Activity-5: Exploring Constraint Satisfaction in Artificial

Intelligence and Machine Learning

This activity introduces Constraint Satisfaction, a problem-solving paradigm in
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML). Students will learn its
theoretical foundation, practical applications, and programming implementation.

1. Introduction to Constraint Satisfaction Problems (CSPs)

Constraint Satisfaction Problems (CSPs) involve finding solutions to problems defined by a set
of constraints that variables must satisfy. A CSP is typically represented by:

1. Variables: Entities whose values need to be determined.

2. Domains: Possible values for each variable.
3. Constraints: Rules that restrict the values variables can take.

2. How CSPs Work

To solve a CSP:

1. Define the variables and domains: Specify what needs to be solved and the potential
solutions.
2. Apply constraints: Identify rules the solutions must obey.
3. Search for a solution: Use algorithms (e.g., backtracking, forward-checking) to explore
possible combinations and find one or more solutions.

3. Applications of CSPs in AI and ML

1. Scheduling: Assigning tasks to time slots while meeting constraints (e.g., exam
scheduling).
2. Map Coloring: Assigning colors to regions on a map so that no two adjacent regions
share the same color.
3. Resource Allocation: Optimally distributing resources in constrained environments.
4. Puzzle Solving: Solving Sudoku or crossword puzzles.
5. Machine Learning: Tuning hyperparameters with constraints or managing resource-
constrained training.
4. Example: Solving a CSP (Map Coloring)

In the map-coloring problem, the goal is to assign colors to regions such that no two adjacent
regions share the same color.

Python Example:

from constraint import Problem

def map_coloring():
# Create a problem instance
problem = Problem()

# Add variables (regions) with their domains (possible colors)

colors = ["Red", "Green", "Blue"]
problem.addVariable("A", colors)
problem.addVariable("B", colors)
problem.addVariable("C", colors)
problem.addVariable("D", colors)

# Add constraints (adjacent regions cannot have the same color)

problem.addConstraint(lambda a, b: a != b, ("A", "B"))
problem.addConstraint(lambda a, c: a != c, ("A", "C"))
problem.addConstraint(lambda b, d: b != d, ("B", "D"))
problem.addConstraint(lambda c, d: c != d, ("C", "D"))

# Get solutions
solutions = problem.getSolutions()
return solutions

# Print solutions
print(map_coloring())

Questions

1. What are the three key components of a Constraint Satisfaction Problem (CSP)?
Explain each with an example.

Answer 1: A Constraint Satisfaction Problem (CSP) is a mathematical problem defined by a set

of objects whose state must satisfy a number of constraints or limitations. Here are the three
key components of a CSP:

1. Variables

Variables are the entities that need to be assigned values from a specific domain. Each
variable represents an element of the problem that needs a solution.

Example: In a Sudoku puzzle, each cell in the grid is a variable. For a standard 9x9
Sudoku, there are 81 variables, each representing one cell in the grid.
 2. Domains

A domain is the set of possible values that each variable can take. The domain defines the
range of values that can be assigned to the variables.

Example: In the Sudoku puzzle, the domain for each cell (variable) is the set of numbers
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. Each cell can be assigned any value from this domain,
depending on the constraints.

3. Constraints

Constraints are the rules that restrict the values that the variables can simultaneously take.
Constraints specify the relationships among variables and must be satisfied to solve the
problem.

Example: In the Sudoku puzzle, the constraints are:

 Each row must contain all the numbers from 1 to 9 without repetition.
 Each column must contain all the numbers from 1 to 9 without repetition.
 Each of the nine 3x3 sub-grids must contain all the numbers from 1 to 9 without
repetition.

Bringing It All Together: Sudoku Example

To summarize, in the context of a Sudoku puzzle:

 Variables: Each of the 81 cells in the grid.

 Domains: The set of numbers {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} for each cell.
 Constraints: The rules ensuring no duplicate numbers in any row, column, or 3x3 sub-
grid.

In solving a CSP, the goal is to find an assignment of values to the variables such that all
constraints are satisfied. CSP techniques are widely used in various fields such as
scheduling, planning, resource allocation, and more.

