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I-*

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Dan Robinson
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 F undamentals
of Structured
Program Design

Dan Robinson
Gwinnett Technical Institute

Prentice Hall

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey Columbus, Ohio

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Robinson, Dan.
Fundamentals of structured program design / Dan Robinson,
p. cm.
ISBN 0-13-927930-X
1. Structured programming. I. Title.
QA76.6.R628 2000
005.1'13—dc21 99-19395
CIP

Cover Photo: FPG International

Publisher: Charles E. Stewart, Jr.
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This book was set in Times Roman by Custom Editorial Productions, Inc., and was printed and bound
by The Banta Company. The cover was printed by The Banta Company.

© 2000 by Prentice-FIall, Inc.

Pearson Education
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

Notice to the Reader: All product names listed herein are trademarks and/or registered trademarks of their
respective manufacturer.
The publisher and the author do not warrrant or guarantee any of the products and/or equipment described
herein, nor has the publisher or the author made any independent analysis in connection with any of the
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or guarantee for any claim, loss, damages, costs, or expense arising out of or incurred by the reader in
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All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission
in writing from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

10 98765432

ISBN 0-13-337330-X

Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London

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Preface

Fundamentals of Structured Program Design was written with several objec¬

tives in mind: to create a book that was easily understood by first-year college
students with little or no programming background—a book based on real-fife
program examples with which students and teachers alike could identify; to
keep the concepts of program design simple; and to present a structured ap¬
proach that, if followed, would improve students’ opportunities for success in
school and in their new profession.
The textbook is replete with examples of meaningful programs that are
reused and enhanced as new topics are introduced. To keep the concepts
simple, the book emphasizes a building block approach to program design.
These building blocks, which represent key functions that a program may
be required to perform, are added to the program at predefined locations.
Finally, while there may be several approaches that will produce a program
that generates accurate results, experience has shown that techniques that
work for one program may cause another program to fail. This text outlines
an approach that can be used successfully for nearly all programs.

BOOK This textbook is divided into four parts;

ORGANIZATION I. Introduction: The first two chapters introduce the concepts of
information processing.
II. Design Principles: Chapters 3 through 7 introduce the primary design
tools used throughout this textbook: program documentation, structure
charts, flowcharts, and pseudo code.
III. Basic Program Design Techniques: Chapters 8 through 13 present the
building blocks used in structured program design. Each chapter provides
insight into a new topic or building block. These chapters also provide the
information necessary to allow you to fully understand when the building
block should be used and its logical placement within the program.
IV. Advanced Program Design: Chapters 14 through 17 introduce a variety
of design considerations required for more complex programs. Some of
these programs build upon the concepts learned in Part III, while others
may deviate slightly from the standard program structure discussed in
earlier chapters. Chapter 18 reviews the transition from the program de¬
sign to a programming language.

These chapters have been organized and presented in a manner that

minimizes transition time from one topic to the next. As you progress
through the book, focus on each new topic and see how that building
block fits into the existing program structure used in previous programs.

iii
iv

Preface

This approach emphasizes the concept that while each program you design
may perform different tasks and accomplish different objectives, nearly
every program will follow the same basic structure.
One technique used to minimize transition time and maximize your
understanding of the topic is the frequent reuse of two sample programs
throughout the book. As you work through the text, you will see that these
two programs become increasingly complex with each chapter. As these
programs become more complex, you will gain greater understanding of
the topic by focusing on what has changed and what has remained the same
from the previous versions of the same program.

FEATURES Beginning with Part III, “Basic Program Design Techniques” (Chapter 8),
topics are introduced using a program specification. The use of program
specifications throughout the book will enhance your comprehension of each
chapter by directly applying the topic to an actual program design. Sample
programs that will maximize your understanding of the topic have been
carefully selected for each chapter. Each chapter walks you through the entire
program design process beginning with the assessment of the program specifi¬
cations, through the development of the structure chart, and completing the
design process with both flowcharts and pseudo code.
Each chapter offers multiple projects to test your comprehension of the
current chapter, as well as retention of the concepts from previous chapters.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my appreciation to those who reviewed the manuscript
and offered their thoughts and suggestions. The review team did a thorough
job and I found their comments and feedback especially useful. I would
like to thank Chia Han, University of Cincinnati; Juris Reinfelds, New
Mexico State University; and Sue Conners, Purdue University-Calumet, for
their participation in the review process. Many of their comments and
suggestions have been incorporated into this book.
I would also like to thank the faculty of Gwinnett Technical Institute for all
their help, assistance, and feedback during the period of field assessment. A
special thanks to the hundreds of students at Gwinnett Technical Institute
who suffered through the evolution of this book from the earliest version
and working copies to the final edition.
Finally, I would like to thank my family for their support and patience
during the writing of this book.

Dan W. Robinson
Contents

Part I Introduction, 1
1 The Concepts of Information Processing, 3
Objectives, 3
Introduction, 3
Understanding Data, 4
Processing, 6
Relationship of Data to Processing, 7
Summary, 11
Review Questions, 11

2 The Programming Concepts, 13

Objectives, 13
Introduction, 13
Understanding the Limitations of Computers, 13
Fundamentals of Programming, 13
Summary, 15

Part II Design Principles, 17

3 Program Documentation, 19
Objectives, 19
Introduction, 19
Program Specifications, 19
Data Dictionary, 30
Summary, 31
Review Questions, 31
Project, 31
Assignment, 32

4 Introduction to Flowcharting, 33
Objectives, 33
Introduction, 33
Flowchart Symbols, 33
Basic Structures, 35
Summary, 37
Review Questions, 37
Project, 38
vi
Contents

5 Structured Programming, 41
Objectives, 41
Introduction, 41
Structured Programming Techniques, 41
Example Program, 44
Summary, 49
Review Questions, 49

6 Pseudo Code, 51
Objectives, 51
Introduction, 51
Pseudo Code Constructs, 51
Designing the Complete Program in Pseudo Code, 53
Summary, 55
Review Questions, 56

7 Structure Charts, 57
Objectives, 57
Introduction, 57
Transition to the Flowchart, 60
Building the Structure Chart, 64
Summary, 69
Review Questions, 69
Project 1, 69
Project 2, 71

Part III Basic Program Design Techniques, 73

8 Expanding the Program Design, 75
Objectives, 75
Introduction, 75
Page Breaks and Headers, 75
Creation of Derived Data, 79
Changes to the Flowchart, 80
Recognizing Commonality, 84
Summary, 85
Review Questions, 85
Project 1, 86
Project 2, 87

