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 discrete mathematics
with applications
FiFth editiON

SUSANNA S. EPP
DePaul University

Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States

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 Cover Photo: The stones are discrete objects placed one on top of another like a chain of careful reasoning. A person who
decides to build such a tower aspires to the heights and enjoys playing with a challenging problem. Choosing the stones takes
both a scientific and an aesthetic sense. Getting them to balance requires patient effort and careful thought. And the tower
that results is beautiful. A perfect metaphor for discrete mathematics!

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 To my husband, Helmut, and my children,
Amanda, Catherine, and Caroline

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 ConTenTS

ChApTER 1 Speaking Mathematically 1

1.1 Variables 1
Using Variables in Mathematical Discourse; Introduction to Universal, Existential,
and Conditional Statements

1.2 The Language of Sets 6

The Set-Roster and Set-Builder Notations; Subsets; Cartesian Products; Strings

1.3 The Language of Relations and Functions 15

Definition of a Relation from One Set to Another; Arrow Diagram of a Relation;
Definition of Function; Function Machines; Equality of Functions

1.4 The Language of Graphs 24

Definition and Representation of Graphs and Directed Graphs; Degree of a Vertex;
Examples of Graphs Including a Graph Coloring Application

ChApTER 2 The Logic of Compound Statements 37

2.1 Logical Form and Logical Equivalence 37
Statements; Compound Statements; Truth Values; Evaluating the Truth of More General
Compound Statements; Logical Equivalence; Tautologies and Contradictions; Summary
of Logical Equivalences

2.2 Conditional Statements 53

Logical Equivalences Involving S; Representation of If-Then As Or; The Negation of
a Conditional Statement; The Contrapositive of a Conditional Statement; The Converse
and Inverse of a Conditional Statement; Only If and the Biconditional; Necessary and
Sufficient Conditions; Remarks

2.3 Valid and Invalid Arguments 66

Modus Ponens and Modus Tollens; Additional Valid Argument Forms: Rules of
Inference; Fallacies; Contradictions and Valid Arguments; Summary of Rules of Inference

2.4 Application: Digital Logic Circuits 79

Black Boxes and Gates; The Input/Output Table for a Circuit; The Boolean Expression
Corresponding to a Circuit; The Circuit Corresponding to a Boolean Expression; Finding

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 vi ConTenTs

a Circuit That Corresponds to a Given Input/Output Table; Simplifying Combinational

Circuits; NAND and NOR Gates

2.5 Application: Number Systems and Circuits for Addition 93

Binary Representation of Numbers; Binary Addition and Subtraction; Circuits for
Computer Addition; Two’s Complements and the Computer Representation of Negative
Integers; 8-Bit Representation of a Number; Computer Addition with Negative Integers;
Hexadecimal Notation

ChAPTER 3 the Logic of Quantified statements 108

3.1 Predicates and Quantified Statements I I08
The Universal Quantifier: 5; The Existential Quantifier: E; Formal versus Informal
Language; Universal Conditional Statements; Equivalent Forms of Universal and
Existential Statements; Bound Variables and Scope; Implicit Quantification; Tarski’s
World

3.2 Predicates and Quantified Statements II 122

Negations of Quantified Statements; Negations of Universal Conditional Statements;
The Relation among 5, E, `, and ~; Vacuous Truth of Universal Statements; Variants of
Universal Conditional Statements; Necessary and Sufficient Conditions, Only If

3.3 Statements with Multiple Quantifiers 131

Translating from Informal to Formal Language; Ambiguous Language; Negations of
Multiply-Quantified Statements; Order of Quantifiers; Formal Logical Notation; Prolog

3.4 Arguments with Quantified Statements 146

Universal Modus Ponens; Use of Universal Modus Ponens in a Proof; Universal Modus
Tollens; Proving Validity of Arguments with Quantified Statements; Using Diagrams to
Test for Validity; Creating Additional Forms of Argument; Remark on the Converse and
Inverse Errors

ChAPTER 4 elementary Number theory and methods

of Proof 160
4.1 Direct Proof and Counterexample I: Introduction 161
Definitions; Proving Existential Statements; Disproving Universal Statements by
Counterexample; Proving Universal Statements; Generalizing from the Generic
Particular; Method of Direct Proof; Existential Instantiation; Getting Proofs Started;
Examples

4.2 Direct Proof and Counterexample II: Writing Advice 173

Writing Proofs of Universal Statements; Common Mistakes; Examples; Showing That an
Existential Statement Is False; Conjecture, Proof, and Disproof

4.3 Direct Proof and Counterexample III: Rational Numbers 183

More on Generalizing from the Generic Particular; Proving Properties of Rational
Numbers; Deriving New Mathematics from Old

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 ConTenTs vii

4.4 Direct Proof and Counterexample IV: Divisibility 190

Proving Properties of Divisibility; Counterexamples and Divisibility; The Unique
Factorization of Integers Theorem

4.5 Direct Proof and Counterexample V: Division into Cases and the
Quotient-Remainder Theorem 200
Discussion of the Quotient-Remainder Theorem and Examples; div and mod; Alternative
Representations of Integers and Applications to Number Theory; Absolute Value and the
Triangle Inequality

4.6 Direct Proof and Counterexample VI: Floor and Ceiling 211
Definition and Basic Properties; The Floor of ny2

4.7 Indirect Argument: Contradiction and Contraposition 218

Proof by Contradiction; Argument by Contraposition; Relation between Proof by
Contradiction and Proof by Contraposition; Proof as a Problem-Solving Tool

4.8 Indirect Argument: Two Famous Theorems 228

The Irrationality of Ï2; Are There Infinitely Many Prime Numbers?; When to Use
Indirect Proof; Open Questions in Number Theory

4.9 Application: The handshake Theorem 235

The Total Degree of a Graph; The Handshake Theorem and Consequences; Applications;
Simple Graphs; Complete Graphs; Bipartite Graphs

4.10 Application: Algorithms 244

An Algorithmic Language; A Notation for Algorithms; Trace Tables; The Division
Algorithm; The Euclidean Algorithm

ChAPTER 5 sequences, mathematical induction,

and recursion 258
5.1 Sequences 258
Explicit Formulas for Sequences; Summation Notation; Product Notation; Properties
of Summations and Products; Change of Variable; Factorial and n Choose r Notation;
Sequences in Computer Programming; Application: Algorithm to Convert from Base 10
to Base 2 Using Repeated Division by 2

5.2 Mathematical Induction I: Proving Formulas 275

Principle of Mathematical Induction; Sum of the First n Integers; Proving an Equality;
Deducing Additional Formulas; Sum of a Geometric Sequence

5.3 Mathematical Induction II: Applications 289

Comparison of Mathematical Induction and Inductive Reasoning; Proving Divisibility
Properties; Proving Inequalities; Trominoes and Other Applications

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 viii ConTenTs

5.4 Strong Mathematical Induction and the Well-Ordering

Principle for the Integers 301
Strong Mathematical Induction; The Well-Ordering Principle for the Integers; Binary
Representation of Integers and Other Applications

5.5 Application: Correctness of Algorithms 314

Assertions; Loop Invariants; Correctness of the Division Algorithm; Correctness of the
Euclidean Theorem

5.6 Defining Sequences Recursively 325

Examples of Recursively Defined Sequences; Recursive Definitions of Sum and Product

5.7 Solving Recurrence Relations by Iteration 340

The Method of Iteration; Using Formulas to Simplify Solutions Obtained by Iteration;
Checking the Correctness of a Formula by Mathematical Induction; Discovering That an
Explicit Formula Is Incorrect

5.8 Second-Order Linear homogeneous Recurrence Relations

with Constant Coefficients 352
Derivation of a Technique for Solving These Relations; The Distinct-Roots Case; The
Single-Root Case

5.9 General Recursive Definitions and Structural Induction 364

Recursively Defined Sets; Recursive Definitions for Boolean Expressions, Strings, and
Parenthesis Structures; Using Structural Induction to Prove Properties about Recursively
Defined Sets; Recursive Functions

ChAPTER 6 set theory 377

6.1 Set Theory: Definitions and the Element Method of Proof 377
Subsets: Introduction to Proof and Disproof for Sets; Set Equality; Venn Diagrams;
Operations on Sets; The Empty Set; Partitions of Sets; Power Sets; An Algorithm to
Check Whether One Set Is a Subset of Another (Optional)

6.2 Properties of Sets 391

Set Identities; Proving Subset Relations and Set Equality; Proving That a Set Is the
Empty Set

6.3 Disproofs and Algebraic Proofs 407

Disproving an Alleged Set Property; Problem-Solving Strategy; The Number of Subsets
of a Set; “Algebraic” Proofs of Set Identities

6.4 Boolean Algebras, Russell’s Paradox, and the halting Problem 414
Boolean Algebras: Definition and Properties; Russell’s Paradox; The Halting Problem

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 ConTenTs ix

ChAPTER 7 Properties of Functions 425

7.1 Functions Defined on General Sets 425
Dynamic Function Terminology; Equality of Functions; Additional Examples of
Functions; Boolean Functions; Checking Whether a Function Is Well Defined; Functions
Acting on Sets

7.2 One-to-One, Onto, and Inverse Functions 439

One-to-One Functions; One-to-One Functions on Infinite Sets; Application: Hash
Functions and Cryptographic Hash Functions; Onto Functions; Onto Functions on
Infinite Sets; Relations between Exponential and Logarithmic Functions; One-to-One
Correspondences; Inverse Functions

7.3 Composition of Functions 461

Definition and Examples; Composition of One-to-One Functions; Composition of Onto
Functions

7.4 Cardinality with Applications to Computability 473

Definition of Cardinal Equivalence; Countable Sets; The Search for Larger Infinities: The
Cantor Diagonalization Process; Application: Cardinality and Computability

ChAPTER 8 Properties of relations 487

8.1 Relations on Sets 487
Additional Examples of Relations; The Inverse of a Relation; Directed Graph of a
Relation; N-ary Relations and Relational Databases

8.2 Reflexivity, Symmetry, and Transitivity 495

Reflexive, Symmetric, and Transitive Properties; Properties of Relations on Infinite Sets;
The Transitive Closure of a Relation

8.3 Equivalence Relations 505

The Relation Induced by a Partition; Definition of an Equivalence Relation; Equivalence
Classes of an Equivalence Relation

