Magnification in normal adjustment: m = v D
u fe
1 2µ sin θ
incident reflected 2. Resolving power: R = ∆d = λ
sin i µ2 µ1 i
Snell’s Law: sin r = µ1
µ2 fo fe
r refracted

real depth d d′ Astronomical telescope:

Apparent depth: µ = apparent depth = d′ d I
O

1
Critical angle: θc = sin−1 µ
µ θc 1. In normal adjustment: m = − ffoe , L = fo + fe
1 1
2. Resolving power: R = ∆θ = 1.22λ

A
3.4: Dispersion
δ
Deviation by a prism: i r i ′
A
r′ Cauchy’s equation: µ = µ0 + λ2 , A>0
µ
Dispersion by prism with small A and i:

δ = i + i′ − A, general result 1. Mean deviation: δy = (µy − 1)A

sin A+δ2
m
2. Angular dispersion: θ = (µv − µr )A
µ= , i = i′ for minimum deviation
sin A2 µv −µr θ
Dispersive power: ω = µy −1 ≈ δy (if A and i small)
δ
δm = (µ − 1)A, for small A δm µ′
A
i ′ i Dispersion without deviation:
µ A′

µ1 µ2 (µy − 1)A + (µ′y − 1)A′ = 0

Refraction at spherical surface: Deviation without dispersion:

P O Q
(µv − µr )A = (µ′v − µ′r )A′
u v

µ2 µ1 µ2 − µ1 µ1 v
− = , m=
v u R µ2 u
4 Heat and Thermodynamics 4.4: Theromodynamic Processes
First law of thermodynamics: ∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
4.1: Heat and Temperature
t
Temp. scales: F = 32 + 95 C, K = C + 273.16 Work done by the gas:
% V2
Ideal gas equation: pV = nRT , n : number of moles ∆W = p∆V, W = pdV
V1
van der Waals equation: p + Va2 (V − b) = nRT
! "
& '
V2
Wisothermal = nRT ln
Thermal expansion: L = L0 (1 + α∆T ), V1
A = A0 (1 + β∆T ), V = V0 (1 + γ∆T ), γ = 2β = 3α Wisobaric = p(V2 − V1 )
F ∆l p1 V 1 − p2 V 2
Thermal stress of a material: A =Y l Wadiabatic =
γ−1
Wisochoric = 0
4.2: Kinetic Theory of Gases on
General: M = mNA , k = R/NA T1
Q1
n Efficiency of the heat engine: W
Q2
Maxwell distribution of speed: T2

vp v̄ vrms v work done by the engine Q1 − Q2

η= =
# # heat supplied to it Q1
3kT 3RT
RMS speed: vrms = m = M
Q2 T2
ηcarnot = 1 − =1−
# # Q1 T1
8kT 8RT
Average speed: v̄ = πm = πM
T1
# Q1
Most probable speed: vp = 2kT Coeff. of performance of refrigerator: W
m
Q2
T2
Pressure: p = 31 ρvrms
2
Q2 Q2
COP = W = Q1 −Q2
Equipartition of energy: K = 12 kT for each degree of (f
∆Q ∆Q
freedom. Thus, K = f2 kT for molecule having f de- Entropy: ∆S = T , S f − Si = i T
grees of freedoms.
Q Tf
Const. T : ∆S = T, Varying T : ∆S = ms ln Ti
f
Internal energy of n moles of an ideal gas is U = 2 nRT .
Adiabatic process: ∆Q = 0, pV γ = constant

4.3: Specific Heat i m 4.5: Heat Transfer

Q
Specific heat: s = m∆T ∆Q
Conduction: ∆t = −KA ∆T
x
Latent heat: L = Q/m x
$ Thermal resistance: R = KA
∆Q
Specific heat at constant volume: Cv =
$
n∆T $ ) *
A
V 1 x1 x2 K1 K2
$ Rseries = R1 + R2 = A K1 + K2
∆Q $ x1 x2
Specific heat at constant pressure: Cp = n∆T $
p
K2 A2
1 1 1 1
Relation between Cp and Cv : Cp − Cv = R Rparallel = R1 + R2 = x (K1 A1 + K2 A2 ) K1 A1

x
Ratio of specific heats: γ = Cp /Cv
emissive power Ebody
Relation between U and Cv : ∆U = nCv ∆T Kirchhoff ’s Law: absorptive power = abody = Eblackbody