2. Explain how backtracking can be used to solve CSPs. What are its advantages and
limitations?

Answer 2: Backtracking is a powerful algorithmic technique used to solve Constraint

Satisfaction Problems (CSPs). It systematically explores the potential solutions by trying to build
a solution incrementally, one piece at a time, and abandoning a partial solution as soon as it
determines that this partial solution cannot possibly be completed to a valid solution. Here’s
how it works and its pros and cons:

How Backtracking Works in CSPs

1. Initial Setup: Start with an empty assignment of variables.
2. Recursive Assignment: Assign a value to one of the variables based on the problem’s
constraints.
3. Constraint Checking: Check if the current assignment violates any constraints:
o If it doesn’t, recursively attempt to assign values to the next variable.
o If it does, backtrack by removing the last assigned value and trying the next
possible value.
4. Backtracking: Continue this process of assignment and constraint checking until either a
complete valid solution is found or all possibilities are exhausted.

Example: Solving a Sudoku Puzzle

In a Sudoku puzzle:

 Variables: Each cell in the grid.

 Domains: The numbers {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.
 Constraints: No repeated numbers in any row, column, or 3x3 sub-grid.

The backtracking algorithm would:

1. Start with an empty grid.

2. Assign a number to the first empty cell, ensuring it doesn’t violate any Sudoku
constraints.
3. Move to the next cell and repeat the process.
4. If a constraint is violated, backtrack to the previous cell and try the next possible number.
5. Continue this process until the entire grid is filled or all possibilities are exhausted.

Advantages of Backtracking

1. Simple and Easy to Implement: The algorithm is straightforward and can be

implemented recursively.
2. Systematic Search: Ensures that all potential solutions are considered, and no valid
solution is overlooked.
3. Versatile: Can be applied to a wide range of CSPs, from puzzles like Sudoku to complex
scheduling problems.

Limitations of Backtracking

1. Inefficiency for Large Problems: As the number of variables and constraints increases,
the algorithm can become very slow due to the exponential growth of the search space.
2. Redundant Work: It may repeatedly explore the same partial solutions, especially in
problems with overlapping subproblems.
3. Lack of Heuristics: Without additional heuristics or optimizations, the algorithm may
spend a lot of time exploring unpromising paths.

Enhancements to Backtracking
 To mitigate some of these limitations, several enhancements can be applied:

 Forward Checking: Helps by looking ahead and eliminating values that would cause a
constraint violation in future assignments.
 Constraint Propagation: Techniques like arc-consistency (AC-3) can further reduce the
search space by enforcing constraints.
 Heuristics: Using heuristics like the Minimum Remaining Values (MRV) can prioritize
variables that are more constrained, improving efficiency.

By carefully applying these enhancements, backtracking can be a highly effective method

for solving CSPs, balancing simplicity and effectiveness.

3. Modify the given Python code to solve a Sudoku puzzle. Provide your
implementation below.

Answer 3: To modify the given Python code to solve a Sudoku puzzle using a similar approach
(constraint satisfaction problem), we need to:

1. Create a grid representing the Sudoku puzzle.

2. Add variables for each cell in the grid.
3. Add constraints to ensure that each row, column, and 3x3 subgrid contains unique values.
4. Use a solver to find the solution.

Here's how you can modify the code to solve a Sudoku puzzle:

from constraint import Problem, AllDifferentConstraint

def sudoku_solver(puzzle):

# Create a problem instance

problem = Problem()

# Define the size of the Sudoku grid (9x9)

n=9

# Add variables (cells in the Sudoku grid) with domains (numbers 1-9)

for row in range(n):

 for col in range(n):

problem.addVariable((row, col), range(1, 10))

# Add constraints: Each row, column, and 3x3 subgrid must have unique numbers

for i in range(n):

# Row constraint: All cells in the same row must be different

problem.addConstraint(AllDifferentConstraint(), [(i, j) for j in range(n)])

# Column constraint: All cells in the same column must be different

problem.addConstraint(AllDifferentConstraint(), [(j, i) for j in range(n)])

# Subgrid constraint: Each 3x3 subgrid must have unique values

for i in range(0, n, 3):

for j in range(0, n, 3):