8.4 Modular Arithmetic with Applications to Cryptography 524

Properties of Congruence Modulo n; Modular Arithmetic; Extending the Euclidean
Algorithm; Finding an Inverse Modulo n; RSA Cryptography; Euclid’s Lemma; Fermat’s
Little Theorem; Why Does the RSA Cipher Work?; Message Authentication; Additional
Remarks on Number Theory and Cryptography

8.5 Partial Order Relations 546

Antisymmetry; Partial Order Relations; Lexicographic Order; Hasse Diagrams; Partially
and Totally Ordered Sets; Topological Sorting; An Application; PERT and CPM

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 x ConTenTs

ChAPTER 9 counting and Probability 564

9.1 Introduction to Probability 564
Definition of Sample Space and Event; Probability in the Equally Likely Case; Counting
the Elements of Lists, Sublists, and One-Dimensional Arrays

9.2 Possibility Trees and the Multiplication Rule 573

Possibility Trees; The Multiplication Rule; When the Multiplication Rule Is Difficult or
Impossible to Apply; Permutations; Permutations of Selected Elements

9.3 Counting Elements of Disjoint Sets: The Addition Rule 589

The Addition Rule; The Difference Rule; The Inclusion/Exclusion Rule

9.4 The Pigeonhole Principle 604

Statement and Discussion of the Principle; Applications; Decimal Expansions of
Fractions; Generalized Pigeonhole Principle; Proof of the Pigeonhole Principle

9.5 Counting Subsets of a Set: Combinations 617

r-Combinations; Ordered and Unordered Selections; Relation between Permutations
and Combinations; Permutation of a Set with Repeated Elements; Some Advice about
Counting; The Number of Partitions of a Set into r Subsets

9.6 r-Combinations with Repetition Allowed 634

Multisets and How to Count Them; Which Formula to Use?

9.7 Pascal’s Formula and the Binomial Theorem 642

Combinatorial Formulas; Pascal’s Triangle; Algebraic and Combinatorial Proofs of
Pascal’s Formula; The Binomial Theorem and Algebraic and Combinatorial Proofs for It;
Applications

9.8 Probability Axioms and Expected Value 655

Probability Axioms; Deriving Additional Probability Formulas; Expected Value

9.9 Conditional Probability, Bayes’ Formula, and Independent Events 662

Conditional Probability; Bayes’ Theorem; Independent Events

ChAPTER 10 theory of Graphs and trees 677

10.1 Trails, Paths, and Circuits 677
Definitions; Connectedness; Euler Circuits; Hamiltonian Circuits

10.2 Matrix Representations of Graphs 698

Matrices; Matrices and Directed Graphs; Matrices and Undirected Graphs; Matrices and
Connected Components; Matrix Multiplication; Counting Walks of Length N

10.3 Isomorphisms of Graphs 713

Definition of Graph Isomorphism and Examples; Isomorphic Invariants; Graph
Isomorphism for Simple Graphs

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 ConTenTs xi

10.4 Trees: Examples and Basic Properties 720

Definition and Examples of Trees; Characterizing Trees

10.5 Rooted Trees 732

Definition and Examples of Rooted Trees; Binary Trees and Their Properties; Binary
Search Trees

10.6 Spanning Trees and a Shortest Path Algorithm 742

Definition of a Spanning Tree; Minimum Spanning Trees; Kruskal’s Algorithm; Prim’s
Algorithm; Dijkstra’s Shortest Path Algorithm

ChAPTER 11 analysis of algorithm efficiency 760

11.1 Real-Valued Functions of a Real Variable and Their Graphs 760
Graph of a Function; Power Functions; The Floor Function; Graphing Functions Defined
on Sets of Integers; Graph of a Multiple of a Function; Increasing and Decreasing
Functions

11.2 Big-O, Big-Omega, and Big-Theta Notations 769

Definition and General Properties of O-, V-, and Q-Notations; Orders of Power
Functions; Orders of Polynomial Functions; A Caution about O-Notation; Theorems
about Order Notation

11.3 Application: Analysis of Algorithm Efficiency I 787

Measuring the Efficiency of an Algorithm; Computing Orders of Simple Algorithms;
The Sequential Search Algorithm; The Insertion Sort Algorithm; Time Efficiency of an
Algorithm

11.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions: Graphs and Orders 800

Graphs of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions; Application: Number of Bits Needed
to Represent an Integer in Binary Notation; Application: Using Logarithms to Solve
Recurrence Relations; Exponential and Logarithmic Orders

11.5 Application: Analysis of Algorithm Efficiency II 813

Binary Search; Divide-and-Conquer Algorithms; The Efficiency of the Binary Search
Algorithm; Merge Sort; Tractable and Intractable Problems; A Final Remark on
Algorithm Efficiency

ChAPTER 12 regular expressions and Finite-state automata 828

12.1 Formal Languages and Regular Expressions 829
Definitions and Examples of Formal Languages and Regular Expressions; The Language
Defined by a Regular Expression; Practical Uses of Regular Expressions

12.2 Finite-State Automata 841

Definition of a Finite-State Automaton; The Language Accepted by an Automaton; The
Eventual-State Function; Designing a Finite-State Automaton; Simulating a Finite-State

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 xii ConTenTs

Automaton Using Software; Finite-State Automata and Regular Expressions; Regular

Languages

12.3 Simplifying Finite-State Automata 858

*-Equivalence of States; k-Equivalence of States; Finding the *-Equivalence Classes; The
Quotient Automaton; Constructing the Quotient Automaton; Equivalent Automata

APPENDIx A Properties of the real Numbers a-1

APPENDIx B solutions and hints to selected exercises a-4

Index I-1

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 PreFace

My purpose in writing this book was to provide a clear, accessible treatment of discrete
mathematics for students majoring or minoring in computer science, mathematics, math-
ematics education, and engineering. The goal of the book is to lay the mathematical foun-
dation for computer science courses such as data structures, algorithms, relational database
theory, automata theory and formal languages, compiler design, and cryptography, and for
mathematics courses such as linear and abstract algebra, combinatorics, probability, logic
and set theory, and number theory. By combining discussion of theory and practice, I have
tried to show that mathematics has engaging and important applications as well as being
interesting and beautiful in its own right.
A good background in algebra is the only prerequisite; the course may be taken by stu-
dents either before or after a course in calculus. Previous editions of the book have been
used successfully by students at hundreds of institutions in North and South America,
Europe, the Middle East, Asia, and Australia.
Recent curricular recommendations from the Institute for Electrical and Electronic
Engineers Computer Society (IEEE-CS) and the Association for Computing Machinery
(ACM) include discrete mathematics as the largest portion of “core knowledge” for com-
puter science students and state that students should take at least a one-semester course in
the subject as part of their first-year studies, with a two-semester course preferred when
possible. This book includes the topics recommended by those organizations and can be
used effectively for either a one-semester or a two-semester course.
At one time, most of the topics in discrete mathematics were taught only to upper-level
undergraduates. Discovering how to present these topics in ways that can be understood by
first- and second-year students was the major and most interesting challenge of writing this
book. The presentation was developed over a long period of experimentation during which
my students were in many ways my teachers. Their questions, comments, and written work
showed me what concepts and techniques caused them difficulty, and their reaction to my
exposition showed me what worked to build their understanding and to encourage their
interest. Many of the changes in this edition have resulted from continuing interaction with
students.

Themes of a Discrete Mathematics Course

Discrete mathematics describes processes that consist of a sequence of individual steps.
This contrasts with calculus, which describes processes that change in a continuous fash-
ion. Whereas the ideas of calculus were fundamental to the science and technology of the
industrial revolution, the ideas of discrete mathematics underlie the science and technol-
ogy of the computer age. The main themes of a first course in discrete mathematics are
logic and proof, induction and recursion, discrete structures, combinatorics and discrete
probability, algorithms and their analysis, and applications and modeling.

xiii

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 xiv PrefACe

Logic and Proof Probably the most important goal of a first course in discrete mathemat-
ics is to help students develop the ability to think abstractly. This means learning to use
logically valid forms of argument and avoid common logical errors, appreciating what it
means to reason from definitions, knowing how to use both direct and indirect arguments
to derive new results from those already known to be true, and being able to work with
symbolic representations as if they were concrete objects.

induction and recursion An exciting development of recent years has been the increased
appreciation for the power and beauty of “recursive thinking.” To think recursively means
to address a problem by assuming that similar problems of a smaller nature have already
been solved and figuring out how to put those solutions together to solve the larger prob-
lem. Such thinking is widely used in the analysis of algorithms, where recurrence relations
that result from recursive thinking often give rise to formulas that are verified by math-
ematical induction.

discrete structures Discrete mathematical structures are the abstract structures that de-
scribe, categorize, and reveal the underlying relationships among discrete mathematical
objects. Those studied in this book are the sets of integers and rational numbers, general
sets, Boolean algebras, functions, relations, graphs and trees, formal languages and regular
expressions, and finite-state automata.

combinatorics and discrete Probability Combinatorics is the mathematics of count-

ing and arranging objects, and probability is the study of laws concerning the measure-
ment of random or chance events. Discrete probability focuses on situations involving
discrete sets of objects, such as finding the likelihood of obtaining a certain number of
heads when an unbiased coin is tossed a certain number of times. Skill in using combina-
torics and probability is needed in almost every discipline where mathematics is applied,
from economics to biology, to computer science, to chemistry and physics, to business
management.

algorithms and their analysis The word algorithm was largely unknown in the middle
of the twentieth century, yet now it is one of the first words encountered in the study of
computer science. To solve a problem on a computer, it is necessary to find an algorithm, or
step-by-step sequence of instructions, for the computer to follow. Designing an algorithm
requires an understanding of the mathematics underlying the problem to be solved. Deter-
mining whether or not an algorithm is correct requires a sophisticated use of mathematical
induction. Calculating the amount of time or memory space the algorithm will need in
order to compare it to other algorithms that produce the same output requires knowledge
of combinatorics, recurrence relations, functions, and O-, V-, and Q-notations.

applications and modeling Mathematical topics are best understood when they are seen
in a variety of contexts and used to solve problems in a broad range of applied situations.
One of the profound lessons of mathematics is that the same mathematical model can be
used to solve problems in situations that appear superficially to be totally dissimilar. A goal
of this book is to show students the extraordinary practical utility of some very abstract
mathematical ideas.

