Measurement and Instrumentation

(Course Code: BEL04002)

Gyan Ranjan Biswal

PhD (IITR), FIE, SMIEEE, LMISTE
HOD and Associate Professor
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering (EEE)
Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology (formerly UCE), Burla
PIN – 768018, Sambalpur (Odisha), India

E-mail: [email protected]
URL: http://www.vssut.ac.in
Google Scholar: Gyan Biswal
Home Page: http://in.linkedin.com/pub/gyan-biswal/14/458/a8
ORCID id: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7730-1985

Contact Hours: Friday, 04:30 PM to 05:30 PM at E-106

VSSUT, Burla Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal
 Gyan Ranjan Biswal received his B.E. in Electronics Engineering from the Pt. Ravishankar Shukla
University, India in 1999 and M. Tech. (Honors) in Instrumentation & Control Engineering from the
Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekananda Technical University, India in 2009 followed by Ph.D. in Electrical
Engineering, specialized in the area of Power System Instrumentation (Power Generation Automation)
from the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India in 2012.
He is expertise in Design and Development of cooling systems for large size electrical generators, and
the C&I of process industries. He has been in academia for about twelve years. Presently, he is with VSS
University of Technology, Burla, India at the capacity of Head and Associate Professor, EEE from Dec.
2016. He has more than 70 publications in various Journals and Conferences of Internationally repute to
his credit. He also holds a patent as well, and filed one more. He also adapted one international edition
book published by Pearson India. He received research grants of US$90,000 (INR 53 lakhs). He has
been supervised 01 PhD thesis and 09 Masters’ theses. He has also been recognized with many national
and international awards by elite bodies. He has been awarded with CICS award under the head of
Indian National Science Academy for travel support to USA, MHRD Fellowship by Govt. of India, and
Gopabandhu Das Scholarship in his career. His major areas of interests are Power System
Instrumentation, Industrial Automation, Robust and Intelligent Control, the Smart Sensors, IoT enabled
Smart Sensors, the Smart Grid, Fuel Cell lead Sustainable Sources of Energy, and System Reliability.
Dr. Biswal is a Fellow IE (India), Senior Member of IEEE, USA, and Life Member of ISTE, India. He is
actively involved in review panels of different societies of international repute viz. IEEE, IFAC, and the
ISA. Currently, he is also actively involved as a Member of IEEE–SA (Standards Association) working
groups; IEEE P1876 WG, IEEE P21451-001 WG, and IEEE P1415. He has also been invited for
delivering guest lectures at World Congress on Sustainable Technologies (WCST) Conf. 2012, London,
UK, INDICON 2015, New Delhi, India, National Power Training Institute (NPTI), Nangal, India, and
G.B. Pant Engineering College, Pauri, Gharwal, India, Surendra Sai University of Technology (formerly
UCE), Burla, and as a guest expert in 2016 IEEE PES General Meeting Boston, MA, USA.
VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal
 Syllabus
MODULE-I (8 HOURS) [Online mode: 6 HOURS + 1 Test]
Measuring Instruments: Classification, Absolute and secondary instruments, indicating instruments, deflecting, control and
damping torques, Ammeters and Voltmeters, PMMC, Moving Iron (MI) type, expression for the deflecting torque and control
torque, extension of range using shunts and series resistance. Electrostatic Voltmeters-electrometer type and attracted disc
type, extension of range of E.S. Voltmeters.
MODULE-II (8 HOURS) [Online mode: 4 HOURS + 1 Test]
Electrodynamometer type wattmeter – Theory & its errors – Methods of correction – LPF wattmeter – Phantom loading –
Induction type KWH meter – Calibration of wattmeter, energy meter. Measurement of active and reactive powers in balanced
and unbalanced systems.
Galvanometers: General principle and performance equations of D'Arsonval Galvanometers, Vibration Galvanometer and
Ballistic Galvanometer.
MODULE-III (8 HOURS) [Online mode: 6 HOURS + 1 Test]
DC/AC Bridges: General equations for bridge balance, measurement of self-inductance by Maxwell’s bridge (with variable
inductance & variable capacitance), Hay’s bridge, Owen’s bridge, measurement of capacitance by Schearing bridge, errors,
Wagner’s earthing device.
Method of measuring low, medium and high resistance: Kelvin’s double bridge for measuring low resistance, Wheat-stone’s
bridge, measurement of high resistance – loss of charge method.
MODULE-IV (8 HOURS) [Online mode: 4 HOURS + 1 Test]
Instrument Transformers: Potential and current transformers, ratio and phase angle errors, phasor diagram, methods of
minimizing errors.
Potentiometers: DC Potentiometer, Crompton potentiometer, construction, standardization, application. AC Potentiometer,
Drysdale polar potentiometer; standardization, application.
MODULE-V (7 HOURS) [Online mode: 5 HOURS + 1 Test]
Digital Multi-meter: Block diagram, principle of operation, Accuracy of measurement, Electronic Voltmeter: Transistor
Voltmeter, Block diagram, principle of operation, various types of electronic voltmeter, Digital Frequency meter: Block diagram,
principle of operation.
Definition of transducers, Classification of transducers, Advantages of Electrical transducers, Characteristics and choice of
transducers; Principle operation of LVDT and capacitor transducers; LVDT Applications, Strain gauge and its principle
of operation, gauge factor.
VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal
 Text and Reference Books

Recommended Text Books:

1. A K. Sawhney, “A Course in Electrical & Electronics Measurements &
Instrumentation”, Dhanpat Rai Publications.
2. Helfrick & Cooper, “Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement
Techniques”, PHI Publishers.