Specific heat of gas mixture: Eλ

Wien’s displacement law: λm T = b

n1 Cv1 + n2 Cv2 n1 Cp1 + n2 Cp2
Cv = , γ= λ
n1 + n2 n1 Cv1 + n2 Cv2 λm

∆Q
Molar internal energy of an ideal gas: U = f2 RT , Stefan-Boltzmann law: ∆t = σeAT 4
f = 3 for monatomic and f = 5 for diatomic gas. dT
Newton’s law of cooling: dt = −bA(T − T0 )
5 Electricity and Magnetism 5.3: Capacitors t
5.1: Electrostatics Capacitance: C = q/V

1 q1 q 2 +q
Coulomb’s law: F⃗ = 4πϵ0 r 2 r̂ q1 r q2
−q
Parallel plate capacitor: C = ϵ0 A/d
A A
d
⃗ r) = 1 q
Electric field: E(⃗ 4πϵ0 r 2 r̂ q
⃗
E
⃗
r
r2
1 q1 q2
Electrostatic energy: U = − 4πϵ 0 r Spherical capacitor: C = 4πϵ0 r1 r2
−q +q
r2 −r1
r1
1 q
Electrostatic potential: V = 4πϵ0 r

! r
⃗
⃗ · ⃗r,
dV = −E V (⃗r) = − ⃗ · d⃗r
E 2πϵ0 l
∞ Cylindrical capacitor: C = ln(r2 /r1 )
r2
l
r1
⃗
p
Electric dipole moment: p⃗ = q d⃗ −q +q
d A
Capacitors in parallel: Ceq = C1 + C2 C1 C2
B
1 p cos θ V (r)
Potential of a dipole: V = 4πϵ0 r 2
θ r
1 1 1
⃗
p Capacitors in series: Ceq = C1 + C2
C1 C2
A B

Er Force between plates of a parallel plate capacitor:

Field of a dipole: Q2
θ r F = 2Aϵ
Eθ 0
⃗
p
Q2
Er = 1 2p cos θ
4πϵ0 r3 , Eθ = 1 p sin θ
4πϵ0 r 3
Energy stored in capacitor: U = 12 CV 2 = 2C = 12 QV

⃗ ⃗τ = p⃗ × E
Torque on a dipole placed in E: ⃗ Energy density in electric field E: U/V = 12 ϵ0 E 2
ϵ0 KA
⃗ U = −⃗
Pot. energy of a dipole placed in E: ⃗
p·E Capacitor with dielectric: C = d

o 5.2: Gauss’s Law and its Applications 5.4: Current electricity

⃗ · dS
⃗
"
Electric flux: φ = E Current density: j = i/A = σE
⃗ · dS
⃗ = qin /ϵ0 1 eE i
Drift speed: vd = =
"
Gauss’s law: E 2 mτ neA

Field of a uniformly charged ring on its axis: Resistance of a wire: R = ρl/A, where ρ = 1/σ
1 qx a
EP = 4πϵ0 (a2 +x2 )3/2 q ⃗
E Temp. dependence of resistance: R = R0 (1 + α∆T )
x P
Ohm’s law: V = iR
E and V #of a uniformly charged sphere:
1 Qr Kirchhoff ’s Laws: (i) The Junction Law: The algebraic
4πϵ0 R3 , for r < R E
E= 1 Q sum of all the currents directed towards a node is zero
4πϵ0 r 2 , for r ≥ R r
O R i.e., Σnode Ii = 0. (ii)The Loop Law: The algebraic
sum of all the potential differences along a closed loop
# 2
Q
3 − Rr 2 , for r < R V
$ %
V = 8πϵ 0R
1 Q in a circuit is zero i.e., Σloop ∆ Vi = 0.
4πϵ0 r , for r ≥ R O
r
R
1 1 1 A
Resistors in parallel: Req = R1 + R2 R1 R2
E and V of a uniformly charged spherical shell: B
&
0, for r < R E
E= 1 Q Resistors in series: Req = R1 + R2
4πϵ0 r 2 , for r ≥ R O
r A
R1 R2
B
R
#
1 Q
V = 4πϵ0 R , for r < R V R1 R2
1 Q
4πϵ0 r , for r ≥ R O
r
Wheatstone bridge:
↑ G
R R3 R4