Special Features of This Book

mathematical reasoning The feature that most distinguishes this book from other dis-
crete mathematics texts is that it teaches—explicitly but in a way that is accessible to

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 PrefACe xv

first- and second-year college and university students—the unspoken logic and reason-
ing that underlie mathematical thought. For many years I taught an intensively interactive
transition-to-abstract-mathematics course to mathematics and computer science majors.
This experience showed me that while it is possible to teach the majority of students to
understand and construct straightforward mathematical arguments, the obstacles to doing
so cannot be passed over lightly. To be successful, a text for such a course must address
students’ difficulties with logic and language directly and at some length. It must also
include enough concrete examples and exercises to enable students to develop the mental
models needed to conceptualize more abstract problems. The treatment of logic and proof
in this book blends common sense and rigor in a way that explains the essentials, yet avoids
overloading students with formal detail.

spiral approach to concept development A number of concepts in this book appear in

increasingly more sophisticated forms in successive chapters to help students develop the
ability to deal effectively with increasing levels of abstraction. For example, by the time
students encounter the relatively advanced mathematics of Fermat’s little theorem in Sec-
tion 8.4, they have been introduced to the logic of mathematical discourse in Chapters 1,
2, and 3, learned the basic methods of proof and the concepts of mod and div in Chapter
4, explored mod and div as functions in Chapter 7, and become familiar with equivalence
relations in Sections 8.2 and 8.3. This approach builds in useful review and develops math-
ematical maturity in natural stages.

support for the student Students at colleges and universities inevitably have to learn a
great deal on their own. Though it is often frustrating, learning to learn through self-study
is a crucial step toward eventual success in a professional career. This book has a number
of features to facilitate students’ transition to independent learning.
Worked Examples
The book contains over 500 worked examples, which are written using a problem-
solution format and are keyed in type and in difficulty to the exercises. Many solutions
for the proof problems are developed in two stages: first a discussion of how one might
come to think of the proof or disproof and then a summary of the solution, which is
enclosed in a box. This format allows students to read the problem and skip imme-
diately to the summary, if they wish, only going back to the discussion if they have
trouble understanding the summary. The format also saves time for students who are
rereading the text in preparation for an examination.
Marginal Notes and Test Yourself Questions
Notes about issues of particular importance and cautionary comments to help students
avoid common mistakes are included in the margins throughout the book. Questions
designed to focus attention on the main ideas of each section are located between the
text and the exercises. For convenience, the questions use a fill-in-the-blank format,
and the answers are found immediately after the exercises.
Exercises
The book contains almost 2600 exercises. The sets at the end of each section have
been designed so that students with widely varying backgrounds and ability levels will
find some exercises they can be sure to do successfully and also some exercises that
will challenge them.
Solutions for Exercises
To provide adequate feedback for students between class sessions, Appendix B con-
tains at least one, and often several, complete solutions for every type of exercise

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 xvi PrefACe

in the book. A blue exercise number indicates that there is a solution in Appendix
B; the letter H is added for a solution that is less than complete. When two or more
exercises use the same solution strategy, there is a full solution for the first and ei-
ther another full solution or a partial solution for later ones. Exercises with several
parts often have an answer and/or hint for one or more of the parts to help students
determine whether they are on track so that they can make adjustments if needed.
Students are strongly urged not to consult solutions until they have tried their best
to answer questions on their own. Once they have done so, however, comparing their
answers with those given can lead to significantly improved understanding. There are
also plenty of exercises without solutions to help students learn to grapple with math-
ematical problems in a realistic environment.
Reference Features
Many students have written me to say that the book helped them succeed in their ad-
vanced courses. One even wrote that he had used one edition so extensively that it had
fallen apart, and he actually went out and bought a copy of the next edition, which he
was continuing to use in a master’s program. Figures and tables are included where
doing so would help readers to a better understanding. In most, a second color is used
to highlight meaning. My rationale for screening statements of definitions and theo-
rems, for putting titles on exercises, and for giving the meanings of symbols and a list
of reference formulas in the endpapers is to make it easier for students to use this book
for review in a current course and as a reference in later ones.

support for the instructor I have received a great deal of valuable feedback from in-
structors who have used previous editions of this book. Many aspects of the book have
been improved through their suggestions. In addition to the following items, there is ad-
ditional instructor support on the book’s website, described later in the preface.
Exercises
The large variety of exercises at all levels of difficulty allows instructors great free-
dom to tailor a course to the abilities of their students. Exercises with solutions in
the back of the book have numbers in blue, and those whose solutions are given
in a separate Student Solutions Manual and Study Guide have numbers that are a
multiple of three. There are exercises of every type in the book that have no answer
in either location so that instructors can assign whatever mixture they prefer of
exercises with and without answers. The ample number of exercises of all kinds
gives instructors a significant choice of problems to use for review assignments and
exams. Instructors are invited to use the many exercises stated as questions rather
than in “prove that” form to stimulate class discussion on the role of proof and coun-
terexample in problem solving.
Flexible Sections
Most sections are divided into subsections so that an instructor can choose to cover
certain subsections only and either omit the rest or leave them for students to study on
their own. The division into subsections also makes it easier for instructors to break
up sections if they wish to spend more than one day on them.
Presentation of Proof Methods
It is inevitable that most of the proofs and disproofs in this book will seem easy to
instructors. Many students, however, find them difficult. In showing students how
to discover and construct proofs and disproofs, I have tried to describe the kinds of
approaches that mathematicians use when confronting challenging problems in their
own research.

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 PrefACe xvii

Complete Instructor Solutions

Complete instructor solutions to all exercises are available to anyone teaching a course
from this book. They are available through the Instructor’s Companion Website.

Highlights of the Fifth Edition

The changes made for this edition are based on suggestions from colleagues and other
long-time users of previous editions, on continuing interactions with my students, and on
developments within the evolving fields of computer science and mathematics.
Reorganization
●● In response to instructor requests to move the introduction of certain topics ear-
lier in the book, Section 1.2 now includes a definition and examples of strings.
In addition, a new Section 1.4 contains definitions and examples of graphs and
includes an introduction to graph coloring and the four-color theorem.
●● The handshake theorem and its applications have been moved from Chapter 10 to

Section 4.9. This gives students an early experience of using direct and indirect
proof in a novel setting and was made possible because the elements of graph
theory are now introduced in Chapter 1.
Improved Pedagogy
●● The exposition has been reexamined throughout and carefully revised as needed.
●● Exercises have been added for topics where students seemed to need addi-

tional practice, and they have been modified, as needed, to address student
difficulties.
●● Additional hints and full answers have been incorporated into Appendix B to

give students more help for difficult topics.

●● The introductory material in Chapter 4 was made more accessible by being di-

vided into two sections. The first introduces basic concepts about proof and dis-
proof in the context of elementary number theory, and the second adds examples
and advice for writing proofs.
Logic and Applications
●● Discussion was added about the role of bound variables and scope in mathemati-
cal writing and computer programming.
●● The section on two’s complements was significantly simplified.

●● Language for expressing universal quantifiers was revised to provide a clearer

basis for the idea of the generic particular in mathematical proof.

●● The material on Boolean algebras was expanded.

Proof and Applications

●● A greater variety of examples and exercises for number theory and set theory
proofs is now included.
●● The directions for writing proofs and the discussion of common mistakes have

been revised and expanded in response to interaction with students.

●● Discussion of historical background and recent mathematical results has been

augmented.
●● Material was added on using cryptographic hash functions to secure the trans-

mission of digital data and on using cryptography to authenticate the sender of a

transmitted message.
Induction and Recursion
●●The sections on ordinary and strong mathematical induction were reorganized
and expanded to increase the emphasis on applications.

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 xviii PrefACe

●● In the section on recursive definitions, the format used for proofs by structural
induction was revised to parallel the format used for proofs by ordinary and
strong mathematical induction. The set of examples and exercises illustrating
recursive definitions and structural induction was significantly increased. The
recursive definition for the set of strings over a finite set and for the length of a
string were revised, and structural induction proofs for fundamental string prop-
erties are now included.
Graph Theory and the Analysis of Algorithm Efficiency
●● Instructors who wish to give their students an early experience of graph theory
can now do so by combining the introduction to graphs in Chapter 1 with the
handshake theorem in Chapter 4.
●● There is a new subsection on binary search trees in Chapter 10.

●● The discussion of O-, V-, and Q-notations was significantly simplified.

●● Many exercises on algorithm efficiency were added or revised to make the con-

cepts more accessible.

Student Resources
The Student Companion Website for this book includes:
●● A general orientation for each chapter

●● Review materials for each chapter

●● Proof tips

●● A link to the author’s personal website, which contains errata information and links

for interactive animations, tutorials, and other discrete mathematics resources on the
Internet

Instructor’s Resources
login.cengage.com
The Instructor’s Companion Website for this book contains:
●● Suggestions for how to approach the material of each chapter

●● The Complete Instructor’s Solutions Manual

●● Ideas for projects and writing assignments

●● Review materials to share with students

●● Lecture Note PowerPoint slides

●● Images from the book

●● A test bank of questions for exams and quizzes

●● Migration guide from 4th to 5th edition

Additional resources for the book are available at http://condor.depaul.edu/sepp.

WebAssign
www.webassign.com
WebAssign from Cengage Discrete Mathematics with Applications, Fifth Edition, is an
online homework system, which instructors can choose to pair with the book. For stu-
dents, it offers tutorial help in solving exercises, including review of relevant material,
short instructional videos, and instant feedback on how they are doing. For instructors, it
offers the ability to create customized homework sets, most of which are graded automati-
cally and produce results directly into an online grade roster. Real-time access to their

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 PrefACe xix

students’ performance makes it possible for instructors to adjust the presentation of mate-
rial on an ongoing basis.

Student Solutions Manual and Study Guide

(ISBN: 978-0-357-03520-7)
In writing this book, I hoped that the exposition in the text, the worked examples, and the
exercise solutions would provide all that a student would need to successfully master the
material of the course. I continue to believe that any student who understands the solutions
for all the exercises with complete solutions in Appendix B will have achieved an excellent
command of the subject. Nonetheless, in response to requests for supplementary materials,
I developed the Student Solutions Manual and Study Guide, available separately from the
book, which contains complete solutions for all the exercises whose numbers are a multiple
of 3. The guide also includes alternative explanations for some of the concepts and review
questions for each chapter.