9 Record Selection, 89
Objectives, 89
Introduction, 89
The Selection Process, 89
Structuring Complex Selection Logic, 95
 Parameter File Processing, 100
Summary, 107
Review Questions, 107
Exercise, 107
Project, 108

10 Accumulations and Report Totals, 111

Objectives, 111
Introduction, 111
What Is Accumulation?, Ill
Summary, 126
Review Questions, 127
Exercise, 127
Project 1, 127
Project 2, 129

11 Single-Level Control-Breaks, 131

Objectives, 131
Introduction, 131
Single-Level Control-Break, 131
Flowchart for the Control-Break Program, 138
Summary, 148
Review Questions, 148
Exercise, 148
Project 1, 149
Project 2, 150

12 Multiple-Level Control-Breaks, 153

Objectives, 153
Introduction, 153
Flowcharting Multiple Control-Breaks, 156
Other Control-Break Processes, 169
Summary, 175
Review Questions, 175
Exercise, 175
Project, 176

13 Arrays, 179
Objectives, 179
Introduction, 179
Understanding the Array, 179
Using Arrays in Programs, 188
Summary, 215
Review Questions, 216
Project, 216
Vlll

Contents

Part IV Advanced Program Design, 219

14 Processing Two Input Files, 221
Objectives, 221
Introduction, 221
Understanding the Concept of Matching Two Files, 221
Processing Fundamentals, 223
Developing the Flowchart, 229
Program Walk-Through, 237
Summary, 240
Review Questions, 240
Exercise, 241
Project, 241

15 Database Processing, 243

Objectives, 243
Introduction, 243
Program Design Considerations: Reading the Database, 244
Structure Chart Considerations, 245
Summary, 252
Review Questions, 252
Exercise, 253
Project, 253

16 Input Validation Program, 255

Objectives, 255
Introduction, 255
Understanding the Concepts of the Update Process, 255
Data Validation: First Step of the Update Process, 257
Designing the Input Validation Program, 265
Transition to Flowchart, 267
Summary, 290
Review Questions, 291
Project, 291

17 Updating Master Files, 293

Objectives, 293
Introduction, 293
Understanding the Concepts of the Update Process, 293
Translation to the Flowchart, 297
Summary, 304
Review Questions, 304
Project, 305
 ix

Contents

18 Transitioning to a Programming Language, 307

Objectives, 307
Introduction, 307
Programming Languages, 307
Summary, 318

Appendix, 321

Index, 325
Part I

Introduction
 1
The Concepts of
Information Processing

OBJECTIVES ■ Understanding data and information.

■ Understanding information processing.
■ Understanding the data hierarchy.
■ Understanding the role of computer programs.
■ Understanding the three types of data.

INTRODUCTION Data Versus Information

Data
Let’s start with the basics. What is data? Webster defines data as “facts used
in reasoning or calculations.” Let’s take this definition and expand on it. Data
is a collection of facts. In its raw form, data is relatively unusable. Let’s con¬
sider the data in the following example to be factual. Although factual, we
cannot understand it, nor can we use it effectively in its present form.
0142JOHN SMITH 4001350
0160PAUL JONES 3501150
0281MELINDA HARRISON 3901200
03 3 9KAREN ROGERS 2801535
0455LLOYD KELLY 4001375

Information
We will define information as data that has been presented in a usable
form. Webster defines information as “knowledge obtained from investiga¬
tion, study, or instructions.” If we combine these two ideas, we can infer
that information has been obtained by applying a set of instructions to raw
data. These instructions manipulate the data and present it to us in the form
of information (that is, data made usable). For example, if we worked in a
payroll department, the following information would be useful.
Empl Hours Hourly Gross Net
Nmbr Name Worked Rate Pay Taxes Pay

0142 JOHN SMITH 40 13.50 540.00 81.00 459.00

0160 PAUL JONES 35 11.50 402.50 60.38 342.12

3
4

Chapter 1

0281 MELINDA HARRISON 39 12.00 468.00 70.20 397.80

0339 KAREN ROGERS 28 15.35 429.80 64.47 365.33
0455 LLOYD KELLY 40 13.75 550.00 82.50 467.50

As you can see, the payroll information was obtained by putting some
order and recognition into the data shown earlier. In this book we define
data as raw facts. Information is data that has been transformed into a us¬
able format.
As you recall, Webster says that information is obtained through investi¬
gation, study, or instructions. Likewise, we would need to perform a series
of steps (or instructions) to produce the payroll information from the raw
data. The process of transforming data into information is called informa¬
tion processing.

Information Processing
Information processing consists of step-by-step instructions that we pro¬
vide to the computer instructing it to transform and manipulate data in
order to provide the desired information. For example, now that you know
what the data represents, you can look at the raw data and see that John
Smith worked 40 hours and that his hourly rate is 13.50 (01350). (We will
spend more time on interpreting data later in this chapter.)
While we, and the computer, can make sense of the data (that is, hours
worked and rate of pay), we still need to provide the instructions to tell the
computer how to compute gross pay (hours worked multiplied by the rate of
pay). Furthermore, in this simplified example, we had to tell the computer that
tax was computed as 15 percent of gross pay and that net pay was computed
as gross pay minus taxes. Without these instructions, neither we nor the com¬
puter could produce the payroll information shown from the data presented.
Information processing has three components:
1. Input (data).
2. Processing (the set of instructions required to manipulate the data).
3. Output (information; the results of the processing).

UNDERSTANDING Since data is the starting point for the information processing cycle, let’s
DATA develop a solid understanding of what data is and how it can be used.

Hierarchy of Data
Let’s begin with the concept of an entity. An entity can be defined as a per¬
son, place, or thing. In information processing terms, entities are defined by
records. Each record defines all relevant attributes and characteristics of an
entity. For example, consider an employee in a company. Each employee
has a record containing the attributes that fully define that employee to the
company. What are some of the defining attributes? A short list of attributes
might include the following:

■ Employee number.
■ Name (last and first).
 5
The Concepts of Information
Processing

■ Gender (male or female).

■ Date of birth.
■ Date of hire.
■ Department.

In information processing, these attributes are call fields. Each employee

has one record with any number of fields used to define that employee. All
records for all employees have the same fields. The data within each field
may be different, but all records have the same fields. For example, each
employee has a name, but all employees do not have the same name. They
all have a date of birth, but they were probably not bom on the same day.
Exhibit 1-1 illustrates records and fields.

