Spinal nerves : arise from the spinal cord along most to the length of the spinal

cord and spread throughout the body (except the head).

Cranial nerves : arise from the brain and spread throughout the head. They carry
both sensory and motor neurons.

The visceral nerves : arise from the spinal cord. They are connected to the
internal organs of the body. They carry both sensory and motor neurons.

• A receptor is a cell (or a group of cells) in a sense organ which is sensitive to a particular type of
stimulus. Example: Nose and ears.
• An effector is a part of the body which can respond to a stimulus according to the instructions
sent from the nervous system (spinal cord and brain). Example: Glands and muscles.

These are special tips of some nerve cells that detect information from the environment. These are
located in our sense organs

It acts as olfactory receptors. It helps in detection of the smell.

It acts as Gustatory receptors. It helps in detection of taste

It acts as thermo receptors. It helps in detection of taste.

• Structural and functional unit of nervous

system.
• Nervous is a highly specialized cell.
• Responsible for the transmission of signals
to and from the different parts of the body.
• Structural and functional unit of nervous
system.
• Longest cell in human body
control and coordination Page 1
 • Longest fiber on the cell body is called axon.
• It transmits electrical impulse from the cell body to dendrite of next neuron.
• It may be myelinated or non 0 myelinated. Impulse transmission is faster in myelinated neurons.

• The information or signals from receptors is acquired at the end

of the dendritic tip of a nerve cell as chemical reaction that
creates an electric impulse.
• This impulse travels from the dendrite to the cell body and then
at the end of the axon.
• There is a gap between two neurons called (Synapse ). These
chemicals cross the gap and transfers the same signal to next
neuron.
• Chemicals are released at the end of the axon by the effect of
electrical impulse.

• Nerve impulses are wave of electrical and chemical signals carried

along nerves or neurons.
• Nerve impulses are initiated at receptor cells as a result of stimuli
from the environment.

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is a

synaptic connection between the
terminal end of a motor nerve and a
muscle.

These actions can be controlled These actions cannot be

by our own will. controlled by our own will. These actions cannot be controlled
• Thinking involved. ● Thinking not involved. by our own will.
• Brain involved ● Brain is involved ● Thinking is not involved.
● Spinal Cord is involved.
Ex - walking, speaking Ex - pumping of blood, eg. Withdrawal of hand when touch
peristaltic movements, an hot object.

Highest coordinating centre in the body.

● Located inside the skull.
● Protected by a box called Cranium.
● The brain is surrounded by 3 membranes called meninges.
● The space between the membranes is filled with Cerebra Spinal fluid.
● The fluid protects the brain from mechanical shocks.

control and coordination Page 2

 It mainly consists of Cerebrum.
● Cerebrum is the main thinking part of the brain.
● Site of learning, reasoning, intelligence, personality and
memory.
● It also controls thoughts, sensations, actions and
movements.
● Information from sense organs like (eyes, ears, nose,
tongue or skin) is received in cerebrum.
● It also has motor areas from which instructions are sent to
muscles to do voluntary actions.

● Seat of mental abilities, controls thinking, memory, reasoning, perception, emotions, and speech.
● Interprets sensations and responds to pain, cold, heat, and pressure.

● It lies at the base of the cerebrum.

● It controls sleep and wake cycle of the body.
● It also controls the urges for eating and drinking.

● It lies below cerebrum.

● It coordinates the motor functions.
● It controls posture and balance.
● It controls voluntary activities.
control and coordination Page 3
 ● It forms the brain stem.
● It lies at the base of the brain and continues into the spinal
cord.
● It controls involuntary functions like hearing, heart beating and
Respiration, salivation, vomiting.

● It also controls involuntary actions.

● It regulates respiration

● A cylindrical structure
● Begins in continuation with medulla
● It is enclosed in a bony case called vertebral column.
● It is surrounded by membranes called meninges
● 31 pairs of nerves arise from the Spinal Cord.
● It is concerned with spinal reflections.
● It helps in conduction of nerve impulses to and from the brain.

1. How are nervous organs protected

Protection of Brain:
● The brain is placed in a bony box called cranium and is a part of the skull.
● Brain is wrapped in three separate membranes called meninges.
● The space present between these layers is filled with cerebra-spinal fluid(CSF).
● This fluid-filled balloon acts as a shock absorber/ spring/ cushion and protects the brain from injuries and shocks.

Protection of Spinal chord

● Like brain, spinal cord is also wrapped in spinal meninges and consist of Cerebrospinal fluid.
● The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column or backbone.
● The vertebral column is formed by 33 individual bones called vertebrae.