Organization
This book may be used effectively for a one- or two-semester course. Chapters contain
core sections, sections covering optional mathematical material, and sections covering
optional applications. Instructors have the flexibility to choose whatever mixture will
best serve the needs of their students. The following table shows a division of the sections
into categories.

Sections Containing Optional Sections Containing Optional

Chapter Core Sections Mathematical Material Computer Science Applications
1 1.1–1.3 1.4 1.4
2 2.1–2.3 2.5 2.4, 2.5
3 3.1–3.4 3.3 3.3
4 4.1–4.5, 4.7 4.6, 4.8, 4.9 4.10
5 5.1, 5.2, 5.6, 5.7 5.3, 5.4, 5.8 5.1, 5.5, 5.9
6 6.1 6.2–6.4 6.1, 6.4
7 7.1, 7.2 7.3, 7.4 7.1, 7.2, 7.4
8 8.1–8.3 8.4, 8.5 8.4, 8.5
9 9.1–9.4 9.5–9.9 9.3
10 10.1, 10.4 10.2, 10.3, 10.5 10.1, 10.4–10.6
11 11.1, 11.2 11.4 11.3, 11.5
12 12.1, 12.2 12.3 12.1–12.3

The following tree diagram shows, approximately, how the chapters of this book depend
on each other. Chapters on different branches of the tree are sufficiently independent that
instructors need to make at most minor adjustments if they skip chapters, or sections of
chapters, but follow paths along branches of the tree.
In most cases, covering only the core sections of the chapters is adequate preparation
for moving down the tree.

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 xx PrefACe

34

5 6

10 12* 7 8 9

11

Acknowledgments
I owe a debt of gratitude to many people at DePaul University for their support and en-
couragement throughout the years I worked on editions of this book. A number of my col-
leagues used early versions and previous editions and provided many excellent suggestions
for improvement. For this, I am thankful to Louis Aquila, J. Marshall Ash, Allan Berele,
Jeffrey Bergen, William Chin, Barbara Cortzen, Constantine Georgakis, Sigrun Goes,
Jerry Goldman, Lawrence Gluck, Leonid Krop, Carolyn Narasimhan, Walter Pranger,
Eric Rieders, Ayse Sahin, Yuen-Fat Wong, and, most especially, Jeanne LaDuke. The
thousands of students to whom I have taught discrete mathematics have had a profound
influence on the presentation of the material in the book. By sharing their thoughts and
thought processes with me, they taught me how to teach them better. I am very grateful for
their help. I owe the DePaul University administration, especially deans, Charles Suchar,
Michael Mezey, and Richard Meister, a special word of thanks for considering the writing
of this book a worthwhile scholarly endeavor.
My thanks go to the reviewers for their valuable suggestions for this edition of the
book: Naser Al-Hasan, Newberry College; Linda Fosnaugh, Midwestern State Univer-
sity; Robert Gessel, University of Akron; Juan Henriquez, University of New Orleans;
Amy Hlavacek, Saginaw Valley State University; Kevin Lillis, Saint Ambrose University;
Ramón Mata-Toledo, James Madison University; Bin Shao, University of San Francisco;
Charles Qiao Zhang, Texas Christian University; and Cathleen Zucco-Teveloff, Rowan
University. For their help with previous editions of the book, I am grateful to David Addis,
Texas Christian University; Rachel Esselstein, California State University-Monterrey Bay;
William Marion, Valparaiso University; Michael McClendon, University of Central Okla-
homa; Steven Miller, Brown University; Itshak Borosh, Texas A & M University; Douglas
M. Campbell, Brigham Young University; David G. Cantor, University of California at Los
Angeles; C. Patrick Collier, University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh; Kevan H. Croteau, Francis
Marion University; Irinel Drogan, University of Texas at Arlington; Pablo Echeverria,
Camden County College; Henry A. Etlinger, Rochester Institute of Technology; Melvin
J. Friske, Wisconsin Lutheran College; William Gasarch, University of Maryland; Ladnor

Section 8.3 is needed for Section 12.3 but not for Sections 12.1 and 12.2.
*

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 PrefACe xxi

Geissinger, University of North Carolina; Jerrold R. Griggs, University of South Carolina;

Nancy Baxter Hastings, Dickinson College; Lillian Hupert, Loyola University Chicago;
Joseph Kolibal, University of Southern Mississippi; Benny Lo, International Technologi-
cal University; George Luger, University of New Mexico; Leonard T. Malinowski, Finger
Lakes Community College; John F. Morrison, Towson State Unviersity; Paul Pederson,
University of Denver; George Peck, Arizona State University; Roxy Peck, California Poly-
technic State University, San Luis Obispo; Dix Pettey, University of Missouri; Anthony
Ralston, State University of New York at Buffalo; Norman Richert, University of Houston-
Clear Lake; John Roberts, University of Louisville; and George Schultz, St. Petersburg
Junior College, Clearwater. Special thanks are due John Carroll, San Diego State Univer-
sity; Dr. Joseph S. Fulda; and Porter G. Webster, University of Southern Mississippi; Peter
Williams, California State University at San Bernardino; and Jay Zimmerman, Towson
University for their unusual thoroughness and their encouragement.
I have also benefitted greatly from the suggestions of the many instructors who have
generously offered me their ideas for improvement based on their experiences with pre-
vious editions of the book, especially Jonathan Goldstine, Pennsylvania State University;
David Hecker, St. Joseph’s University; Edward Huff, Northern Virginia Community
College; Robert Messer, Albion College; Sophie Quigley, Ryerson University; Piotr
Rudnicki, University of Alberta; Anwar Shiek, Dine College; Norton Starr, Amherst
College; Eng Wee, National University of Singapore; Doug Hogan, University of Illinois
at Chicago; James Vanderhyde, Benedictine University; Ali Shaqlaih, University of North
Texas at Dallas; Sam Needham, Diablo Valley College; Mohamed Aboutabl and Ramon
A. Mata-Toledo, James Madison University; Larry Russ, Stevens Institute of Technology;
Tomas Klos, Delft University; Margaret McQuain, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University; J. William Cupp, Indiana Wesleyan University; Jeffrey Mank, Framingham
State University; Or Meir, University of Haifa; Audrey Julia Walegwa Mbogho, Pwani
University, Kenya; Nariman Ammar, Birzeit University; Joshua T. Guerin, University
of Tennessee at Martin; Jici Huang, Montana State University; Jerry Shi, University of
Connecticut; Phuc Duong, Ton Duc Thang University, Vietnam; Abdul Rehman Abid, Iqra
University, Pakistan; Yogesh More, SUNY Old Westbury; Mark Kaplan, Towson State
University; Eric Neufeld, University of Saskatchewan; and Jeremy Tucker, Montana State
University. Production of the third edition received valuable assistance from Christopher
Novak, University of Michigan, Dearborn, and Ian Crewe, Ascension Collegiate School.
For the third and fourth editions I am grateful for the many excellent suggestions for
improvement made by Tom Jenkyns, Brock University, and for the fifth edition I am
indebted to Roger Lipsett for his knowledgeable and careful attention to detail. I am also
extremely grateful for the many appreciative messages I have received from students who
have used previous editions of the book. They have inspired me to continue to find ever
better ways to meet their needs in this edition, and I thank them for making the effort to
contact me.
I owe many thanks to the Cengage staff, especially my editors, Laura Gallus, Mona
Zeftel, Lynh Pham, and Spencer Arritt, for their thoughtful advice and reassuringly
calm direction of the production process, and my previous editors, Dan Seibert, Stacy
Green, Robert Pirtle, Barbara Holland, and Heather Bennett, for their encouragement
and enthusiasm.
The older I get the more I realize the profound debt I owe my own mathematics teach-
ers for shaping the way I perceive the subject. My first thanks must go to my husband,
Helmut Epp, who, on a high school date (!), introduced me to the power and beauty of the
field axioms and the view that mathematics is a subject with ideas as well as formulas and
techniques. In my formal education, I am most grateful to Daniel Zelinsky and Ky Fan at
Northwestern University and Izaak Wirszup, I. N. Herstein, and Irving Kaplansky at the

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 xxii PrefACe

University of Chicago, all of whom, in their own ways, helped lead me to appreciate the
elegance, rigor, and excitement of mathematics.
To my family, I owe thanks beyond measure. I am grateful to my mother, whose keen
interest in the workings of the human intellect started me many years ago on the track that
led ultimately to this book, and to my father, whose devotion to the written word has been
a constant source of inspiration. I thank my children and grandchildren for their affection
and cheerful acceptance of the demands this book has placed on my life. And, most of all,
I am grateful to my husband, who for many years has encouraged me with his faith in the
value of this project and supported me with his love and his wise advice.
Susanna Epp

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 Chapter 1 SPEAKING
MATHEMATICALLY

Therefore O students study mathematics and do not build

without foundations. —Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)

The aim of this book is to introduce you to a mathematical way of thinking that can serve
you in a wide variety of situations. Often when you start work on a mathematical prob-
lem, you may have only a vague sense of how to proceed. You may begin by looking at
examples, drawing pictures, playing around with notation, rereading the problem to focus
on more of its details, and so forth. The closer you get to a solution, however, the more
your thinking has to crystallize. And the more you need to understand, the more you need
language that expresses mathematical ideas clearly, precisely, and unambiguously.
This chapter will introduce you to some of the special language that is a foundation
for much mathematical thought, the language of variables, sets, relations, and functions.
Think of the chapter like the exercises you would do before an important sporting event.
Its goal is to warm up your mental muscles so that you can do your best.