Exhibit 1-1
Example of Records and Field Content
Empl Hire Hourly
Nmbr Name Gndr DOB Date Dept Rate

Record 1 0142 JOHN SMITH M 081460 011688 013 01350

Record 2 0160 PAUL JONES M 120150 020588 013 01150
Record 3 0281 MELINDA HARRISON F 061866 081285 041 01200
Record 4 0339 KAREN ROGERS F 100459 061590 005 01535

We have shown four records in Exhibit 1-1. In reality, this company has
hundreds of employees. Each employee will have a record containing the
same data fields and all of the records together make a file. Files are a col¬
lection of records describing similar entities. These four records, and hun¬
dreds like them, would make up the employee file.

Classes of Data
Data fields can be classified as numeric or alphanumeric.

Numeric Data
Numeric data is any field consisting exclusively of numbers. In the pre¬
vious illustration of data, numeric fields could include employee number,
department, hourly rate, and possibly date of birth and date of hire. Mathe¬
matical calculations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) can
be performed only on numeric data.

Alphanumeric Data
Alphanumeric data can contain numbers (0-9), letters (A-Z), and special
characters (such as $, &, or *). In our data illustration, name and gender are
alphanumeric fields. Although not shown, the employee’s street address
would be alphanumeric. Even the zip codes, although containing numeric
data, could be classified as alphanumeric.
6
Chapter 1

PROCESSING We defined processing as the set of instructions required to manipulate the data
and produce the required information. Computer programs are written to per¬
form this task. Each program is designed to accept data using an input process
to produce the desired information. For example, a payroll program will con¬
tain an instruction telling the computer how to compute gross pay. There will
be another instruction for computing taxes, and yet another for net pay.

Types of Programs
There are countless types of computer programs that we interact with each
day. Computer programs are used in retail transactions for credit card authen¬
tication and ATM transactions. Even the electronics of your automobile are
controlled by computer programs. However, in an effort to keep this, and fu¬
ture chapters simple, we will focus almost exclusively on the types of pro¬
grams used in a traditional business setting. Business applications include
things such as payroll, accounts receivable, sales management, and inventory
control. In this context, there are generally four types of computer programs.
1. Reporting programs produce hardcopy output. These reports may be
printed on paper and sent to the client or they can be displayed on
the workstation.
2. Inquiry programs provide the client information on the monitor or
display terminal. The results of an inquiry generally relate to infor¬
mation about one entity.
3. File creation programs manipulate data and produce a file, normally
for use in another program. For example, a payroll system may con¬
tain many programs but not all programs produce reports or pay-
checks. There may be one program that performs all of the calcula¬
tions. This program may create a file containing all of the payroll
data needed to print the paychecks. A second program reads this file
and prints the checks.
4. Update programs are used to change data in some files. For example,
an update program will be required to change an employee’s depart¬
ment, hourly rate, or name in the employee file.

Types of Processing
Although there are only four basic types of programs, there are several types
of processing that can occur within any of these programs. In fact, programs
are typically built using one or more of the following processing strategies.
1. Record selection: In many cases, not all records from a file are nec¬
essary for processing. For example, if you need to produce a report
showing all employees in department 013, you would use this
strategy to select only those employees in that department for the
report. (This will be covered in depth in Chapter 9.)
2. Calculations: The creation of derived data will normally occur within
calculations. For example, gross pay is derived by multiplying hours
worked by the employee’s hourly rate. (Calculations are discussed in
Chapter 8.)
3. Accumulation. Whenever totals are required for a report, the totals
are accumulated. (Chapter 10 covers accumulations.)
 7
The Concepts of Information
Processing

4. Control-break processing: Control-breaks are the method by which

subtotals are added to a report. (Control-breaks are discussed in
Chapters 11 and 12.)
5. Data validation: Much of the data processed in an application is
input from outside the system. For example, when payroll begins to
run, someone needs to tell the computer how many hours each em¬
ployee worked. The validation strategy is used to determine if the
number of hours is correct and/or reasonable. This would prevent
us from paying an employee for 200 hours of work in a single week.
(Chapter 16 covers data validation.)

RELATIONSHIP By this time it should be clear that the processing step of the information
OF DATA TO processing cycle is used to manipulate data. But what is the relationship of
PROCESSING data to the process?
Programs will read files for processing. When a program issues an in¬
struction to read a file, the computer will return one record to the program
The program will then process this record by dealing not with the record as
a whole, but by referencing hourly rate, department number, name, and
other fields separately.

Types of Data
Three types of data are used by the program: external, derived, and logical.

External Data
Data obtained from a file is considered external data. Refer back to the
data discussed at the beginning of this chapter. In this simple payroll ex¬
ample, these records consisted of the following fields: employee number,
name, hours worked, and hourly rate. For our simplified payroll example,
these fields would be considered external data. This data was stored outside
the program on a payroll file and obtained through a read instruction.

Derived Data
Data created by the program as a result of a calculation, normally based on
external data, is called derived data. In our payroll example, we computed
gross pay as the hourly rate multiplied by the hours worked. The em¬
ployee’s hourly rate and hours worked are external data fields because they
were obtained from the payroll file. However, gross pay, taxes, and net pay
were computed fields. Therefore, these fields are derived data because they
were computed (derived) from external data.

Logical Data
Logical data will become more apparent as you progress through this book.
For now, consider logical data as any data created by the program for use
by the program. Logical data is typically used to control program logic
flow and is normally not part of the output. Again, this will become clear as
we go on.
8
Chapter 1

Data Storage within the Program

All data being processed by the computer must be resident in the computer’s
memory. When the program obtains records for processing by reading a file,
the record will be placed in memory. All derived data and logical data will like¬
wise be stored in the computer’s memory. Memory for a program is divided
into three main sections. (See Exhibit 1-2.) The top portion of the diagram il¬
lustrates the working area of memory. This is where the program stores derived
and logical data fields used by the program. The second section shown is input
area. When the program reads a record from the file, the computer will put
he record into this input area. The last section is the output area. When the
program builds and writes the output, the output area contains the data.

Exhibit 1-2
Memory Divided into Three Sections

Gross Pay Taxes Net Pay

INPUT AREA

OUTPUT AREA

How the Computer Manages Data

Let’s see how the computer manages memory by examining the processing
for the first two records. The first two records look like this:

0142JOHN SMITH 4001350

0160PAUL JONES 3501150

Initially, the derived data fields (gross pay, taxes, and net pay) will be
zero because we have not processed any records. The input area and output
area are both empty. (See Exhibit 1—3a.) When the program reads the first
record, the data is placed into the input area. (See Exhibit 1—3b.)