2. How does process of reflex action take place in human body?

● The stimuli is sensed by the sensory receptors and sensory neurons generate impulses.
● These impulses reach the spinal cord
● The relay neuron in the spinal cord passes signals between neurons.
● The motor neurons pass the signals for response to the organ that needs to respond to stimulus.
The information input also goes on to reach the brain. But it is not involved in reflex action.

The pathway through which nerve impulses pass during reflex action is called Reflex Arc.

control and coordination Page 4

3. What is the role of the brain in reflex action?
There is no direct involvement of brain in reflex actions.

When Reflex actions are generated in spinal cord the information also reaches brain. This
helps the brain to record this event and remember it for future use.

Brain helps the person to get awareness of the stimulus and prevent himself from that
situation again in the future.

A gland is a structure which secretes a specific substance (or substances) in the body. A gland is made up
of a group of cells (tissue).

● A group of endocrine glands which produces various

hormones are called endocrine glands.
● The endocrine glands present in the human body are :
Pineal gland; Hypothalamus gland; Pituitary gland; Thyroid
gland; Parathyroid glands; Thymus; Pancreas; Adrenal
glands; Testes (only in males) and Ovaries (only in
● Secretes its product into a duct (or tube). females).
● For example, the salivary gland secrets the
saliva into a duct called salivary duct.

control and coordination Page 5

Hypothalamus gland is present in the brain. Hypothalamus produces ‘releasing hormones’ and
‘inhibitory hormones’. The function of hypothalamus is to regulate the secretions of hormones from
pituitary gland. That is how, hypothalamus controls the pituitary hormones.

Hormones are chemical substances that act like messenger molecules in the body.

● Pituitary gland is present just below the brain.

● The pituitary gland secretes a number of hormones.
● One of the hormones secreted by pituitary gland is
growth hormone (or human growth hormone).
● The growth hormone controls the growth of the
human body.
● For example, growth hormone controls the
development of bones and muscles.

A person having a deficiency of growth hormone in

childhood remains very short and becomes a dwarf.
On the other hand, a person having too much growth
hormone becomes very tall (or a giant).

● Thyroid gland is attached to the wind pipe in our body.

● Thyroid gland makes a hormone called thyroxine (which contains iodine).
● The function of thyroxine hormone is to control the rate of metabolism
of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in the body

● Iodine is necessary for the making of thyroxine hormone in the

body. ● The deficiency of iodine in the diet of a person produces less
thyroxine hormone and causes a disease known as goitre.

Seaweed, Fish, shellfish, Table salts labelled “iodized”, Dairy (milk,

cheese, yogurt), Eggs, Beef liver, Chicken.

● There are four small parathyroid glands which are embedded in the thyroid gland.
● Parathyroid glands secrete a hormone called parathormone.
● The function of parathormone hormone is to regulate calcium and phosphate levels
in the blood.

control and coordination Page 6

● Thymus gland lies in the lower part of the neck and upper part of
chest. Thymus gland secretes thymus hormone which plays a role in
the development of the immune system of the body.
● Thymus gland is large in young children but shrinks after puberty (or
sexual maturity).

● The pancreas is just below the stomach in the body.

● Pancreas secretes the hormone called insulin.
● The function of insulin hormone is to lower the blood sugar level (or blood
glucose level).

● Deficiency of insulin hormone in the body causes a

disease known as diabetes.
● Diabetes is characterized by large quantities of sugar in
the blood (and even urine).
● The insulin hormone controls the metabolism of sugar.

● There are two adrenal glands which are located on the top of two kidneys.
● The adrenal glands secrete adrenaline hormone.
● The function of adrenaline hormone is to regulate heart rate, breathing rate,
blood pressure and carbohydrate metabolism.

● Adrenaline hormone is secreted in small amounts all the time but in large
amounts when a person is frightened or excited.
● When adrenaline is secreted in large amounts it prepares our body for
action.
● It speeds up heartbeat and breathing, raises blood pressure and allows more
glucose (carbohydrate) to go into the blood to give us a lot of energy quickly to
fight or flight (run away).
● Adrenal glands are often called ‘glands of emergency’.

● Testes are the glands which are present only in males (men).
● Testes make male sex hormones called testosterone.
● The testes also make the male gametes called sperms.

control and coordination Page 7

● The function of testosterone hormone is to control the development of male sex organs and
male features such as deeper voice, moustache, beard, and more body hair (than females).
● All these changes caused by testosterone are associated with male puberty which the boys
attain at an age of 13 to 14 years.

● Ovaries are the glands which are present only in females (women).
● Ovaries make two female sex hormones called oestrogen and
progesterone.
● The function of oestrogen hormone is to control the development
of female sex organs, and female features such as feminine voice,
soft skin and mammary glands (breasts).

● All these changes caused by oestrogen are associated with female

puberty which the girls attain at an age of 10 to 12 years.
● The functions of progesterone hormone is to control the uterus
changes in menstrual cycle.
● It also helps in the maintenance of pregnancy. The ovaries also
make the female gametes called ova (or eggs).