1.1 Variables
A variable is sometimes thought of as a mathematical “John Doe” because you can use it
as a placeholder when you want to talk about something but either (1) you imagine that it
has one or more values but you don’t know what they are, or (2) you want whatever you
say about it to be equally true for all elements in a given set, and so you don’t want to be
restricted to considering only a particular, concrete value for it. To illustrate the first use,
consider asking
Is there a number with the following property: doubling it and adding 3
gives the same result as squaring it?
In this sentence you can introduce a variable to replace the potentially ambiguous
word “it”:
Is there a number x with the property that 2x 1 3 5 x2?
The advantage of using a variable is that it allows you to give a temporary name to what
you are seeking so that you can perform concrete computations with it to help discover its
possible values. To emphasize the role of the variable as a placeholder, you might write the
following:
Is there a number n with the property that 2? n 1 3 5 n 2?
The emptiness of the box can help you imagine filling it in with a variety of different val-
ues, some of which might make the two sides equal and others of which might not.
1

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 2 CHAPTEr 1 SPEAKING MATHEMATICALLY

In this sense, a variable in a computer program is similar to a mathematical variable

because it creates a location in computer memory (either actual or virtual) into which
values can be placed.
To illustrate the second use of variables, consider the statement
No matter what number might be chosen, if it is greater than 2, then its
square is greater than 4.
In this case introducing a variable to give a temporary name to the (arbitrary) number you
might choose enables you to maintain the generality of the statement, and replacing all in-
stances of the word “it” by the name of the variable ensures that possible ambiguity is avoided:
No matter what number n might be chosen, if n is greater than 2, then
n2 is greater than 4.

Example 1.1.1 Writing Sentences Using Variables

Use variables to rewrite the following sentences more formally.
a. Are there numbers with the property that the sum of their squares equals the square of
their sum?
b. Given any real number, its square is nonnegative.
Solution
Note In part (a) the a. Are there numbers a and b with the property that a2 1 b2 5 (a 1 b)2?
answer is yes. For Or: Are there numbers a and b such that a2 1 b2 5 (a 1 b)2?
instance, a 5 1 and b 5 0 Or: Do there exist any numbers a and b such that a2 1 b2 5 (a 1 b)2?
would work. Can you
think of other numbers b. Given any real number r, r 2 is nonnegative.
that would also work? Or: For any real number r, r2 $ 0.
Or: For every real number r, r2 $ 0. ■

Some Important Kinds of Mathematical Statements

Three of the most important kinds of sentences in mathematics are universal statements,
conditional statements, and existential statements:

A universal statement says that a certain property is true for all elements in a set.
(For example: All positive numbers are greater than zero.)
A conditional statement says that if one thing is true then some other thing also
has to be true. (For example: If 378 is divisible by 18, then 378 is divisible by 6.)
Given a property that may or may not be true, an existential statement says that
there is at least one thing for which the property is true. (For example: There is a
prime number that is even.)

In later sections we will define each kind of statement carefully and discuss all of them
in detail. The aim here is for you to realize that combinations of these statements can be
expressed in a variety of different ways. One way uses ordinary, everyday language and
another expresses the statement using one or more variables. The exercises are designed to
help you start becoming comfortable in translating from one way to another.

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 1.1 VArIAbLES 3

Universal Conditional Statements

Universal statements contain some variation of the words “for every” and conditional
statements contain versions of the words “if-then.” A universal conditional statement is
a statement that is both universal and conditional. Here is an example:
For every animal a, if a is a dog, then a is a mammal.
One of the most important facts about universal conditional statements is that they can be
rewritten in ways that make them appear to be purely universal or purely conditional. For
example, the previous statement can be rewritten in a way that makes its conditional nature
explicit but its universal nature implicit:
If a is a dog, then a is a mammal.
Or: If an animal is a dog, then the animal is a mammal.
The statement can also be expressed so as to make its universal nature explicit and its
conditional nature implicit:
For every dog a, a is a mammal.
Or: All dogs are mammals.
The crucial point is that the ability to translate among various ways of expressing univer-
sal conditional statements is enormously useful for doing mathematics and many parts of
computer science.

Example 1.1.2 rewriting a Universal Conditional Statement

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:
For every real number x, if x is nonzero then x2 is positive.

a. If a real number is nonzero, then its square .

Note If you introduce x b. For every nonzero real number x, .
in the first part of the sen-
c. If x , then .
tence, be sure to include it
in the second part of the d. The square of any nonzero real number is .
sentence.
e. All nonzero real numbers have .

Solution
a. is positive
b. x2 is positive
c. is a nonzero real number; x2 is positive
d. positive
e. positive squares (or: squares that are positive) ■

Universal Existential Statements

A universal existential statement is a statement that is universal because its first part says
Note For a number b to that a certain property is true for all objects of a given type, and it is existential because its
be an additive inverse for second part asserts the existence of something. For example:
a number a means that
a 1 b 5 0. Every real number has an additive inverse.

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 4 CHAPTEr 1 SPEAKING MATHEMATICALLY

In this statement the property “has an additive inverse” applies universally to all real num-
bers. “Has an additive inverse” asserts the existence of something—an additive inverse—
for each real number. However, the nature of the additive inverse depends on the real
number; different real numbers have different additive inverses. Knowing that an additive
inverse is a real number, you can rewrite this statement in several ways, some less formal
and some more formal:*
All real numbers have additive inverses.
Or: For every real number r, there is an additive inverse for r.
Or: For every real number r, there is a real number s such that s is an
additive inverse for r.
Introducing names for the variables simplifies references in further discussion. For in-
stance, after the third version of the statement you might go on to write: When r is positive,
s is negative, when r is negative, s is positive, and when r is zero, s is also zero.
One of the most important reasons for using variables in mathematics is that it gives you
the ability to refer to quantities unambiguously throughout a lengthy mathematical argu-
ment, while not restricting you to consider only specific values for them.

Example 1.1.3 rewriting a Universal Existential Statement

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement: Every pot has a lid.
a. All pots .
b. For every pot P, there is .
c. For every pot P, there is a lid L such that .
Solution
a. have lids
b. a lid for P
c. L is a lid for P ■

Existential Universal Statements

An existential universal statement is a statement that is existential because its first part
asserts that a certain object exists and is universal because its second part says that the
object satisfies a certain property for all things of a certain kind. For example:
There is a positive integer that is less than or equal to every positive integer.
This statement is true because the number one is a positive integer, and it satisfies the
property of being less than or equal to every positive integer. We can rewrite the statement
in several ways, some less formal and some more formal:
Some positive integer is less than or equal to every positive integer.
Or: There is a positive integer m that is less than or equal to every
positive integer.
Or: There is a positive integer m such that every positive integer is
greater than or equal to m.
Or: There is a positive integer m with the property that for every
positive integer n, m # n.

*A conditional could be used to help express this statement, but we postpone the additional complexity to a
later chapter.

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 1.1 VArIAbLES 5

Example 1.1.4 rewriting an Existential Universal Statement

Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement in three different ways:
There is a person in my class who is at least as old as every person in
my class.
a. Some is at least as old as .
b. There is a person p in my class such that p is .
c. There is a person p in my class with the property that for every person q in my class,
p is .
Solution
a. person in my class; every person in my class
b. at least as old as every person in my class
c. at least as old as q ■

Some of the most important mathematical concepts, such as the definition of limit of a
sequence, can only be defined using phrases that are universal, existential, and conditional,
and they require the use of all three phrases “for every,” “there is,” and “if-then.” For
example, if a1, a2, a3, Á is a sequence of real numbers, saying that
the limit of an as n approaches infinity is L
means that
for every positive real number «, there is an integer N such that
for every integer n, if n . N then 2« , an 2 L , «.

TEST YoUrSELf
answers to test Yourself questions are located at the end of each section.

1. A universal statement asserts that a certain property 3. Given a property that may or may not be true,
is for . an existential statement asserts that for
which the property is true.
2. A conditional statement asserts that if one
thing then some other thing .

ExErCISE SET 1.1

Appendix B contains either full or partial solutions to all exercises with blue numbers. When the solution is not complete,
the exercise number has an “H” next to it. A “*” next to an exercise number signals that the exercise is more challenging
than usual. Be careful not to get into the habit of turning to the solutions too quickly. Make every effort to work exercises
on your own before checking your answers. See the Preface for additional sources of assistance and further study.

In each of 1–6, fill in the blanks using a variable or variables a. Is there an integer n such that n has ?
to rewrite the given statement. b. Does there exist such that if n is divided
by 5 the remainder is 2 and if ?
1. Is there a real number whose square is 21?
a. Is there a real number x such that ? Note: There are integers with this property. Can you
b. Does there exist such that x2 5 21? think of one?

2. Is there an integer that has a remainder of 2 when 3. Given any two distinct real numbers, there is a
it is divided by 5 and a remainder of 3 when it is real number in between them.
divided by 6?

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 6 CHAPTEr 1 SPEAKING MATHEMATICALLY

a. Given any two distinct real numbers a and b, c. If an object is a square, then it .
there is a real number c such that c is . d. If J , then J .
b. For any two , such that c is e. For every square J, .
between a and b.
9. For every equation E, if E is quadratic then E has
4. Given any real number, there is a real number that at most two real solutions.
is greater. a. All quadratic equations .
a. Given any real number r, there is s such b. Every quadratic equation .
that s is . c. If an equation is quadratic, then it .
b. For any , such that s . r. d. If E , then E .
e. For every quadratic equation E, .
5. The reciprocal of any positive real number is positive.
a. Given any positive real number r, the reciprocal 10. Every nonzero real number has a reciprocal.
of . a. All nonzero real numbers .
b. For any real number r, if r is , then . b. For every nonzero real number r, there is
c. If a real number r , then . for r.
c. For every nonzero real number r, there is a real
6. The cube root of any negative real number is
number s such that .
negative.
a. Given any negative real number s, the cube 11. Every positive number has a positive square root.
root of . a. All positive numbers .
b. For any real number s, if s is , then . b. For every positive number e, there is for e.
c. If a real number s , then . c. For every positive number e, there is a positive
number r such that .
7. Rewrite the following statements less formally,
without using variables. Determine, as best as you 12. There is a real number whose product with every
can, whether the statements are true or false. number leaves the number unchanged.
a. There are real numbers u and v with the prop- a. Some has the property that its .
erty that u 1 v , u 2 v. b. There is a real number r such that the product
b. There is a real number x such that x2 , x. of r .
c. For every positive integer n, n2 $ n. c. There is a real number r with the property that
d. For all real numbers a and b, u a 1 bu # u au 1 u bu. for every real number s, .
In each of 8–13, fill in the blanks to rewrite the given 13. There is a real number whose product with every
statement. real number equals zero.
8. For every object J, if J is a square then J has four a. Some has the property that its .
sides. b. There is a real number a such that the product
a. All squares . of a .
b. Every square . c. There is a real number a with the property that
for every real number b, .