Exhibit l-3a
Content of Memory When Program Begins

Gross Pay Taxes Net Pay

0 0 0
 9
The Concepts of Information
Processing

Exhibit l-3b
Content of Memory After First Record Is Read

Gross Pay Taxes Net Pay

0 0 0

0142JOHN SMITH 4001350

Next, the program will calculate gross pay by multiplying hours worked
(40) by the hourly rate (13.50). Taxes and net pay are also computed as de¬
scribed earlier. The result is shown in Exhibit l-3c. At this point, the
output can be built. The computer places the data to be printed into the
output area and writes the report. (See Exhibit 1—3d.)

Exhibit l-3c
Content of Memory After Calculation of Derived Data

Gross Pay Taxes Net Pay

540.00 81.00 459.00

0142JOHN SMITH 4001350

Exhibit l-3d
Content of Data After Output Area Is
Built, but Before Output Is Written

Gross Pay Taxes Net Pay

540.00 81.00 459.00

0142JOHN SMITH 4001350

0142 JOHN SMITH 40 13.50 540.00 81.00 459.00

...
10
Chapter 1

After writing the results of the calculations to the output, the computer
reads the next record and places it into the input area. (See Exhibit l-3e.)
At this point, it is important to notice and comprehend three distinct differ¬
ences between Exhibits 1—3d and Exhibit l-3e.
First, you will notice that the derived data did not change. Values for
derived data, such as gross pay, taxes, and net pay, will not change until
the program specifically instructs the computer to change them.
Second, notice that when the computer read the second record, Paul
Jones, the first record was eliminated from the input area. After the com¬
puter reads a record, the contents of the previous record are no longer avail¬
able. This is known as a destructive read. This destructive read concept
plays an important role in program design.
Finally, notice that the data in the output area has also been deleted.
Once the computer writes the output, the data is no longer available. This is
known as a destructive write. Although this is also important, it is a less
important factor than the destructive read in program design.

Exhibit l-3e
Content of Memory After First Output Is
Written and Second Input Record Read

Gross Pay Taxes Net Pay

540.00 81.00 459.00

0160PAUL JONES 3501150

As with the previous record, the program will compute gross pay, taxes,
and net pay from the payroll data for Paul Jones. Exhibit 1—3f illustrates
the results in memory.

Exhibit 1-3f
Content of Memory After Calculation of Derived Data

Gross Pay Taxes Net Pay

402.50 60.38 342.12

-

0160PAUL JONES 3501150

 11
The Concepts of Information
Processing

The last step of the program builds the output area and writes the output,
as shown in Exhibit l-3g.

Exhibit l-3g
Content of Memory After Data Is
Built, but Before Output is Written

Gross Pay Taxes Net Pay

402.50 60.38 342.12

0160PAUL JONES 3501150

0160 PAUL JONES 35 11.50 402.50 60.38 342.12

SUMMARY Data is the raw material for the information process. Information is the
output of the information process after the data has been made usable. In¬
formation processing is the process of transforming the data (raw material)
into information (finished product). Information processing has three com¬
ponents: input, processing, and output.
For purposes of this text, the data hierarchy consists of three levels. One
of these levels is the record. A record fully describes an entity to the com¬
puter. An entity can be a person, place, or thing. Records consist of fields.
Each field represents one attribute or characteristic of the entity. Records
defining similar entities are stored in files.
There are three basic types of data: external, derived, and logical. Ex¬
ternal data is stored on files and read into the program. Derived data is nor¬
mally the result of a calculation. Logical data is created by the program and
used within the program to control the program execution.
All data being processed by the computer must reside in memory at the
time of execution. Memory is divided into three sections. These areas in¬
clude the working area, where derived and logical data is stored; the input
area, where data being read from a file is stored; and the output area,
where data being written is stored.

REVIEW 1. What is the difference between data and information?

QUESTIONS 2. What are the three steps of the information processing cycle?
3. Describe the hierarchy of data.
4. How does the program obtain external data for processing?
5. Where does derived data come from?
12
Chapter 1

6. How is the computer’s memory partitioned when the program is

executing?
7. What is a computer program?
 2
The Programming
Concepts

OBJECTIVES ■ Understanding the limitations of computers.

■ Understanding fundamental concepts of programming.
■ Understanding the definition of a program.

INTRODUCTION Before progressing any further, let’s take a moment to review some of the
concepts you will be dealing with as you advance through this book. In this
chapter, we will review some of the basic concepts of programming. You
will be presented with the definition of a program, the limitations of com¬
puters, and some other basic concepts you will need to go forward.

UNDERSTANDING Depending on your experience using computers, you probably believe

THE LIMITATIONS computers are extremely intelligent or possibly extremely ignorant. The
OF COMPUTERS computer has no intelligence of its own. Computers have no inherent intel¬
ligence—they are nothing more than plastic, silicone, metal, and glass. A
computer “knows” only what we tell it, and can perform only the task(s)
we instruct it to perform. Although computers have no real knowledge,
they can rapidly and efficiently perform the instructions we provide. The
typical desktop computers on the market today can process hudreds of
millions of instructions per second.
Remember this key concept: While computers can quickly process the
instructions we provide, they have no inherent intelligence.

FUNDAMENTALS What Is a Program?

OF Let’s take a moment to define a computer program. As we just learned,
PROGRAMMING computers have no inherent intelligence. They can perform only the tasks
they are instructed to perform. Computers get these instructions through

13
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
and one another, forming colonies of vast numbers. Mussels have
always been much eaten in this and other maritime countries, and
large quantities are brought to the London market from the Dutch
coast. At times they are unwholesome; but all the exact causes of this
are not known. Mussels seem to be found on every shore, and some
of the species are very widely distributed—the common edible
Mussel, M. edulis, being found on every European coast, on the
shores of North and South America, in the Arctic and Antarctic
Oceans, and probably on the coasts of Australia.
One group of Mussels (Lithodomus, Case 144) burrow in rocks and
other shells, forming holes just large enough to contain their shells.
L. dactylus is sold as an article of diet on the shores of the
Mediterranean.

Pseudolamellibranchia.