● The excess or deficiency of hormones has a harmful effect on our

body.
● For example, the deficiency of insulin hormone results in a disease
called diabetes whereas excess of insulin in the body can lead to coma.

● The timing and amount of hormones released by various glands are controlled by the ‘feedback
mechanism’ which is in-built in our body. For example, if the sugar level in the blood rises too much,
they are detected by the cells of pancreas which respond by producing and secreting more insulin into
blood. And as the blood sugar falls to a certain level, the secretion of insulin is reduced automatically.

● The plants do not have a nervous system and sense organs like eyes, ears,
or nose, etc., like the animals, but they can still sense things.
● The plants coordinate their behaviour against environmental changes by
using hormones.

control and coordination Page 8

● A growth movement of a plant part in response to an external stimulus in
which the direction of stimulus determines the direction of response is
called tropism.
● Thus, tropism is a directional movement of the part of a plant caused by
its growth.
● If the growth (or movement) of a plant part is towards the stimulus, it is
called positive tropism.
● If the growth (or movement) of a plant part is away from the stimulus,
then it is called negative tropism.

● The movement of a plant part in response to light is called phototropism

● If the plant part moves towards light, it is called positive phototropism
● On the other hand, if the plant part moves away from light, then it is called negative phototropism.
● The stem (or shoot) of a growing plant bends towards light, so the stem (or shoot) of a plant shows positive
phototropism.
● On the other hand, the roots of a plant move away from light, so the roots of a plant show negative phototropism.

● The movement of a plant part in response to gravity is called

geotropism.
● If the plant part moves in the direction of gravity, it is called positive
geotropism.
● On the other hand, if the plant part moves against the direction of
gravity, it is negative geotropism.

● The movement of a plant part in response to a chemical stimulus

is called chemotropism.
● If the plant part shows plant part shows movement (or growth)
towards the chemical, it is called positive chemotropism.
● If the plant part shows movement (or growth) away from the
chemical, then it is called negative chemotropism.

control and coordination Page 9

● The movement of a plant part in response to water is called hydrotropism.
● If the plant part moves towards water, it is called positive hydrotropism.
● If the plant part moves away from water, then it is called negative
hydrotropism.

● The directional growth movement of a plant part in

response to the touch of an object is called thigmotropism.
● The climbing parts of the plants such as tendrils grow
towards any support which they happen to touch and wind
around that support. So, tendrils of plants are positively
thigmotropism.

● The movement of a plant part in response to an external stimulus in which the direction of response is not
determined by the direction of stimulus is called nastic movement.
● The folding up of the leaves of a sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) on touching is an example of nastic movement.
Here the stimulus is touch

● The non-directional movement of a plant part in response to

the touch of an object is called thigmonasty.
● The nastic movement in plants caused by touch (or
thigmonasty) is provided by the sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica)
which is also known as touch-me not plant. It is called chhui-mui
in Hindi.
● The folding up of the leaves of a sensitive plant on touching is
due to the sudden loss of water from pad-like swellings called
‘pulvini’ present at the base of all leaves of the sensitive plant
which make the pulvini lose their firmness causing the leaves to
drop and fall.

● The non-directional movement of a plant part (usually petals of

flowers) in response to light is called photonasty.
● The opening and closing of flowers in response to light (or
photonasty) are growth movements.
● Petals open when their inner surfaces grow more than their outer
surfaces. On the other hand, petals close when their outer surfaces
grow more than their inner surfaces.

control and coordination Page 10

 • Gibberellins are plant hormones which promote cell enlargement
and cell differentiation in the presence of auxins.
• Gibberellins help in breaking the dormancy in seeds and buds. They
also promote growth in fruits.
• Gibberellin hormone is involved mainly in shoot extensions.
Gibberellin stimulates elongation of shoots of plants.

• Auxins controls a plant's response to light and gravity.

• Auxin is made by cells at the tip of stems and roots.
• Auxin moves away from light, and towards gravity.
• Auxin speeds up growth in stem but it slows sown growth in roots.
• Synthetic auxins are applied in agriculture and horticulture.

• Cytokinin's are the plant hormones which promote cell division in plants.
• Cytokinin's also help in breaking the dormancy of seeds and buds. They delay the ageing in leaves
• Cytokinin's promote the opening of stomata. They also promote fruit growth

• Abscisic acid is a plant hormone which functions mainly as a growth inhibitor.

• It promotes the dormancy in seeds and buds (this is the opposite of breaking of dormancy). It also
promotes the closing of stomata.
• It promotes the wilting and falling of leaves (which is called abscission). It also causes the
detachment of flowers and fruits from the plants.

control and coordination Page 11