# Get the cells in the current 3x3 subgrid

subgrid_cells = [(i + di, j + dj) for di in range(3) for dj in range(3)]

problem.addConstraint(AllDifferentConstraint(), subgrid_cells)

# Add constraints for given puzzle values

for row in range(n):

for col in range(n):

if puzzle[row][col] != 0: # 0 means an empty cell

problem.addConstraint(lambda var, val=puzzle[row][col]: var == val, [(row,

col)])
 # Get solutions

solutions = problem.getSolutions()

return solutions

# Define a Sudoku puzzle (0 represents empty cells)

# Example puzzle:

puzzle = [

[5, 3, 0, 0, 7, 0, 0, 0, 0],

[6, 0, 0, 1, 9, 5, 0, 0, 0],

[0, 9, 8, 0, 0, 0, 0, 6, 0],

[8, 0, 0, 0, 6, 0, 0, 0, 3],

[4, 0, 0, 8, 0, 3, 0, 0, 1],

[7, 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 6],

[0, 6, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 8, 0],

[0, 0, 0, 4, 1, 9, 0, 0, 5],

[0, 0, 0, 0, 8, 0, 0, 7, 9]

# Solve the Sudoku puzzle

solutions = sudoku_solver(puzzle)

# Print the first solution

if solutions:
 solution = solutions[0]

print("Solution:")

for row in range(9):

print([solution[(row, col)] for col in range(9)])

else:

print("No solution found").

Explanation:

1. Variables: Each cell in the 9x9 grid is a variable, and its domain is the set of possible
numbers (1 to 9).
2. Constraints:
o Row constraints: Each row must contain unique numbers (no repetition).
o Column constraints: Each column must also contain unique numbers.
o Subgrid constraints: Each of the nine 3x3 subgrids must have unique numbers.
3. Given Puzzle Values: For cells that are pre-filled (non-zero), we add a constraint to fix
the value in that cell.

Output:

The program will print the solved Sudoku puzzle if a solution exists. For example, the
solution for the given puzzle might look like this:

Solution:

[5, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 1, 2]

[6, 7, 2, 1, 9, 5, 3, 4, 8]

[1, 9, 8, 3, 4, 2, 5, 6, 7]

[8, 5, 9, 7, 6, 1, 4, 2, 3]

[4, 2, 6, 8, 5, 3, 7, 9, 1]

[7, 1, 3, 9, 2, 4, 8, 5, 6]

[9, 6, 1, 5, 3, 7, 2, 8, 4]

[2, 8, 7, 4, 1, 9, 6, 3, 5]

[3, 4, 5, 2, 8, 6, 1, 7, 9]
 If there is no solution (for example, if the puzzle is invalid), it will print "No solution
found".

4. Describe a real-world problem in AI or ML that can be formulated as a CSP. Define

the variables, domains, and constraints.

Answer 4: One real-world problem in AI that can be formulated as a Constraint Satisfaction

Problem (CSP) is the timetabling problem for a university or school. The objective is to schedule
classes in such a way that all constraints are satisfied.

Problem Formulation

Variables:

 Classes: Each class that needs to be scheduled.

 Rooms: Each classroom available for scheduling.
 Timeslots: Each available time period for scheduling classes.
 Teachers: Each teacher who will be teaching the classes.

Domains:

 Classes: The set of all classes that need to be scheduled, such as {Math101, Eng202,
CS303, etc.}.
 Rooms: The set of all available rooms, such as {RoomA, RoomB, RoomC, etc.}.
 Timeslots: The set of all possible timeslots, such as {Monday 9-10AM, Tuesday 11-
12PM, etc.}.
 Teachers: The set of all teachers, such as {Mr. Smith, Ms. Johnson, Dr. Lee, etc.}.