The gills in this order are plicate, and the Cases 145–160.
two lamellæ of each plate are furnished with
conjunctive or vascular interlamellar junctions, and the filaments are
connected by interfilamentar ciliated discs in some cases, in others
by vascular concrescence. The mantle-margins are separated all
round, and the foot is either small or wanting. Only a single adductor
muscle is generally present. The Pearl-oysters, true Oysters, and
Scallops are the forms which constitute this order.
The large family of Aviculidæ includes the “Wing-shells” (Avicula),
the “Pearl” and “Hammer Oysters” (Meleagrina and Malleus), and
Pinna (Fig. 28). Some species of Pinna attain to a length of two feet.
They are found imbedded in the sand with the narrow pointed end
downwards. They form a large silky byssus, which can be woven or
knitted into gloves, socks, etc. (see side table—case B). The
“Hammer-Oyster” (Malleus) is so called from its rude resemblance
to a hammer. The “Pearl-Oysters” (Meleagrina margaritifera, Fig.
29) possess rather heavy strong shells, lined with very thick layers of
“mother-o’-pearl.” Hundreds of tons of these shells are annually
collected at the great pearl-fisheries of North and West Australia,
and imported into Europe. The pearl-oyster of Ceylon (M. fucata,
Case 146) is a smaller species, and collected more for the pearls than
the shells. The round pearls, which are valued so highly, are either
excrescences of the pearly layer or are found loose in the fleshy parts
of the animal. Some small foreign body which has accidentally
penetrated under the mantle and irritates the animal is covered with
successive concentric layers of nacre, thus attaining sometimes, but
rarely, the size of a small filbert. The nacre is generally of the well-
known pearly-white colour, very rarely dark, and occasionally almost
black. The action of the animal in secreting successive layers of nacre
over any foreign body which intrudes between the mantle-folds, and
thus converting it into a pearl, is strikingly illustrated by two
specimens in which, in the one case, an entire fish, and in the other a
small crab, have been so enclosed (see side table-case E).
 Fig. 28.

British “Fan-Mussel” (Pinna pectinata):

a, the byssus. Case 150.
 Fig. 29.

Pearl-Oyster (Meleagrina margaritifera). Case 146.

The most ancient and, even at the present day, one of the most
important of the pearl-fisheries is that carried on on the western
shores of Ceylon. “The Banks,” or spots on which the oysters grow,
are at an average depth of 30 to 60 feet, and extend several miles
along the coast. The oysters, which should be six or seven years old
when collected, are gathered in baskets by native divers and hauled
up by ropes into hundreds of small boats. The shells are then brought
to land and placed upon the ground to die and putrefy, and then
minutely examined for the pearls, which are either found loose in the
shells or imbedded in the fleshy parts of the oysters. As many as two
million oysters have been brought ashore on one day; but the
number obtained varies very much according to the state of the
banks. A small proportion of the oysters contain pearls; in some only
very small ones (seed or dust-pearls as they are called) are found,
and very few contain pearls larger than a pea, which are so highly
valued. In his account of the pearl-fishery of Ceylon the Rev. James
Cordiner says that he saw the operation of sorting the pearls
performed; the produce of 17,000 oysters weighed only ¾ lb. and
was contained in a vessel smaller than a common soup-plate. Out of
that quantity there were not found two fine perfect pearls; all of the
largest were slightly deformed, rugged and uneven, but of the smaller
sizes many were round and perfect. The chief qualities which
regulate the value of pearls are size, roundness, and brilliancy of
lustre. Of the smallest kind several may be bought for a shilling,
whilst many thousand pounds have been given for a single fine pearl
of surpassing beauty.
Other important pearl-fisheries besides that of Ceylon are carried
on in the Persian Gulf, on the west coast of Central America, and
especially North-west Australia, where diving-dresses are now
employed in collecting the shells.
The Chinese obtain pearls artificially from a species of freshwater
Mussel (Dipsas plicata). In order to do this they keep them in tanks
and insert between the shell and the animal either small shot or
small round pieces of mother-of-pearl, which soon receive regular
coatings of nacre and assume the look of ordinary pearls. They also
insert small metal images of Buddha, which also soon become
covered with pearl and firmly cemented to the shell, the production
being to the uninitiated a supernatural testimony to the truth of
Buddhism. (A shell treated in this way is exhibited in one of the small
cases (E) at the side of the room.)
The Ostreidæ, or Oysters, undoubtedly Cases 152–154.
take the first rank among molluscs as
regards usefulness to mankind as an article of food. They have no
foot; the mantle is entirely open, with double edges, each being
bordered by a short fringe, and the labial palps are large and
somewhat triangular. There are on each side a pair of simple gills,
which appear closely striated; the single adductor muscle is large and
nearly central (see Fig. 30). The Oyster is, except in the very young
state, entirely incapable of locomotion, and always attached by the
deeper valve to other shells, rocks, or other substances. The common
British species is not full-grown until it is about five or seven years
old. A series of different ages, from the “spat” to the adult form, is
exhibited in Case 152. During the months of May, June, and July the
eggs are discharged into the gills, where they remain until hatched;
and it is during this period that oysters are “out of season.” In the
American Oyster (O. virginica), on the contrary, the eggs are said to
be hatched outside the parent shell. Oysters of different kinds are
found on nearly every shore. The gigantic O. gigas is said to grow to
the length of three feet in the Bay of Taichou, Japan, where it is
commonly eaten. About two hundred fossil species have already been
described.
The Spondylidæ, or Thorny Oysters, Cases 154–156.
closely resemble the Scallops, but the shells
are more spiny, heavier, united by interlocking teeth, and one of the
valves is attached to rocks, corals, etc. Many of the species are very
brightly coloured; and from the fact that small quantities of water are
sometimes enclosed in cavities in the inner layer of the shell, they
have been called “Water-Clams” or “Water Spondyli.”
 Fig. 30.

Common Edible Oyster (Ostrea edulis).

a, labial palpi; b, gills; c, mantle; d, junction of the two folds of

the mantle; e, large adductor muscle; f, the shell.

The Limas (Limidæ) are very like the Case 156.

Pectens, but the inner edge of their mantle
is fringed with very long thread-like filaments. The shells are always
white, generally more or less oblique, and radiately ridged. They
appear to be found in most seas, and either swim about freely like the
young Scallops by flapping their valves or attach themselves by a
byssus, sometimes forming a sort of nest, consisting of pieces of coral
and shell or small stones, in which they are completely concealed.
The Scallops or Fan-shells (Pectinidæ) Cases 156–160.
are well known for their beautiful colours,
sculpture, and excellent flavour. The animal has a distinct foot,
which is not, however, used as a locomotive organ, but employed in
spinning a byssus of attachment when required. The young Pectens
dart through the water by opening and suddenly closing their valves.
The species are very numerous, world-wide in their distribution, and
may be found at depths from a few to three thousand fathoms.

Eulamellibranchia. (Fig. 25, C.)