ANSWErS for TEST YoUrSELf

1. true; all elements of a set 2. is true; also has to be true 3. there is at least one thing

1.2 The Language of Sets

Á when we attempt to express in mathematical symbols a condition proposed in
words. First, we must understand thoroughly the condition. Second, we must be
familiar with the forms of mathematical expression. — George Polyá (1887–1985)

Use of the word set as a formal mathematical term was introduced in 1879 by Georg
Cantor (1845–1918). For most mathematical purposes we can think of a set intuitively, as

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Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
attend the cremation ceremonies of his late suzerain. While there he
fell sick, and before he could reach his Chiengmai capital he died.
Upon his death the supreme power within the province passed to the
hands of one kindly disposed to the missionaries.
In the same year as the death of the Lao king, 1870, a royal
proclamation was issued which appeared in part in the Bangkok
Calendar for the next year. This proclamation was a decree of
religious liberty. Apparently, although not of a certainty, it had some
connection with the recent affair among the Lao. A paragraph from
this proclamation shows the broadmindedness of the government at
that period:
“In regard to the concern of seeking and holding a
religion that shall be a refuge to yourself in this life, it is a
good concern and exceedingly appropriate and suitable
that you all—every individual of you—should investigate
and judge for himself according to his own wisdom. And
when you see any religion whatever, or any company of
religionists whatever, likely to be of advantage to yourself,
a refuge in accord with your own wisdom, hold to that
religion with all your heart. Hold it not with a shallow mind,
with mere guess work or merely because of its general
popularity or from mere traditional saying that it is the
custom held from time immemorial. And do not hold a
religion that you have not good evidence is true and then
frighten men’s fears and flatter their hopes thereby. Do not
be frightened and astonished at diverse fictitious events
and hold to and follow them. When you shall have
obtained a refuge, a religious faith that is good and
beautiful and suitable, hold to it with great joy and follow
its teachings, and it will be a cause of prosperity to each
one of you.... It is our will that our subjects of whatever
race, nation or creed live freely and happily in the
kingdom, no man despising or molesting another on
account of religious difference, or any other difference of
opinion, custom or manners.”
 Oddly enough, Dr. House, who seemed always to make mention
of the innovations of the progressive government under the new
king, makes no reference to this proclamation in his letters, nor does
he mention it in his chapter on the history of missions in Siam and
Laos. In this last named work, however, he states that on Sept. 29,
1878, the king of Siam issued “a proclamation establishing religious
toleration in Laos and by implication throughout all his dominions.”
Early in 1871 an incident occurred which was fraught with great
consequence for native Christians, and one in which Dr. House’s
friendly intimacy with the high officials enabled him to render a
service of far-reaching consequence to the young native church.
One of the girls of the school, Ooey, shortly after she had made a
confession of faith, was called as a witness in court upon a suit in
behalf of another member of the church. It was then the custom to
allow the Chinese to take oath according to their religion; but there
was no provision in the law for the Christian oath. When this young
girl was asked to take the native oath, she told the court boldly that
she was a Christian and that she could not take an oath based on
the native religion; and she demanded to be sworn upon her
Christian faith. The court tried to induce her to accede to custom,
assuring her that it was but a harmless formula. But she steadily
refused, although she was an important witness, the lack of whose
testimony was greatly to the disadvantage of a fellow-Christian. In
consequence the case was suspended, in hopes that she would
change her attitude.
The matter was at once brought to the attention of Dr. House, who
recognised that the situation involved elements which were of
serious consequence to the religious rights of native Christians. If
compelled to take oath, it would infringe upon their conscience. If not
permitted to substitute the Christian oath, they would have to forfeit
their standing in the court in all cases. The doctor at once sought an
interview with the minister of foreign affairs, his old friend and former
Lieutenant-Governor of Petchaburi, and also with the regent, an old-
time friend. After laying before them the nature of the case, an order
was issued directing that a witness be sworn by the faith to which he
claimed allegiance. This action, so far as appears, was the first step
in the legal recognition of the Christian faith on the part of the
government.

PROGRESS
During the last decade of Dr. House’s services there were many
recruits to the force of workers. But these additions were not a net
gain, for in the meantime there were numerous withdrawals on
account of health. In 1869 came Revs. J. W. Van Dyke and John
Carrington with their wives. Two years later were added Rev. and
Mrs. R. Arthur, Rev. J. N. Culbertson and Miss E. S. Dickey. Miss
Arabella Anderson came in 1872 to assist in the new boarding
school for girls. The year 1874 saw the arrival of an unusual number
of unmarried women missionaries. They were Misses S. M. Coffman,
M. L. Cort and E. D. Grimshaw. Then, in 1875, Rev. and Mrs.
Eugene P. Dunlop reached Bangkok and began a very long period of
valuable service.
Increase of workers meant not diminution but rather increase of
work. This is typified in the case of Dr. House himself, who jocularly
wrote to his brother that “Satan will not likely find mischief for my
hands to do,” and then recounts the duties that devolve upon him.
The varied activities that he mentions not only show the versatility
required of a missionary but indicate the manifold duties that each
missionary has to perform. He writes:
“I have recently become a theological professor, four
evenings of the week gathering around me in my study the
more advanced and promising of the native church
members ... and try to pilot them through the leading
principles of a system of divinity.”
One of these men, Ooan Si Tieng, was ordained in 1872. He had
been the first Chinese convert in the mission and now became the
first to receive this full authority from the Presbytery. As pastor of the
native church Dr. House had a full measure of sorrows as well as
joys, for there is a tide in spiritual affairs that has its ebb as well as
its flow, and the years of spiritual awaking were followed by periods
of depression. Thus at the beginning of 1869 he writes:
“Our spiritual prospects at the opening of the year are
not as bright as last new year—one or two sad and
unexpected fallings away from the faith have greatly tried
and pained our hearts.”
But this reaction was transient, for two years later, in telling of the
week of prayer in January, he writes:
“Our native Christians are quite interested, sustaining
the meetings nobly. Indeed I have thrown the meetings
upon them altogether and they take turns in leading them.
You do not know what comfort it is to have in my little flock
enough able and willing to carry on these meetings.... It
would do you good to witness the spirit of faithfulness on
their part to the souls of their impenitent friends and
neighbours.”
In addition to his duties as pastor of the mission church, Dr. House
was appointed superintendent of the mission press in 1870, and for
that year also was elected secretary of the mission in charge of the
records and correspondence. At the same time he was offered a
royal appointment:
“Projects are now on foot in both kings’ palaces for
schools for the instruction of the young nobility of Siam in
English and the sciences. I have been earnestly solicited
by the Second King George to aid in establishing the one
he is planning. Happy would I be to lend a helping hand if
other duties would allow.”
After two years the doctor was relieved of the charge of the Press
and appointed again to the more congenial task of supervising the
mission school, a position which he continued to fill until his final
withdrawal from the field.
In the midst of these incidents the actual growth of the Mission
must not be overlooked. It has to be recorded that in spite of arduous
and faithful labours of the increasing corps of workers and in the face
of all the encouraging marks of advance in Western civilisation, Siam
responded very slowly to the spiritual appeal of the Gospel. While
she gladly recognised and sought after the material benefits of
Christianity she continued to manifest her characteristic indifference
to its more vital message. Mr. McDonald, in his book on Siam, Its
Government, Manners and Customs, says that when he arrived in
Siam in 1861 there was but one native convert in connection with the
mission, whereas ten years later there was a church in Bangkok with
only twenty members and another in Petchaburi with a like number.
He then adds:
“It is just to state that there is scarcely any other field in
which modern missions have been established where the
introduction of the gospel has met with so little opposition
as in Siam proper.... It is equally just to say that there is
scarcely any other field which has been so barren of
results. Pure Buddhism seems to yield more slowly to the
power of the gospel than any other false system.”
The reason for this unyielding nature of Buddhism seems to lie in
its ethical theories which are the result of its philosophy of life. In
some measure, too, this indifference of Buddhism to a spiritual
interpretation of life accounts for its non-resistance towards the
preaching of an antagonistic religion. The primary fallacies of
Buddhism from the Christian point of view are:
“1. No Creator and no Creating: Things just happened.
This conception leads to indifference to nature and to a
belief that the body is vile, to be despised and
disregarded.
“2. No idea of a Spiritual Personality, whether human or
divine. Emphasis is placed on mind and intellect to the
exclusion of will and feeling. Hence Buddhism is a
philosophy rather than a religion, a theory of existence
rather than a motive force.
“3. No true sense of relationship of man to man or of
man to God, in the absence of spiritual personality.
Everything is ego-centric, each for himself. Hence
 incomplete ideas of love, faith, sin, holiness, suffering; in
the absence of hope fear dominates life.
“4. The greatest fundamental error is the assertion of
the Karma law as the sole principle that explains all (the
law of ethical causation, by which the merit or demerit of
every act in this life effects the future life). This leads to a
denial of personality and to fatalism, formality, trust in the
individual’s merit, denial of forgiveness and self
satisfaction.”
But if the work at that stage had few numerical results to display,
yet a keen discernment would show that other larger results were
being accomplished. Mr. George B. Bacon, in his volume on Siam,
shows a true appreciation of what missions had accomplished up to
that time:
“At first sight their efforts, if measured by count of
converts, might seem to have resulted in failure.... But
really the success of these efforts has been extraordinary,
although the history of them exhibits an order of results
almost without precedent. Ordinarily the religious
enlightenment of a people comes first and the civilization
follows as a thing of course. But here the Christianisation
of the nation has scarcely begun, but its civilisation has
made much more than a beginning. For it is to the labours
of the Christian missionaries in Siam that the remarkable
advancement of the kings and nobles, and even of the
common people in general is owing....
“When Sir John Bowring came in 1855 to negotiate his
treaty ... he found the fruit was ripe before he plucked it.
And it was by the patient and persistent labours of the
missionaries for twenty years that the results which he
achieved were made not only possible but easy.”
But there is evidence of even more subtle effect of the gospel. No
one who reads of the notable changes in the social customs and
political institutions introduced by the young King Chulalongkorn can
resist the conclusion that it was the religious support of these ancient
practises that had given way under the disintegrating light of the
Christian Gospel. Even that earlier attempt of Chao Fah Yai to
modernise the religious teachings among his followers shows that
the religious philosophy of Buddhism could not stand before the truth
of Jesus.