Constraints:

1. Room Availability: Each room can be assigned only one class per timeslot.
o If class C1C1 is scheduled in room R1R1 at timeslot T1T1, no other class can be
scheduled in R1R1 at T1T1.
2. Teacher Availability: A teacher can teach only one class per timeslot.
o If teacher T1T1 is assigned to class C1C1 at timeslot T1T1, they cannot be
assigned to any other class at T1T1.
3. Classroom Capacity: The capacity of a classroom must be sufficient for the number of
students in the class.
o If class C1C1 has 30 students and room R1R1 has a capacity of 25, C1C1 cannot
be scheduled in R1R1.
4. Pre-requisite Courses: Certain classes need to be scheduled in a specific order.
o If class C2C2 is a prerequisite for class C3C3, then C2C2 must be scheduled
before C3C3.
5. Teacher Preferences: Teachers may have preferences or restrictions on when they can
teach.
 o If teacher T1T1 prefers not to teach on Mondays, then no class should be
scheduled for T1T1 on Mondays.
6. Student Schedule Conflicts: Students enrolled in multiple classes should not have
scheduling conflicts.
o If a student is enrolled in both C1C1 and C2C2, these classes cannot be scheduled
at the same timeslot.

Example:

Let's consider a simplified version with three classes, two rooms, and two teachers over
three timeslots.

Variables:

 Classes: {Math101, Eng202, CS303}

 Rooms: {RoomA, RoomB}
 Timeslots: {Slot1, Slot2, Slot3}
 Teachers: {Mr. Smith, Ms. Johnson}

Domains:

 Classes: {Math101, Eng202, CS303}

 Rooms: {RoomA, RoomB}
 Timeslots: {Slot1, Slot2, Slot3}
 Teachers: {Mr. Smith, Ms. Johnson}

Constraints:

1. Room Availability: Each room can be used for only one class per timeslot.
2. Teacher Availability: Each teacher can teach only one class per timeslot.
3. Classroom Capacity: Assuming all rooms can accommodate any class for simplicity.
4. Teacher Preferences: Assume no preferences in this simplified example.
5. Student Schedule Conflicts: Ensure no overlapping classes for students.

Solution Approach:

Use a backtracking algorithm to assign classes to rooms, timeslots, and teachers while
respecting the constraints. If a conflict is found, backtrack and try a different assignment.

This formulation illustrates how a timetabling problem can be structured as a CSP,

addressing practical challenges in scheduling.

5. Write a Python program to solve a scheduling problem where three tasks must be
assigned to two people with no overlaps.
 Answer 5: Here's a Python program to solve a scheduling problem where three tasks must be
assigned to two people with no overlaps. We'll use a simple backtracking approach to ensure
that no two tasks are assigned to the same person at the same time.

Let's define the tasks and people:

 Tasks: Task1, Task2, Task3

 People: Person1, Person2

# Define the tasks and people

tasks = ["Task1", "Task2", "Task3"]

people = ["Person1", "Person2"]

# Initialize an empty schedule

schedule = {person: [] for person in people}

def is_valid_schedule(schedule):

# Check if any person has overlapping tasks (in this simple scenario, tasks can't
overlap)

for person, tasks in schedule.items():

if len(tasks) > 1:

return False

return True

def assign_tasks(schedule, task_index):

# Base case: If all tasks are assigned, return True

if task_index == len(tasks):

return True

task = tasks[task_index]

for person in people:

 # Assign the task to the current person

schedule[person].append(task)

# Check if the current assignment is valid

if is_valid_schedule(schedule):

# Recur to assign the next task

if assign_tasks(schedule, task_index + 1):

return True

# Backtrack: Remove the task assignment

schedule[person].pop()

return False

# Start the task assignment from the first task

if assign_tasks(schedule, 0):

print("Schedule found:")

for person in schedule:

print(f"{person}: {schedule[person]}")

else:

print("No valid schedule found.")

Explanation:

1. is_valid_schedule function: Ensures that no person has overlapping tasks. In this simple
scenario, each person can only have one task at a time.
2. assign_tasks function: Uses backtracking to assign tasks to people. It checks if the
current assignment is valid and recursively tries to assign the next task.
3. Base Case: When all tasks are assigned, the function returns True.
4. Backtracking: If an invalid assignment is found, the function backtracks by removing
the task and trying the next possible assignment.

You can run this code to find a valid schedule for the given tasks and people. This
approach ensures that each task is assigned without any overlaps for the individuals
involved.
6. Explain the differences between forward-checking and constraint propagation in
solving CSPs. Provide an example of each.