In this order the gills have Cases 160–204.

interfilamentar and interlamellar vascular
junctions, and there are generally two adductor muscles. The order is
very extensive, comprising nearly sixty families, of which only the
more important can be referred to.
The Carditidæ and Astartidæ have strong solid shells, frequently
ornamented with radiating or concentric ribbing, and usually are
coated with a dark epidermis. They have the general appearance of
certain Veneridæ; but the animal has no prolonged siphons, but
merely a fringed opening in the mantle. One very remarkable
species, Thecalia concamerata (Case 161), has an internal cup-like
process within the valves, which serves as a nursing-pouch for the
young.
The Lucinidæ are almost invariably white Cases 162–163.
shells, and may generally be recognized by
the very long muscular scar in front on the inner surface of the
valves. They occur in all parts of the world; and the fossil forms,
which are still more numerous than those now living, have existed at
every epoch from the Silurian.
Of the freshwater Mussels or Unionidæ Cases 166–177.
more than 1200 species have been already
discovered; they are found in most parts of the world, the greatest
number having been described from North America. In Unio the
edges of the mantle are not united along the bottom and not
prolonged into siphonal tubes; at the posterior end there are two
openings, of which the upper or excretal orifice is simple, and the
lower or branchial fringed at the edge. Two “cephalic eyes” have
recently been noticed by Mr. P. Pelseneer. The foot is very large and
adapted for crawling and burrowing. The sexes are distinct; and the
shells of the females are somewhat more tumid than those of the
males. Margaritana margaritifera, (Case 168) which is found in this
country and in Europe, sometimes produces handsome pearls, but
not equal to those obtained from the pearl-oyster of tropical seas.
The hinge in this family is extremely variable, being in some
instances delicate and toothless (Anodonta, Fig. 31, B), whilst in
others it is enormously thickened and furnished with strong
interlocking teeth (see Fig. 31, A).

Fig. 31.
 The family Ætheriidæ, or freshwater Case 178.
Oysters, consists of but three genera:
Ætheria contains African, and Mülleria and Barttettia Indian and
South-American forms. When young the shells of Ætheria (which are
common in the Nile) are free and not unlike an Anodonta, but when
adult they become attached and irregular and look like an olive-
green Oyster; they are, however, provided with two muscular
impressions instead of one, as in ordinary marine Oysters. Still more
remarkable is Mülleria lobata of Colombia, which, when young,
freely moves about and has two adductor muscles, but in time
becomes attached and stationary, and then possesses but a single
adductor.
The Tellinas have usually thin shells, and Cases 179–181.
their two siphons are longer and more
completely separated from each other than in the Veneridæ. The
pallial line is widely and deeply sinuated, and the ligament generally
external. In the genus Semele of the family Scrobiculariidæ, it is
placed within the hinge-margin. They live in great numbers beneath
the sand in shallow water, and are occasionally used as food.
The Mactridæ have an internal ligament Cases 183–185.
to the hinge, the siphons are joined together
and fringed at the ends, and the pallial line is more or less sinuated.
Spisula solidissima (Case 184), the largest species found on the coast
of the United States, is a common article of diet.
 Fig. 32.

Common British Cockle

(Cardium edule).

a, foot; b, exhalant siphon;

c, branchial or inhalant
siphon; d, edge of mantle;
e, ligament; f, umbones or
beaks of the shell.

The next family, Veneridæ, have long respiratory siphons and a

sinuated pallial line. Many of this tribe are very beautiful in form and
colouring, and most of them have very hard strong shells. The valves
are united above by an external ligament, and the hinge-plate is
toothed. Nearly all of them live buried an inch or two beneath the
sand or mud, but a few are found burrowing in rocks. Probably the
majority of the species of this family might be used as food. Venus
verrucosa, of our own southern shores, is frequently eaten both in
this country and abroad; and Venus mercenaria (Case 189) is
commonly sold in the markets of Philadelphia and New York.
Cytherea lusoria (Case 185) also forms a favourite article of diet
among the poorer classes in Japan, and several kinds are eaten by
the natives of New Zealand and other countries.
Some of the “Cockles” (Cardiidæ) from Cases 192–194.
warm latitudes are highly coloured and
adorned with most beautiful sculpture. Probably the majority are
eatable, as the common cockle (Cardium edule) of the British coast.
The foot of these molluscs is very large, bent, and used for leaping.
The siphons are short and fringed at the margins.
The Tridacnidæ, or true Clams, differ Cases 195–196.
from other Bivalves with united mantle-
margins in having but a central adductor muscle. In the typical
species the animal is attached to the rocks by a “byssus,” a strong
fibrous structure which passes through an aperture at the upper part
of the shell. A species found in the Red Sea, T. elongata, is eaten by
the natives, and the shell employed for the manufacture of lime.
Tridacna gigas, the largest known bivalved mollusc, sometimes
weighs over 500 lb., that exhibited in the upright cases at the
entrance of the Gallery being 310 lb. in weight. A large pair bordered
with gilt copper are used as bénitiers or holy-water vessels in the
church of St. Sulpice in Paris. Tridacnæ are found associated in large
numbers in lagoons, among coral-reefs in the Eastern and Pacific
Seas. The animals are described as presenting a beautiful iridescent
glare of blue, violet, and yellow variegated with fantastic markings.

Fig. 33.

Left valve of the Giant Clam (Tridacna gigas).

Length, 36 inches. Weight, 154 lb.; weight of the two

valves, 310 lb.
 The genus Chama consists of tropical Case 196.
species, which are found fixed to corals,
rocks, etc. Nevertheless, they have a small bent foot, but what
purpose it serves is difficult to conceive.
In this place attention should be called to the Hippuritidæ and
Radiolitidæ, very remarkable extinct families of bivalved molluscs
which occur abundantly in the cretaceous strata of southern and
eastern Europe, Egypt, etc. They are remarkable for the solidity of
the shells, the relatively small space occupied by the animal, and the
complicated character of the hinge and processes bearing the
adductor muscles. They are usually classed near to the Chamidæ, but
their true position as regards living Mollusca is very problematical. A
fine series of these shells is exhibited in Gallery VIII., wall-case 5, in
the Geological Department.
The Myidæ, popularly known as Cases 198–199.
“Gapers,” on account of their valves being
open at one or both ends, have the mantle united all round, except
where the small foot is protruded. The siphons are very long, united
almost to the ends, and covered with a coarse wrinkled outer skin.
They bury themselves in mud and sand at low-water mark or in
shallow water. The species are few in number, and chiefly from the
shores of northern countries. Mya arenaria of our own coasts is
largely eaten in some parts of Europe and North America.
 Fig. 34.