LITERARY WORK
In the literary field Dr. House was receptive rather than creative.
He was a lover of books but not of writing:
“How irksome and difficult the labour of composition has
been to me,” he says, “I’d rather be a ditch digger and
shovel mud. The getting of a certain amount of writing
done by a given time is out of the question in my case.”
He was appointed the first “librarian” of the Mission back in the early
days when the library consisted of two shelves of books and some
unbound magazines, besides “some Malay, Tamul, Bengali,
Portuguese and Indo-Portuguese books for a long time handed
down in the mission.” His reluctance at the pen partly accounts for
the sparsity of matter published under his name in the missionary
magazines. But the refusal on his part to appear in print in this
fashion was due perhaps more to his fear that journals or
newspapers containing articles on missions would find their way into
the hands of the Siamese government, which might be displeased
with any frank narrative of observations. For this reason he
frequently admonished the recipients of his letters that they should
not take advantage of his absence to publish his comments.
When it came to the needs of the mission, however, he lent his
hand and brain to supply the requirements. The following tracts are
ascribed to him:
Scripture Facts, 1848.
Watt’s Catechism, bound with The Speller, 1853.
Child’s Catechism with Commandments and Lord’s Prayer, 1854.
 Questions in Gospel History, 1864.
Stand by the Truth, 1869.
These last two in conjunction with Mrs. House.
After return to America he wrote a pamphlet, Notes on Obstetric
Practises in Siam, (Putnam, 1897). In the volume, Siam and Laos
(Presbyterian Board, 1884), several chapters were contributed by Dr.
House, including the very comprehensive and accurate chapter on
History of Missions in Siam; but so impersonally did he write the
record that it would be almost impossible for the reader to detect that
a good part of the story had been created in action as well as
recounted by the writer.
The school for boys which Dr. House fostered almost continuously
from its beginning was merged into the Boys’ Christian High School
in 1889. This institution in turn developed in scope until it was
enlarged into the “Bangkok Christian College,” which was organised
in 1915.
 XI
HARRIET PETTIT HOUSE
In former years a missionary’s wife was not under commission of the
Board. Her status was similar to that of the pastor’s wife at home. It
is not infrequent that the work of the wife is just as vital to the
development of the church as that of her husband, but she receives
no recognition in the official records of the church. Her honour is
emblazoned where the eye cannot see it—in the hearts of the
people. The wife of the pioneer missionary went out, not at the call of
the Church, but at the call of the husband, with no promise of
remuneration aside from the fabulous bridal endowment which the
groom made at marriage “with all his worldly goods” and with no
official rank to assure the preservation of her name on the roll of
honour.
So it happens that the scanty reports from the early Siam mission
seldom mentioned the name of Mrs. House. Yet one cannot read the
letters of her husband without perceiving that she supplemented his
educational work in a manner and to a degree that is worthy of
special recognition. But apart from that, she succeeded finally in so
organising and establishing female education in Siam that she has
come to be regarded as the founder of permanent educational work
for women in that country.

HER FAMILY AND EDUCATION

 Harriet Pettit House was born in Waterford, New York, Dec. 23,
1820. Her ancestry was Scotch and English. On the mother’s side
the line goes back to William Mitchell and his wife, Agnes Buchanan,
who emigrated from Glasgow to New England in 1755. The male line
in America began with the Englishman Abraham Waterhouse, who
came to New England, 1729, and “who sleeps with the pilgrim
settlers at Saybrook, Conn.” Her paternal grandfather, John Pettit,
one of the original settlers of Waterford and a member of the first
board of village trustees, came from Chester, Conn., whence a few
years later he brought his bride, Rebecca Waterhouse.

HARRIET PETTIT HOUSE

Their son, John, is said to have been the first child born in the new
settlement. He became a cabinet maker. Following his father’s
example, he sought a wife in Chester and married Sarah Parmelee
Mitchell, who was his “second cousin, once removed.” Of this
ancestry and marriage was born the future woman missionary. The
family comprised Mary Jane (dying in infancy), Eliza Ann, Mary
Jane, Harriet Maria, John Mitchell, William Frederic and Sarah
Frances, all of whom were born at Waterford except the last. The
mother was a member of the Waterford Presbyterian Church, and
the two older daughters united at an early age. In 1832 the family
moved to Sandy Hill, New York, where resided an uncle, General
Micajah Pettit. While living there Harriet made a profession of her
faith at the age of seventeen. During residence in that village she
became acquainted with Stephen Mattoon and the young woman
who later became his wife, with both of whom she was destined to
be associated in Siam. The first appearance of her name in the
journal of Dr. House is a casual entry that Mrs. Mattoon had received
(1851) a letter from her friend Harriet Pettit. After nine years the
family returned to Waterford in 1841.
Harriet’s elementary education was the best afforded by the
private school system of the period. In 1840 she entered the Emma
Willard Female Seminary at Troy, New York. There she studied for a
year, and then entered upon what proved to be her life work of
female education. Her first year of teaching was in a young ladies’
school in New York City. For two years she served as governess for
a family in Charleston, South Carolina. It was while there that she
wrote to her youngest sister a most remarkable letter of religious
importunity. In the winter of 1843 a great revival had aroused the
little church at Waterford under the pastor, Rev. Reuben Smith, in
which sixty-nine were converted. Among these were her father and
two brothers, all of whom united with the church. Having received
news of this awakening, Harriet sent to her sister, the only member
of the family not yet in the Church, a letter carefully printed so as to
be legible to the girl of ten years. It was a letter with a purpose. It
was an affectionate entreaty for the sister to become a Christian.
Concisely but clearly she explained what it meant to be a Christian,
and then gently and with fervour urged a prompt decision for Christ.
That letter was not void of its purpose, and all these eighty years
since it has been treasured by the recipient as a memento of a
loving, consecrated sister.
The Pettit family did not remain long in Waterford after their return.
In 1844 they moved to Newark, New Jersey, and there became
identified with the Second Presbyterian Church, of which at the time
the pastor was a relative, the Rev. Ebenezer Cheever, who had
formerly been their pastor also at Waterford. Thereupon, Harriet
came to Newark and set up a small school for girls in her home. In
1848 she was called to be assistant in the female seminary at
Steubenville, Ohio. In the fall of 1851 she returned to Newark and
opened, under her own management, a “Select School for Young
Ladies,” which she continued up to the time of her marriage. During
these later years she was active in the work of the Second Church,
serving as joint superintendent of the Sunday school. On Oct. 24,
1855, her father died, leaving Harriet alone with their mother and her
youngest sister.

MARRIAGE
It was at this juncture of the family affairs, two days after the
father’s death, that Harriet received an unexpected call from her
friend of former years, Dr. S. R. House, then home on a furlough
from Siam. Writing later to a friend she comments:
“It is but two years this morning since my good husband
called at 373 Broad Street, Newark, to see a lady on very
particular business. Only two years,—and fifteen months
of that time I have been in the city of Bangkok. Does not
this speak well for Samuel’s despatch of business
sometimes? (Then quoting a bit of doggerel which he had
once written:)
‘I haven’t the slightest notion
Of launching on the stormy ocean
Where family cares and troubles rise
Heaping their billows to the skies
A wife’s complaint, the young one’s cries
Wont suit me.’
 “How entirely we sometimes change our minds! On the
morning of the 26th, the ‘batch’ who once thus sung had
not the slightest, but the strongest notion—and launching
forth soon followed.”
Having changed his mind the suitor allowed little time to slip by till
he had won the object of his heart’s desire. A month and a day after
the engagement, on Nov. 27, 1855, the marriage occurred.
The bridal couple sailed for Siam in the spring of 1856, arriving at
Bangkok in July. On the part of the natives connected with the
mission the bride was received with a quiet curiosity, for these
people were slow to receive newcomers into their affections. But
King Mongkut, having first given a private audience to Dr. House,
requested particularly that the bride might come to the palace to
receive his congratulations. Mrs. House describes the call:
“A few weeks afterwards a note came from him inviting
the ladies who, as he expressed it, ‘had not yet been to
pay their personal interview to H. M.,’ and saying he would
send a boat for us. About 2 p. m., the boat came with one
of the ladies of the king’s household and a train of
servants; and Mrs. Morse and I went.... Passing through a
gate in the wall of the palace we were conducted through
paved streets on each side of which are the brick
dwellings of the various inmates. As we passed along we
attracted the attention of the residents who crowded about
the doors, curious to see the foreign ladies.
“At length we arrived at a large building on the portico of
which were chairs, and here we were invited to sit to await
summons into the royal presence.... After an hour or more
a message came from H. M. announcing his readiness to
receive us. We entered a door guarded by several female
soldiers; and here stood the king to meet us; dressed in a
mouse colored, figured silk sacque, over a white garment
—a large diamond on his breast, a number of very brilliant
rings and a gold watch, and sandals on feet. He extended
his right hand very graciously to us and led the way to a
 spacious hall, hung round with mirrors, where we were
seated.
“He sent for his favorite wife whom he introduced as his
queen consort, and afterwards sent for her two children;
the eldest a boy of about four years, was loaded with
chains of gold; the youngest a daughter. Both very
handsome. His Majesty was exceedingly affable, speaking
English so that with strict attention we could understand.
He conversed on various subjects intelligently.
Refreshments were served, during which H. M. left us.
When he returned he presented to us each, as a memento
of our visit, a very heavy gold ring of Siamese
manufacture, set with five sapphires. After being shown
through some of the apartments, at sundown we took our
leave.”
A belated sequence of this royal welcome was an invitation to Mrs.
House and Mrs. Jonathan Wilson (newly arrived) to dine with the
queen and some of her ladies in the palace the following year.