Answer 6: Differences Between Forward-Checking and Constraint Propagation

Forward-checking and constraint propagation are two important techniques used to

improve the efficiency of solving Constraint Satisfaction Problems (CSPs). Both
techniques are used to reduce the search space by eliminating inconsistent values early in
the search process, but they operate in different ways.

Forward-Checking:

Definition: Forward-checking is a technique used during the search process to reduce the
search space by checking the consistency of future variables. When a variable is assigned
a value, forward-checking looks ahead and checks if any of the unassigned neighboring
variables (those that are constrained by the current variable) are left with no valid values
due to the assignment. If any of these variables have no valid values left, the current
assignment is discarded.

How it works:

1. When a variable is assigned a value, forward-checking looks at all the unassigned

neighbors that share a constraint with the current variable.
2. For each of these unassigned neighbors, it removes values from their domains that would
violate the constraint with the assigned value.
3. If any of these neighbors have an empty domain (i.e., no valid values left), the current
assignment is rejected, and the search backtracks.

Example: Consider a simple CSP with two variables A and B, both having the domain
{1, 2, 3}. A constraint is that A ≠ B (i.e., A and B must have different values).

 Initially, the domains of A and B are both {1, 2, 3}.

 Suppose A is assigned the value 1.
 Using forward-checking, we now check the domain of B and remove 1 from it, so B’s
domain becomes {2, 3}.
 If we now try to assign B the value 2, forward-checking would check the remaining
unassigned variables and propagate the constraints.

If at any step, B had no valid value left (e.g., if A was assigned a value such that B
couldn't be assigned any value), forward-checking would cause backtracking to try a
different value for A.

Advantages:

 Reduces the search space by detecting invalid assignments early.

 Can be applied incrementally, i.e., it checks constraints only on neighboring variables.
 Limitations:

 It checks only local constraints and doesn't propagate information across all variables.
 May still lead to a large search space if the CSP has many variables.

Constraint Propagation:

Definition: Constraint propagation is a broader technique that reduces the search space
by enforcing global consistency over the CSP. It works by propagating constraints
throughout the network of variables. When a value is assigned to a variable, the effect of
this assignment is propagated to other related variables, reducing their possible values in
their domains.

How it works:

1. When a variable is assigned a value, constraint propagation applies to all related

variables, updating their domains by removing values that would violate the constraints.
2. This process continues recursively, as the updated domains of the variables may lead to
further reductions in the domains of other variables.
3. This process is repeated until no more domain reductions can be made.

Constraint propagation can be more general than forward-checking, as it can involve

multiple variables and can propagate constraints globally through the network, not just
locally to the neighbors.

Example: Consider a CSP with three variables A, B, and C, all having the domain {1, 2,
3}. The constraints are:

 A≠B
 B≠C
 A≠C

The constraint propagation method, like arc-consistency or other algorithms, would

ensure that as soon as a value is assigned to a variable, the domains of the related
variables are reduced globally.

 Initially, all variables have the domain {1, 2, 3}.

 If A is assigned the value 1, constraint propagation would immediately enforce that B ≠ 1
and C ≠ 1, reducing the domains of B and C to {2, 3}.
 If B is then assigned 2, constraint propagation would further reduce the domain of C to
{3} because C ≠ B.

Constraint propagation continues until all variables are assigned valid values that satisfy
the constraints, or until no solution is possible.
 Advantages:

 Works globally across the CSP network, reducing more variables' domains and
potentially eliminating the need for backtracking.
 Can be more effective in problems where there are many interdependencies between
variables.

Limitations:

 It is computationally more expensive because it may need to propagate changes through

the entire network.
 May not be as efficient in very large, sparse problems where the constraints do not
propagate strongly.

Key Differences:

Aspect Forward-Checking Constraint Propagation

Local, only checks the
Global, checks the consistency of
domains of unassigned
Scope all variables and propagates
neighbors of the current
constraints across the network.
variable.
Performs domain reduction for
Performs domain
all affected variables after an
reduction for future
Technique assignment, potentially
variables after each
propagating across the entire
assignment.
problem.
More powerful constraint
If forward-checking
propagation may avoid
Backtracking detects an empty domain,
backtracking by reducing the
backtracking occurs.
problem's search space.
Typically less More computationally expensive,
computationally applies more global checks and
Complexity
expensive, focuses on can involve complex algorithms
local changes. (e.g., arc consistency).