British Gaper (Mya truncata).

a, foot; b, siphon-sheath; c, exhalant siphon; d, inhalant siphon; e,

umbones or beaks; f, anterior, g, posterior end of shell.

The Corbulæ (Case 198) have one valve Case 198.

larger than the other and are like little
Myæ, but the valves are almost closed and their siphons are very
short.

Fig. 35.

British Razor-shell (Solen siliqua).

a, foot; b, mantle; c, inhalant siphon; d, exhalant siphon; e, shell.

Many of the Solenidæ, or Razor-shells, Cases 199–201.

possess very elongated shells, and are
remarkable for the great development of the foot, which can be
pointed or contracted as may be required for boring into sand. By
means of this powerful foot the animals, when disturbed, bore with
such rapidity and to such a depth that their capture is a matter of
great difficulty; and even when seized they hold on so tightly that at
times they suffer their foot to be torn off rather than be captured.
They not only burrow in sand, but also have the power of darting
through the water, like the Scallops. Solens were considered a dainty
dish by the ancient Greeks, and numbers are still eaten by the poorer
coast-population of this country and abroad.
The Pholadidæ, or Piddocks, are very Cases 201–202.
remarkable shells, of an unusually
complicated structure, some having the power of boring into rocks,
wood, mud, sand, etc. Their shells are white, adorned with prickly
sculpture, and, although thin, are strong. The foot is believed to be
the principal excavating instrument, but the shell no doubt is used as
a file to enlarge the hole as the creature grows. These animals are
brightly phosphorescent; and certain species are eaten at many
places on the shores of the Mediterranean. They appear to be
indifferent as regards the material they bore into; for the common
Pholas dactylus (Fig. 36) of our own shores has been found in slate-
rocks, mica-schist, coal-shale, new red sandstone, chalk, marl, peat,
and submarine wood. The siphons are long in the Piddocks, united
except near the end, and enclosed in tough skin. The species are
world-wide in their distribution, and several are found fossil in some
of the Tertiary formations.
 Fig. 36.

Piddock, or Borer (Pholas

dactylus). (From the British coast.)

1. Animal in the shell: a, foot; b, siphons; c, inhalant orifice; d,

exhalant orifice.

2. Shell: e, accessory valves or plates.

The Teredinidæ, or Ship-worms, are also Case 202.

borers, like the Pholads, but do not
perforate rocks. They are principally wood-borers; the large Kuphus
arenaria, which is an exception, living buried in the sand. The ship-
worm has a long worm-like body, from 6 to 12 inches in length,
which is more or less enclosed in a thin shelly tube or sheath. The
true bivalved shell is at the thicker end, and protects the mouth,
labial palps, the liver, and other internal organs. At the opposite, or
more slender, end of the animal, the mantle is produced into two
small tubes, one of which conveys the water to the gills, whilst
through the other the water is expelled, charged with the woody pulp
excavated by the foot. At the end there is a pair of pallets, or paddles
as they are sometimes termed, which are probably used as a means
of defence, in closing the shelly tube after the contraction of the
siphons.
 Fig. 37.

Ship-worm

(Teredo
norvegica).

Case 202.

a, animal, removed
from its shelly tube: p,
p, pallets; s, exhalant
siphon; s′, inhalant
siphon.
 b, c, different aspects of
the shell.

These animals are most destructive to ships, piers, etc.; and wood,
which is not protected by metal, when once attacked, is soon riddled
through and through. They work either with or across the grain, and
although the holes may be all but touching, they seldom appear to
run into one another.
 Fig. 38.

Watering-pot
Shell
(Brechites
vaginifer).

Case 204.

a, bivalve shell
of the very
young animal.

The “Watering-pot shell” (Brechites), of the family Clavagellidæ, is

a very remarkable structure, and unlike the shell of an ordinary
bivalved mollusc. On looking carefully, however, near the perforated
end (the rose), two small valves will be seen imbedded in the surface.
They are found with the rose downwards buried in mud or sand at
low water on the shores of the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

Septibranchia. (Fig. 25, D.)

The members of this order differ from Case 204.

other Lamellibranchs in having the gill-
plates represented by a muscular septum. They are provided with
two respiratory siphons and two adductor muscles, and the edges of
the mantle-lobes are connected at three points. The families
Poromyidæ, and Cuspidariidæ, constitute this order. The species are
all small, without colour-markings, are world-wide in their
distribution and occur at all depths.
 [9]
Class V.—CEPHALOPODA.

Fig. 39.

A, the upper, B, the lower beak of Architeuthis

monachus; one-third natural size.

This Class includes the Octopus or Cases 205–208.

Polypus, Cuttlefish, Squid, Spirula, the
Paper and Pearly Nautilus. The body of the animal consists of a
muscular sac, in the cavity of which the viscera are placed. In front of
the body projects the head, which, in species belonging to the two-
gilled section of the Class, is surrounded by eight or ten fleshy arms.
A wide aperture below the head admits the water to the gills or
branchiæ, which are situated in the interior of the sac, whilst a short
tube, the so-called funnel or siphuncle, projects from the opening of
the mantle—the water and various excretions being expelled through
this tube, especially also an ink-like fluid, which is discharged by all
Cephalopods (except Nautilus) when disturbed, in order to darken
the water and thus escape their enemies. The centre of the head,
between the base of the arms, is occupied by the mouth, which is
armed with two horny or calcareous jaws, similar to the beak of a
parrot (Fig. 39). The two large eyes are placed on the sides of the
head. The arms or feet are more or less elongate, capable of
movement in any direction, and, except in Nautilus, furnished on
one side with numerous suckers, by means of which the animal
attaches itself most securely to anything it may seize; they are
employed in capturing food and in walking. Cephalopods walk in any
direction head downwards, but can swim backwards only, being
propelled in that direction by the water which they discharge with
force through the funnel out of their branchial cavity. They are
divided, according to the number of their gills (which is either two or
four), into Dibranchia and Tetrabranchia. Of the latter but one
representative now exists, viz., the Pearly Nautilus, all other living
Cephalopods being provided with but two gills, placed one on each
side of the body within the mantle, as may be seen in the wax model
of Sepia officinalis (Case 207). The two-gilled section comprises
forms with eight arms, as Argonauta and Octopus, and others with
ten arms, viz., the Cuttlefishes (Sepia) (Fig. 43), the Squids (Loligo,
Ommatostrephes, Sepiola, Chiroteuthis, etc.), and Spirula. The
“shell” of the Paper-Nautilus, or Argonauta, is too well known to
require any description. Unlike the shells of other Mollusca, it is not
attached to the animal by a special muscle, but is held on to the body
by two of the arms, which are dilated and specially adapted for this
purpose. Only the female Argonaut is provided with a shell, the male
being shellless and a much smaller creature. The Argonaut-shell is
therefore not a true shell, but simply a receptacle for the ova, serving
at the same time for the protection of the parent.
 Fig 40.