λ
Field of a line charge: E = 2πϵ0 r
V
Balanced if R1 /R2 = R3 /R4 .
σ
Field of an infinite sheet: E = 2ϵ0
Electric Power: P = V 2 /R = I 2 R = IV
σ
Field in the vicinity of conducting surface: E = ϵ0
 i ig G i ⃗
Energy of a magnetic dipole placed in B:
Galvanometer as an Ammeter: i − ig U = −⃗µ·B⃗
S
⃗
ig G = (i − ig )S Bi l B
Hall effect: Vw = ned w
y
x
R G i d z
Galvanometer as a Voltmeter: ↑
A ig B
VAB = ig (R + G)
5.6: Magnetic Field due to Current
R C
i ⃗
⊗B
Charging of capacitors: ⃗ = µ0 i d⃗l×⃗
r
Biot-Savart law: dB 4π r 3 θ
⃗
r
V d⃗l
! t
"
q(t) = CV 1 − e− RC
θ2
C
t Field due to a straight conductor: i
d ⃗
⊗B
Discharging of capacitors: q(t) = q0 e− RC q(t) θ1
R
µ0 i
B= 4πd (cos θ1 − cos θ2 )
Time constant in RC circuit: τ = RC
µ0 i
Field due to an infinite straight wire: B = 2πd

∆H Peltier heat
Peltier effect: emf e = ∆Q = charge transferred . dF µ 0 i1 i2 i1 i2
Force between parallel wires: dl = 2πd

e d
Seeback effect: T
T0 Tn Ti
a
P
1. Thermo-emf: e = aT + 12 bT 2 Field on the axis of a ring: i ⃗
B
d
2. Thermoelectric power: de/dt = a + bT .
µ0 ia2
3. Neutral temp.: Tn = −a/b. BP = 2(a2 +d2 )3/2
4. Inversion temp.: Ti = −2a/b.
a
µ0 iθ
∆H Thomson heat Field at the centre of an arc: B = ⃗⊙ θ i
Thomson effect: emf e = ∆Q = charge transferred = σ∆T . 4πa B
a
Faraday’s law of electrolysis: The mass deposited is
µ0 i
Field at the centre of a ring: B = 2a
1
m = Zit = F Eit
⃗ · d⃗l = µ0 Iin
#
Ampere’s law: B
where i is current, t is time, Z is electrochemical equiv-
alent, E is chemical equivalent, and F = 96485 C/g is Field inside a solenoid: B = µ0 ni, n = N
l
Faraday constant. l

µ0 N i
5.5: Magnetism e Field inside a toroid: B = 2πr r

Lorentz force on a moving charge: F⃗ = q⃗v × B

⃗ + qE
⃗
⃗2
B
Charged particle in a uniform magnetic field: d
v Field of a bar magnet: ⃗1
S N B
q mv 2πm
r= qB , T = qB d
⃗⊗ r µ0 2M µ0 M
B B1 = 4π d3 , B2 = 4π d3

⃗
B Horizontal Bh
Angle of dip: Bh = B cos δ δ
Force on a current carrying wire: ⃗l
Bv B
⃗
F i

F⃗ = i ⃗l × B
⃗
Tangent galvanometer: Bh tan θ = µ0 ni
2r , i = K tan θ
Magnetic moment of a current loop (dipole): k
Moving coil galvanometer: niAB = kθ, i= nAB θ
µ ⃗
⃗ A
µ ⃗
⃗ = iA $
i I
Time period of magnetometer: T = 2π M Bh
⃗ ⃗τ = µ
Torque on a magnetic dipole placed in B: ⃗
⃗ ×B
⃗ = µH
Permeability: B ⃗
 C
5.7: Electromagnetic Induction if R
1
Z
RC circuit: i ωC
φ
⃗ · dS
⃗
!
Magnetic flux: φ = B
% ˜
e0 sin ωt
1
R

Faraday’s law: e = − dφ Z= R2 + (1/ωC)2 , tan φ = ωCR

dt

Lenz’s Law: Induced current create a B-field that op- L R R

poses the change in magnetic flux. LR circuit: i
ωL
φ

+ √ ωL
˜
e0 sin ωt
Z

Z= R 2 + ω 2 L2 , tan φ = R
Motional emf: e = Blv l v
⃗ ⃗
⊗B

− L C R 1
Z 1
LCR Circuit: i
ωC
φ ωC − ωL
di
Self inductance: φ = Li, e= −L dt
& ˜
e0 sin ωt
ωL R