Both techniques improve the efficiency of solving CSPs, but constraint propagation is generally
more powerful as it considers global constraints across the network, while forward-checking is a
more localized technique that can still reduce search space but may not catch all inconsistencies
upfront.

7. What challenges might arise when formulating a Machine Learning problem as a

CSP? How can these challenges be addressed?
 Answer 7: Formulating a Machine Learning (ML) problem as a Constraint Satisfaction Problem
(CSP) can be a powerful approach for certain types of problems, but it comes with its own set of
challenges. Here are some of the key challenges and ways to address them:

Challenges

1. Defining Constraints Accurately:

o Challenge: In ML problems, especially those involving complex data, defining
precise constraints that capture the essence of the problem can be difficult.
Constraints need to be comprehensive enough to ensure valid solutions but not so
restrictive that they make the problem unsolvable.
o Addressing It: Use domain expertise to carefully analyze and define constraints.
Iteratively refine constraints through testing and validation to ensure they are
neither too loose nor too strict.
2. Handling Continuous Domains:
o Challenge: Many ML problems involve continuous domains (e.g., real-valued
features in a dataset), while CSPs typically deal with discrete domains.
Converting continuous data into a discrete form can lead to loss of precision or
important information.
o Addressing It: Use techniques like discretization or binning to convert
continuous variables into discrete intervals. Ensure that the granularity of
discretization is appropriate to retain relevant information. Alternatively, consider
hybrid approaches that combine CSP with other optimization techniques.
3. Scalability:
o Challenge: CSPs can become computationally expensive as the number of
variables and constraints increases. ML problems with large datasets and complex
relationships can lead to scalability issues.
o Addressing It: Use heuristic methods to guide the search process and improve
efficiency. Techniques like constraint propagation, forward-checking, and domain
reduction can help manage computational complexity. Additionally, leveraging
parallel processing and distributed computing can enhance scalability.
4. Dynamic and Uncertain Environments:
o Challenge: ML problems often operate in dynamic and uncertain environments
where data and constraints can change over time. CSPs, on the other hand, are
typically static and do not naturally accommodate changes.
o Addressing It: Implement adaptive or incremental CSP algorithms that can adjust
to changes in real-time. Use probabilistic approaches to handle uncertainty and
incorporate mechanisms to update constraints dynamically as new data becomes
available.
5. Integration with Learning Models:
o Challenge: ML models involve learning from data to make predictions, while
CSPs focus on satisfying constraints. Integrating learning models with constraint
satisfaction approaches can be complex.
o Addressing It: Develop hybrid frameworks that combine CSP with machine
learning techniques. For instance, use ML models to predict outcomes and CSP to
 enforce constraints. Constraint programming libraries that support such hybrid
approaches can be beneficial.

Example Application: Job Scheduling

Consider a job scheduling problem where tasks must be assigned to workers while
satisfying various constraints (e.g., task dependencies, worker availability, skill
requirements). Formulating this as a CSP involves:

 Variables: Each task to be scheduled.

 Domains: Possible workers and timeslots for each task.
 Constraints: Task dependencies, worker availability, skill requirements, no overlapping
tasks.

Challenges and Solutions:

 Defining Constraints: Precisely capture task dependencies and worker constraints.

Refine constraints iteratively based on validation and feedback.
 Continuous Domains: If task durations vary, discretize the time into intervals.
 Scalability: Use heuristics like the minimum remaining values (MRV) to prioritize task
assignments. Utilize parallel processing for large-scale scheduling.
 Dynamic Environments: Implement incremental CSP to handle new tasks or changes in
worker availability dynamically.
 Integration with Learning Models: Use ML models to predict task durations and
worker performance, and enforce these predictions as constraints in the CSP.

By addressing these challenges, you can effectively formulate and solve ML problems as
CSPs, leveraging the strengths of both approaches.