The Common Octopus (Polypus vulgaris), resting.

Fig. 41.

Sepiola scandica
(Natural size). British.
 Chiroteuthis Veranyi is remarkable on account of the great length
of the tentacular arms. These are non-retractile and are employed to
seize their prey when at a distance.

Fig. 42.

Chiroteuthis Veranyi (much reduced).

a, general view of animal; b, magnified view of

pedunculated sucker of the terminal club of the
tentacular arms; c, internal shell or gladius.

The species of Octopus are found on the shores of almost all

temperate and tropical seas; they do not attain to a large size, and are
without the internal shell or “bone” which is found in the mantle of
many Cephalopods. That of the Cuttlefish or Sepia (Fig. 43 a) is
found in abundance on our coasts; it is composed of numberless
layers of a friable calcareous substance. That of the Squid tribe is of
quite another character, consisting of an elongate thin horny plate,
and strengthened by one or more thickened ribs, in some species
somewhat resembling a quill-pen. Some species of this pen-bearing
class related to the Common Squid attain an immense size. One was
captured off the Irish coast in June, 1875 (probably Architeuthis
harveyi), with the shorter arms 8 feet in length and 15 inches in
circumference at the base, the two tentacular arms having a total
length of 30 feet. The powerful beak measured about 4 inches across.
Thus from the tip of the tail to the end of the tentacular arms this
wonderful monster must have measured something like 40 feet in
length. Other very large specimens of Architeuthis have been
captured on the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador. Two
specimens stranded on the south coast of Newfoundland, in the
winter of 1870–1871, measured respectively 40 and 47 feet. Another,
cast ashore at Bonavista Bay in December, 1873, had a very stout
body 14 feet long, arms 10 feet, and tentacles 24 feet in length. These
are only a few of the many instances of the capture of gigantic
Cephalopods, which occur not only in the North-Atlantic Ocean, but
also in tropical seas. Their appearance in mid-ocean may, in some
instances, have given rise to the tales of “Sea-serpents.” Specimens
much smaller than those mentioned above have attacked men, and
pearl-fishers are in constant fear of them. One of the arms of a large
Squid (Architeuthis harveyi?), which is supposed to have been found
off the coast of South America, is exhibited in the black upright Case
A at the side of the room.
 Fig. 43.

The Common Cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis), and its

shell or bone (a).

The shells of Spirula (Fig. 44) have been long known, and are
scattered in thousands on the shores of New Zealand and other
islands in the Pacific Ocean, and they are also found in the Indian
and Atlantic Oceans, occasionally drifting on the coast of Devon and
Cornwall. Notwithstanding the abundance of the shells, very few
specimens of the perfect animal have been captured. The loosely-
coiled shell resembles a ram’s horn, and is divided into a number of
segments by fine concave partitions, like the shell of Nautilus, each
one pierced by a slender tube or siphon. It is placed at the hinder end
of the body, and is covered with so thin a skin, that a small portion of
it appears to be exposed both in front and behind. Absolutely
nothing is known of the habits of this very interesting creature,
although probably they are somewhat similar to those of other
Cephalopods.
 Fig. 44.

The Spirula (Spirula peronii).

(From the Indian and Pacific
Oceans.)

1. Animal: a, portions of the shell

exposed in front and behind; b,
the funnel or siphuncle. 2. Side
view of shell. 3. Shell in section,
to show partitions or septa.

The Nautilus (Fig. 45), of which several shells (Case 208) and a
perfect animal in spirit (black upright case A) are exhibited, is an
inhabitant of the Indo-Pacific Ocean, and differs from all other living
Cephalopods in being provided with four instead of two gills, and,
instead of eight or ten arms with suckers and hooks, has a number of
small retractile feelers. The Nautilus occasionally swims, like other
members of its class, at the surface of the sea, but mostly crawls
about leisurely on its feet at the bottom in search of food, which
consists chiefly of small crabs or Mollusca, which it crushes with its
strong calcareous parrot-like mandibles.
 Fig. 45.

The Pearly Nautilus (Nautilus pompilius).

a, body; b, siphuncle; c, eye; d, hood; e, tentacles;

f, muscle of attachment to the shell; g, siphon.

The chambered shell is pearly within, and covered with an external

calcareous layer. The chambers are connected by a slender tube or
siphon, the function of which is not at present thoroughly
understood. The septa, or partitions across the shell, indicate periods
of growth. When the Nautilus outgrows the capacity of the outer
chamber, in which it resides, it constructs a new one of larger size,
separating the additional chamber from the preceding one by a
transverse partition.
A series of Cephalopods preserved in spirit is exhibited in the black
upright case at the side of the room.
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX
OF THE
FAMILIES AND PRINCIPAL GENERA OF
MOLLUSCA EXHIBITED IN THE SHELL
GALLERY.
This Index has been compiled to assist the numerous visitors, who
wish to examine and determine specimens of shells, in finding,
without trouble or loss of time, the Cases in which the genera are
placed. Subgeneric terms are omitted, as they do not fall within the
scope of this “Guide.”

Acanthina, 75
Achatina, 130–131
Achatinella, 134, 135
Acmæa, 4
Actæon, 94
Ætheria, 178
Amphibola, 98
Amphiperas, 35
Ampullaria, 25, 26
Amussium, 159
Anatina, 203
Ancylus, 99
Anodonta, 166, 167
Anomia, 137
Anostoma, 128
Aplacophora, 3
Aplustrum, 96
Aplysia = Tethys, 96
Aporrhais, 49
Arca, 139
Arctica, 162
Argonauta, 205, 206
Arion, 107
Aspergillum (= Brechites), 204
Astarte, 161
Atlanta, 94
Auriculidæ, 97, 98
Avicula = Pteria, 145

Batissa, 165
Brechites, 204
Bryopa, 204
Buccinum, 65
Buliminus, 128
Bulimulus, 122
Bulimus = Strophocheilus, 120
Bullidæ, 95

Calyptræidæ, 31, 32
Cancellaria, 77
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