Self inductance of a solenoid: L = µ0 n2 (πr2 l) 2 1

' 1
( −ωL
Z= R2 + ωC − ωL , tan φ = ωC
R
" # &
t 1 1
Growth of current in LR circuit: i = Re 1 − e− L/R νresonance = 2π LC

i
L R Power factor: P = erms irms cos φ
e
e 0.63 R

t N1 e1 e1 N1 N2 e2
Transformer: = e2 , e 1 i1 = e2 i2
S i L
R
N2
˜ i1 i2
˜
t
− L/R √
Decay of current in LR circuit: i = i0 e Speed of the EM waves in vacuum: c = 1/ µ0 ϵ0
L R i
i0

0.37i0
t
S i L
R

Time constant of LR circuit: τ = L/R

Energy stored in an inductor: U = 12 Li2

U B2
Energy density of B field: u = V = 2µ0

di
Mutual inductance: φ = M i, e = −M dt

EMF induced in a rotating coil: e = N ABω sin ωt

i
Alternating current: t
T
i = i0 sin(ωt + φ),
T = 2π/ω
$T
Average current in AC: ī = T1 0 i dt = 0

" $ #1/2 i2
1 T i0
RMS current: irms = T 0
i2 dt = √
2
t

Energy: E = irms 2 RT Visit www.concepts-of-physics.com to buy

Capacitive reactance: Xc = 1 “IIT JEE Physics: Topic-wise Complete Solutions”
ωC
and our other books. Written by IITians, Foreword
Inductive reactance: XL = ωL by Dr. HC Verma, Appreciated by Students.

Imepedance: Z = e0 /i0 EEE

6 Modern Physics N0
N

Population at time t: N = N0 e−λt N0

6.1: Photo-electric effect 2

O t1/2 t
Photon’s energy: E = hν = hc/λ

Photon’s momentum: p = h/λ = E/c Half life: t1/2 = 0.693/λ

Max. KE of ejected photo-electron: Kmax = hν − φ Average life: tav = 1/λ

Threshold freq. in photo-electric effect: ν0 = φ/h Population after n half lives: N = N0 /2n .

V0 Mass defect: ∆m = [Zmp + (A − Z)mn ] − M

hc 1
! " φ hc
Stopping potential: Vo = e λ − e
e
Binding energy: B = [Zmp + (A − Z)mn − M ] c2
φ 1
hc λ
−φ
e
Q-value: Q = Ui − Uf
de Broglie wavelength: λ = h/p
Energy released in nuclear reaction: ∆E = ∆mc2
where ∆m = mreactants − mproducts .
6.2: The Atom
Energy in nth Bohr’s orbit: 6.4: Vacuum tubes and Semiconductors

mZ 2 e4 13.6Z 2 D
En = − , En = − eV Half Wave Rectifier:
8ϵ0 2 h2 n2 n2 R Output

Radius of the nth Bohr’s orbit:

˜
ϵ 0 h2 n 2 n2 a 0 Full Wave Rectifier:
rn = , rn = , a0 = 0.529 Å
πmZe2 Z ˜ Output

nh
Quantization of the angular momentum: l = 2π
Grid

Triode Valve: Cathode

Photon energy in state transition: E2 − E1 = hν Filament Plate

E2 E2
hν hν %
∆Vp %
E1
Emission
E1 Plate resistance of a triode: rp = ∆ip %
Absorption ∆Vg =0
%
Wavelength of emitted radiation: for a transition Transconductance of a triode: gm =
∆ip %
∆Vg %
from nth to mth state: ∆Vp =0
# $ %
1 2 1 1 ∆V %
Amplification by a triode: µ = − ∆Vpg %
= RZ − 2 ∆ip =0
λ n2 m
Relation between rp , µ, and gm : µ = rp × gm

I Kα
Kβ
hc
X-ray spectrum: λmin = eV
Ie Ic
Current in a transistor: Ie = Ib + Ic
λmin λα λ
Ib
√
Moseley’s law: ν = a(Z − b)
Ic
α and β parameters of a transistor: α = Ie , β =
X-ray diffraction: 2d sin θ = nλ Ic α
Ib , β = 1−α

Heisenberg uncertainity principle: ∆Ic

Transconductance: gm = ∆Vbe
∆p∆x ≥ h/(2π), ∆E∆t ≥ h/(2π)
Logic Gates:
AND OR NAND NOR XOR
6.3: The Nucleus t A
0
B
0
AB
0
A+B
0
AB
1
A+B
1
AB̄ + ĀB
0
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
Nuclear radius: R = R0 A1/3 , R0 ≈ 1.1 × 10−15 m 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 0
dN
Decay rate: dt = −λN