8. Modify the map coloring example to include additional regions and constraints.
What effect does this have on the solution complexity?

Answer 8: To modify the map coloring example by adding additional regions and
constraints, we'll expand the problem by introducing more regions and new adjacency
constraints. This will also provide an opportunity to analyze how this increases the
complexity of the solution space.

Updated Code with Additional Regions and Constraints

Let's add two more regions: "E" and "F", and introduce constraints where regions "E" and
"F" are adjacent to some of the other regions. This will increase the complexity of the
problem because more variables and constraints lead to a larger search space.

Here is the modified code:

from constraint import Problem

def map_coloring():

# Create a problem instance

problem = Problem()

# Add variables (regions) with their domains (possible colors)

colors = ["Red", "Green", "Blue"]

problem.addVariable("A", colors)

problem.addVariable("B", colors)

problem.addVariable("C", colors)

problem.addVariable("D", colors)

problem.addVariable("E", colors) # New region E

problem.addVariable("F", colors) # New region F

# Add constraints (adjacent regions cannot have the same color)

problem.addConstraint(lambda a, b: a != b, ("A", "B"))

problem.addConstraint(lambda a, c: a != c, ("A", "C"))

problem.addConstraint(lambda b, d: b != d, ("B", "D"))

problem.addConstraint(lambda c, d: c != d, ("C", "D"))

# Additional constraints for new regions

problem.addConstraint(lambda a, e: a != e, ("A", "E")) # A and E are adjacent

problem.addConstraint(lambda b, e: b != e, ("B", "E")) # B and E are adjacent

problem.addConstraint(lambda d, f: d != f, ("D", "F")) # D and F are adjacent

 problem.addConstraint(lambda c, f: c != f, ("C", "F")) # C and F are adjacent

# Get solutions

solutions = problem.getSolutions()

return solutions

# Print solutions

print(map_coloring())

Explanation of Changes:

1. New Variables: We've added two new regions, "E" and "F", with the same color options
as the existing regions ("Red", "Green", "Blue").
2. New Constraints: We added constraints that the new regions cannot share the same color
as certain neighboring regions. Specifically:
o "A" and "E" cannot share the same color.
o "B" and "E" cannot share the same color.
o "D" and "F" cannot share the same color.
o "C" and "F" cannot share the same color.

Effect on Solution Complexity:

Adding more regions and constraints will increase the complexity of the solution space in
the following ways:

1. Larger Search Space:

o Initially, with 4 regions (A, B, C, D), there were 34=813^4 = 8134=81 possible
assignments (since each region can be one of 3 colors).
o With 6 regions (A, B, C, D, E, F), there are 36=7293^6 = 72936=729 possible
assignments.
o This represents an increase in the number of possible assignments, which makes
the problem harder to solve.
2. More Constraints:
o As new constraints are added, they further reduce the number of valid
assignments by eliminating certain possibilities.
o However, these constraints also make the problem harder to solve because the
CSP solver has to process more interactions between variables. In particular, the
added constraints may introduce dependencies that force the solver to backtrack
more often or explore more combinations.
3. Search Tree Expansion:
 o With more variables (regions) and more constraints, the search tree becomes more
complex. Even though forward-checking or constraint propagation might reduce
the search space somewhat, the solver must still explore more potential
configurations.
o The problem is no longer just about assigning values to the original four regions
but also about ensuring that the new regions do not violate the adjacency
constraints.
4. Performance Implications:
o The backtracking and constraint satisfaction process becomes more
computationally expensive because the solver must check more variables and
constraints.
o Depending on the CSP solver and its optimizations (such as constraint
propagation or backtracking heuristics), this could lead to a noticeable increase in
the solution time, especially for larger or more complex problems.

Key Takeaways:

 More regions and constraints lead to an increase in both the number of possible
assignments and the number of inter-variable dependencies.
 This results in a larger and more complex search space, which can increase the
computation time.
 Depending on the solver's efficiency (e.g., with techniques like forward-checking,
constraint propagation, or heuristics), the effect of this increased complexity may be
mitigated, but the problem will still inherently take longer to solve as the number of
variables and constraints grows.