Fundamentals of Electric Circuits Aksum University 2014/15

Chapter Two
2 Basic Circuit Laws
2.1 Introduction
The previous chapter introduced basic concepts such as current, voltage, and power in an electric circuit
and to actually determine the values of these variables in a given circuit requires some fundamental laws
that govern electric circuits. These laws, known as Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws, form the foundation
upon which electric circuit analysis is built. In this chapter we discuss some techniques commonly applied
in circuit design and analysis. These techniques include combining resistors in series or parallel, voltage
division, current division, and delta-to-wye and wye-to-delta transformations. The application of these
laws and techniques will be restricted to resistive circuits in this chapter.

2.2 Ohm’s Law

Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of electric charge. This physical
property, or ability to resist current, is known as resistance and is represented by the symbol R. The circuit
element used to model the current-resisting behavior of a material is the resistor. The resistance of any
material with a uniform cross-sectional area A depends on its A and length, as shown in Fig. 2.1(a). It was
represented in mathematical form as,
………………………………………………………………… (2.1)

Where is ρ known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meters. Good conductors, such as copper and
aluminum, have low resistivity, while insulators, such as mica and paper, have high resistivity.

Figure 2.1: (a) Resistor, (b) Circuit symbol for resistance.

The circuit symbol for the resistor is shown in Fig. 2.1(b), where R stands for the resistance of the resistor.
The resistor is the simplest passive element.

Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German physicist, is credited with finding the relationship between
current and voltage for a resistor. This relationship is known as Ohm’s law.

 Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to the current
i flowing through the resistor.
vai ……………………………………………………………. (2.2)

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Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resistance, R. The resistance is a
material property which can change if the internal or external conditions of the element are altered, e.g., if
there are changes in the temperature. Thus, Eq. (2.2) becomes
V = iR …………………………………………………….….. (2.3)
Which is the mathematical form of Ohm’s law. R is measured in the unit of ohms, designated Ω.
 The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current; it is
measured in ohms (Ω).
We may deduce from Eq. (2.3) that
𝑉
𝑅= 𝐼
………………………………………………….…. (2.4)
So that, 1 Ω = 1 V/A

To apply Ohm’s law as stated in Eq. (2.3), we must pay careful attention to the current direction and
voltage polarity. The direction of current i and the polarity of voltage v must conform to the passive sign
convention, as shown in Fig. 2.1(b). This implies that current flows from a higher potential to a lower
potential in order for v = i R. If current flows from a lower potential to a higher potential, v = -i R. Since the
value of R can range from zero to infinity, it is important that we consider the two extreme possible values
of R. An element with R = 0 is called a short circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.2(a). For a short circuit,
v = iR = 0 ………………………………………………………… (2.5)
Showing that the voltage is zero but the current could be anything. In practice, a short circuit is usually a
connecting wire assumed to be a perfect conductor. Thus,

 A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero.

Figure 2.2: (a) Short circuit, R = 0 (b) Open circuit, R = ∞

Similarly, an element with is known as an open circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.2(b). For an open circuit,
indicating that the current is zero though the voltage could be anything.

 An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity.

A resistor is either fixed or variable. Most resistors are of the fixed type, meaning their resistance remains
constant. The two common types of fixed resistors wire wound and composition. The composition
resistors are used when large resistance is needed.

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The circuit symbol in Fig. 2.1(b) is for a fixed resistor. Variable resistors have adjustable resistance. The
symbol for a variable resistor is shown in Fig. 2.4(a). A common variable resistor is known as a
potentiometer or pot for short, with the symbol shown in Fig. 2.4(b). The pot is a three-terminal element
with a sliding contact or wiper. By sliding the wiper, the resistances between the wiper terminal and the
fixed terminals vary. Variable resistors can be of either wire wound or composition type.

Figure 2.3: Circuit symbol for:

(a) Variable resistor

(b) Potentiometer

A useful quantity in circuit analysis is the reciprocal of resistance R, known as conductance and denoted
by G: The conductance is a measure of how well an element will conduct electric current. The unit of
conductance is the mho reciprocal ohm, with symbol ℧, the inverted omega.

1 𝑖
𝐺 = 𝑅 = 𝑣 ……………………………………………………………………. (2.7)

 Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is measured in mhos

(℧) or siemens (S).

1 S = 1℧ = 1 A/ V

The same resistance can be expressed in ohms or siemens. For example, 10 Ω is the same as 0.1 S.

Problem 1: An electric iron draws 2 A at 120 V. Find its resistance and conductance.

Solution: From Ohm’s law, R = v/ i = 120/ 2 = 60 Ω and G = i/ v = 2/ 120 = 0.6 S.