AN INDUSTRIOUS WOMAN
We catch glimpses of the indefatigable industry of this woman
slightly from her few letters but chiefly from those of Dr. House.
Within a month after landing, before the house was fairly settled, she
began where the first opportunity presented:
“My good wife has already begun her true missionary
work, for she has a Bible class of nine of our young folks,
whom she instructs Sabbath mornings through the English
tongue which they have partially acquired.”
Promptly she took up the important task of learning the language:
“I love the Siamese language very much indeed. The
first month I was here I took no lesson and I have lost two
months since by sickness and absence, but I have read
 and nearly translated the gospel of Matthew; and I begin
to make myself understood.”
During the dry season for the first several years Mrs. House made
tours with her husband. One of these was to Prabat, the scene of the
“footstep of Buddha,” where the doctor had experienced rough
treatment on his previous visit; on this occasion, however, no
attention was paid to the presence of foreigners. Mrs. House took
pains to write vivid accounts of many of these tours for the home
Sunday school; these and parts of her letters found their way into the
missionary magazines of the day and afterwards were incorporated
as a part of the volume, Siam and Laos.
In the summer of the second year we find her teaching an hour-
and-a-half daily in the mission school and giving two hours daily to
the study of the language beside the domestic cares. She had
already taken under her maternal oversight the native girl Delia, and
also accepted charge of Nancy, whom Mrs. Mattoon had raised; and
while in some ways these wards were an assistance, yet their care
and direction was a great responsibility. Comments upon her zeal
appear frequently in the doctor’s letters, and ten years after her
arrival he continues to mention her diligence:
“Harriette is as industriously engaged as ever. She will
teach three full hours a day, besides what she does for her
girls at home, reading and translating with the Siamese
teacher. Nor can she be persuaded to spare herself. Has
just started under superintendance of Delia and Ooey,
alternately, an infant sewing and singing class.”
Thus by assistance of the girls whom she had already taught she
undertook to extend her reach, training these girls in teaching under
her own direction. After she had fairly mastered the language she
sought further to enlarge her influence by preparing tracts and
translating pamphlets. She is credited with these productions:
Questions in Gospel History, 1864; Stand by the Truth, 1869
(these two in conjunction with Dr. House); Catechism in Bible Truth,
1870; several juvenile story books.
 Concerning the Catechism, Dr. House wrote to Mrs. House while
she was in America (1871): “I take great satisfaction in the circulation
of that little tract Bible Truth you toiled on so faithfully, and I like it
better each day. Our whole school recite their ‘verse a day’ from that
now.”

PRECARIOUS HEALTH
While admiring her industry. Dr. House expressed foreboding very
early, writing six months after her arrival: “H. is really very well now,
but is far too industrious. I am curious to know the effect a Siamese
sun will have on such habits of diligence as she has brought from the
United States.”
That the tropical rays were not to be ignored, even by consecrated
diligence, early became manifested by a strange “burning sensation
in the top of the head,” from which Mrs. House began to suffer within
a year and which continued, sometimes with alarming discomfort,
throughout her residence in Siam. As the pain increased rather than
abated after seven years in the tropics, her physician recommended
a sojourn in her native climate in hopes of gaining permanent relief.
Accordingly Dr. and Mrs. House left Bangkok in February, 1864, and
spent two full years in America. The change brought relief which at
the time it was hoped would be permanent.

BEGINNINGS OF FEMALE EDUCATION IN SIAM

It is not possible to ascribe to Mrs. House the beginnings of
education of women in Siam. Even apart from the efforts of the
women of the other missions to teach the Chinese women, Mrs.
Mattoon had at the outset of her career taken native girls into her
home with a view to educating them. Later she succeeded in
gathering a class of little girls in the Peguan village across the river
from the capital. When Mrs. House came, in 1856, Mrs. Mattoon was
conducting a class of six or seven married women whom she taught
to read while at the same time giving religious instruction. Shortly
after the coming of Mrs. House, Mrs. Mattoon seems to have
withdrawn from such work in her favour, as her own time was then
largely occupied with her domestic duties.
Modern female education in Siam may be said to have begun
when the newly crowned King Mongkut, in August, 1851, requested
the ladies of the several missions to come to the palace in turns for
the purpose of instructing some of the royal ladies. This was five
years before Mrs. House reached Siam. The intention of the king, as
he expressed it, was to qualify the ladies of the palace to converse
with him in English. The effect of this royal patronage of female
education was not only to break the bondage of custom which held
women in perpetual ignorance but to quicken popular interest in the
mission school.
Though Mrs. House promptly enlisted in assisting her husband in
the school for boys, her greatest sympathy was with the girls of
Siam. From the first she sought to reach out toward them, making
her first point of contact by a class in English Bible. As she came to
perceive the age-long inheritance of ignorance that impoverished the
successive generations of Siamese women she was kindled with a
desire to share with them the heritage of Christian women. This lack
of education she pictures:
“When we first went to Siam not one woman or little girl
in ten could read, although all the boys are taught by the
priests in the temples to read and write. One day a very
bright interesting little girl, twelve years old perhaps, came
to our boat to see the strangers. When asked if she could
read, she did not answer yes or no, but with surprise
exclaimed, ‘Why, I am a girl’—as if we ought to have
known better than to ask a girl such a question.”
The chief obstacle to education was the notion that education had
no value for them. Woman’s place was to serve and please man. So
long as she could cook rice, take care of the children and do
necessary work without knowing books, why learn? Perhaps Mrs.
House did not have a vision of making education an established
factor in the customs of Siam; that possibility was too vast and too
remote to conceive under the circumstances. But she did have a
clear vision that education was indispensable to the amelioration of
womankind.
Her first step was taken in 1858, concerning which the doctor
wrote: “Daily now Harriette has four female pupils about her, and the
first day they were present, she came to me looking so happy,
saying: ‘O, I have been in my element today—teaching girls again.’”
This step was of importance chiefly as the beginning of her definite
work in female education. Otherwise it was rather commonplace.
These girls were just the girls whom the missionaries had taken into
their homes primarily to influence for Christ. All the missionary
families have done this and are doing so today. Mrs. House gathered
them into a class in order that they might have more regular school
training, and as other families came and other girls were taken into
the homes the number in her class increased. This class was partly
industrial, for besides instruction in reading the Bible and other
elementary subjects, the girls were taught to sew. With the aid of an
American sewing-machine their skill was utilised to make garments
for the boys of the boarding school; showing their work could be of
value. About this time Mrs. House also succeeded in winning the
confidence of a group of older women whom she instructed in an
informal manner in domestic economy.
Along with indifference there was a more concrete obstacle to
progress in education of girls—the economic factor. Time spent in
class was time lost from labour in the house or in the field; and this
was a serious matter. While Mrs. House had demonstrated the
economic value of domestic training for girls by the saving in
expense for the boys’ school through their sewing, it remained for
Mrs. S. G. McFarland, at Petchaburi, in 1865, to apply this fact in
such a manner as to draw women into her classes. She offered
prospective pupils employment at a wage equal to that they could
earn elsewhere. So long as they brought in earnings their fathers, or
husbands in some cases, were not particular how they worked; and
if foreigners were foolish enough to pay them to learn, the returns
were a little more certain than in other markets. One of the
conditions of the school was that each pupil would devote a part of
the time to learning to read. The skill of hands which they acquired
by training enabled them to earn their wage and still leave a good
margin of time for this instruction. The result was a demonstration
that trained hands could do more and better work, and that trained
minds made those hands more thrifty. Here was the answer to the
economic objection to female education.
When Mrs. House returned from America, in 1866, she took up her
work with women again. Reporting home, the doctor wrote: “Harriette
is greatly engaged in her labours of teaching etc., going out to the
school room and calling to her at home the women about us of
whom she has a class now morning and afternoon, learning to read.”
This is only a glimpse, but it shows that she returns with her purpose
steady in mind. While Dr. House was on his ill-fated trip to
Chiengmai Mrs. House assumed full charge of the boys’ school and
boarding department, and at the same time continued her classes for
women. Perhaps it should be explained that while the term women is
most commonly used in the doctor’s references to her work, the
word really refers to the young married women for the most part,
girls whom we would class as of the high school ages or just above.
At length Mrs. House introduced the plan which Mrs. McFarland
had tested at Petchaburi, paying women for their work which in turn
was disposed of to advantage, but on condition that part of their time
should be devoted to general instruction in the rudiments of learning,
always including the Bible. With this advance her work for women
passed from the stage of voluntary classes to a recognised
established school. Writing in 1868, Dr. House reported home:
“Harriette is greatly engaged in her new industrial
school for women. A busy scene on our back verandah
every morning,—eight sewers.... Harriette’s class of
women in her industrial school for women is a success
and promises great good, though it keeps her busy in
season and out of season.”
Mrs. House was able to use in this work some of the older girls who
had been under her motherly care for some years. When, in 1871,
she spent a year in America, her industrial school was continued
under the direction of Maa Kate and Maa Esther, who took full
charge.

FURLOUGHS FOR HEALTH

The three years’ absence from Siam proved to have only a
temporary benefit for Mrs. House’s health. The burning sensation in
her head soon set in anew. She worked under constant pain; at
times her head was swathed in wet cloths to mitigate the pain so that
she could discharge her duties. Work and suffering together were
exhausting, and after another three years period she was forced to
seek a respite. To this end, in 1869, she gladly accepted the
invitation of the Burrows, of Canton, that family of good friends to
missionaries, who offered a free passage in one of their ships and
kind hospitality in their home.
This voyage to China proved to be perilous and alarming reports
of a foundered ship reached Dr. House at Bangkok. Fortunately the
ship’s encounter was not fatal.
“When twenty-eight days out the ship sprang a leak,
made eleven inches of water an hour, eight feet a day.
Men kept constantly at pumps; had to lighten the ship by
throwing over some one thousand sacks of rice, one-tenth
the cargo, and undergird the ship with a large sail
—‘thrumming’ they call it. Spoke a ship which promised to
keep company and to come and help if at night a certain
lantern signal was hoisted. Lost sight of her however.
Were indeed in great peril. But a gracious Providence
brought them in safety.”
A visit of three months away from the tropics gave renewed vigour
and again Mrs. House returned to Bangkok with buoyant hopes of a
measure of comfort for her work. But as soon as the dry season had
passed the pain renewed its malign attack. At this perspective of
time the wonder is that she persisted in hope of being able even to
remain, much less labour in the tropics. Her persistence is a silent
testimony to her earnest desire to do something for the Siamese
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