2.3 Nodes, Branches, and Loops

Since the elements of an electric circuit can be interconnected in several ways, such elements include
branches, nodes, and loops.

 A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.

In other words, a branch represents any two-terminal element. The circuit in Fig. 2.4 has five branches,
namely, the 10-V voltage source, the 2-A current source, and the three resistors.

Figure 2.4: Nodes, branches, and loops

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A node is usually indicated by a dot in a circuit. If a short circuit (connecting wire) connects two nodes,
the two nodes constitute a single node. The circuit in Fig. 2.4 has three nodes a, b and c.

 A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.

A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node, passing through a set of nodes, and returning to the
starting node without passing through any node more than once.

 A loop is any closed path in a circuit.

A loop is said to be independent if it contains at least one branch which is not a part of any other
independent loop.
 Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share a single node and consequently
carry the same current.
 Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes and
consequently have the same voltage across them.

2.4 Kirchhoff’s laws

Kirchhoff’s laws were first introduced in 1847 by the German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–
1887). These laws are formally known as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).
Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the law of conservation of charge, which requires that the algebraic sum
of charges within a system cannot change.

 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or
a closed boundary) is zero.
∑𝑁
𝑛=1 𝑖𝑛 = 0 …………………………………………………………………………………. (2.8)

The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the node. A simple
application of KCL is combining current sources in parallel. The combined current is the algebraic sum of
the current supplied by the individual sources. For example, the current sources shown in Fig. 2.5(a) can
be combined as in Fig. 2.5(b). The combined or equivalent current source can be found by applying KCL
to node a.
IT + I2 = I1 +I3 or IT = I1 - I2+I3

Figure 2.5: Current sources in parallel: (a) original circuit, (b) equivalent circuit.

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A circuit can’t contain two different I1 and I2, in series, unless I1 = I2; otherwise KCL will be violated.

 Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed
path (or loop) is zero.
∑𝑀
𝑚=1 𝑖𝑚 = 0 ………………………………………………………………. (2.9)

To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit in Fig. 2.6. Suppose we start with the voltage source and go
clockwise around the loop; then voltages would be –V1, +V2, +V3, –V4 and +V5 in that order.

Figure 2.6: A single-loop circuit illustrating KVL.

KVL can be applied in two ways: by taking either a clockwise or a counterclockwise trip around the loop.
Either way, the algebraic sum of voltages around the loop is zero.

Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises ……………………………………… (2.10)

Notice that if we had traveled counterclockwise, the result would have been +V1, –V2, –V3, +V4 and –V5
which is the same as before except that the signs are reversed.

V2 + V3 + V5 = V1 + V4

–V1 + V2 + V3 –V4 + V5 = 0

2.5 Series Resistors and Voltage Division

Consider the single-loop circuit of Fig. 2.7. The two resistors are in series, since the same current i flows in
both of them. Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors, we obtain

V1 = iR1, and V2 = iR2 ……………………………………………………… (2.11)

Figure 2.7: A single-loop circuit with two resistors in series.

If we apply KVL to the loop (moving in the clockwise direction), we have

–V + V1 + V2 = 0 …………………………………………………………...… (2.12)
Combining Eqs. (2.11) and (2.12), we get

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V = V1 + V2 = i (R1 + R2) …………………..………………………..…. (2.13)

Or i = V/ R1 + R2 …………………………………………………………………… (2.14)
Notice that Eq. (2.14) can be written as

i = V/ Req ……………………………………………….……………………..…. (2.15)

Where Req = R1 + R2.

Figure 2.8: Equivalent circuit of the Fig. 2.7 circuit.

 The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum of the
individual resistances. Resistors in series behave as a single resistor whose resistance is
equal to the sum of the resistances of the individual resistors.

2.6 Parallel Resistors and Current Division

Consider the circuit in Fig. 2.31, where two resistors are connected in parallel and therefore have the same
voltage across them. From Ohm’s law,

Figure 2.9: Two resistors in parallel.

V = i1R1 = i2R2 …………………………………………………………………….………. (2.16)

Or i1 = V/ R1, i2 = V/ R2 ……………………………………………………………………. (2.17)
Applying KCL at node a gives the total current i as
i = i1 + i2 ……………………………………………………………………………………... (2.18)
Substituting Eq. (2.17) into Eq. (2.18), we get
i = V/ R1 + V/R2 = V (1/R1 + 1/R2) = V/ Req …………………………….. (2.19)
Where Req is the equivalent resistance of the resistors in parallel.
Req = R1R2 / R1 + R2
 The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the product of their resistances
divided by their sum.

From Eq. (2.20), for two resistors in parallel, if R1 = R2, then Req = R1 / 2.

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