Reference Books:

* Larry Jones & A Foster Chin, “Electronic Measurement & Instrumentation Systems”,
John Wiley & Son Publishers.
* Golding & Waddis, “Electrical Measurement and Measuring Instruments”, Reem
Publishers.
* David A. Bell, “Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements”, 3rd ed., Oxford
University Press.
* P. Purkait, B. Biswas, S. Das and C. Koley, “Electrical and Electronics Measurement
and Measuring Instruments”, McGraw Hills.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Other Important References

The National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning

(NPTEL) https://nptel.ac.in/

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Course Outcomes

Upon successful completion of this course, you (students) will be able to

CO1 Understand the principles of basic electrical measuring instruments.

CO2 Understand the operation of wattmeter, energy meter and galvanometers.

CO3 Understand and analyze the working of different ac and dc bridges.

CO4 Understand the operation of instrument transformers and potentiometers.

CO5 Understand the operation of electronic measuring instruments and

transducers.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Measuring Instruments

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Industrial Measurement and Control Systems

❖ Draw an equivalent schematic diagram of measurement and

control system for the industry applications?
Di
SP e Digital ea Plant / CV
Controller DAC Actuators
MV Process
PV

Measurement
ADC
system /
sensors

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 ❖ Measurement: involves using an instrument as a physical means
of determining a quantity / variable.
Or
is act of assigning a number to an attribute or physical quantity.
It must contain some unit according to some set of rules.
Or
is act, or the result, of a quantitative comparison between a
given quantity and a quantity of the same kind chosen as unit.

❖ Instruments: a device for determining the value / magnitude of a

quantity/ variable.

❖ Instrumentation: measurement of non-electrical quantities by

means of electrical methods connected / integrated alone with
the signal conditioning circuits.
VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal
 ❖Industrial Instrumentation ???

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 ❖ Why do we need measurement?
• To monitor (parameters), control and experimental engineering
analysis.

❖ Scale: Nominal scale (classification/ rough idea); ordinal scale

(ranking); interval scale (range), and ratio scale (0 has no
meaning in this scale).

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

❖ To familiarize the d’Arsonval meter movement, how it is

used in ammeters, voltmeters, and ohmmeters, some of its
limitations, as well as some of its applications.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Introduction

Meter: Any device built to accurately detect & display an electrical

quantity in a form readable by a human being to accurately measure
the basic quantities of voltage, current, and resistance.

Readable form
• Visual
• Motion of pointer on a scale
• Series of light (digital)

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 The d’Arsonval Meter

Hans Oersted (1777-1851) Jacques d’Arsonval (1851-1940)

Danish physicist who discovered the French physiologist who discovered the
relationship between current and moving-coil galvanometer – from muscle
magnetism – from the deflection of contractions in frogs using a telephone,
a compass needle which operates on an extremely feeble
currents similar to animal electricity

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 The d’Arsonval Meter

• In 1880s, two French inventors: Jacques d’Arsonval and

Marcel Deprez patented the moving-coil galvanometer.

Jacques d’Arsonval Marcel Deprez

(1851 – 1940) (1843 – 1918)

Deprez-d'Arsonval Galvanometer

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Alternating Current Waveform

Sinusoidal wave

Square wave

Triangle wave

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Alternating Current Waveform

Erms= E(root mean square), Ep-p= E peak-peak, Ep= E peak

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Vavg = 0 Vavg = 0.318Vp Vavg = 0.636Vp
Vrms = 0.707Vp Vrms = 0.5Vp Vrms = 0.707Vp

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Average and RMS Value

Vavg = 0

Vrms = 0.707Vp

Sine Wave

Vavg = 0.636Vp

Vrms = 0.707Vp

Full Wave

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Cont..

Vavg = 0.318Vp

Vrms = 0.5Vp

Half Wave

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Types of Measuring Instruments

❖ permanent magnet moving-coil (PMMC) –

most accurate type for DC measurement
❖ Moving Iron
❖ Electrodynamometer
❖ Hot wire
❖ Thermocouple
❖ Induction Type
❖ Electrostatic
❖ Rectifier

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 ❖ Five principal meter movements used in ac instrument

1. Electrodynamometer
2. Iron Vane
3. Electrostatic
4. Thermocouple
5. D’Arsonval with rectifier

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Application of meter movements:
Meter Movement DC Use AC Use Applications

Electrodynamometer YES YES Standards meter, wattmeter, frequency

meter
“Indicator” applications such as in
automobiles
Iron Vane YES YES “Indicator” applications such as in
automobiles

Electrostatic YES YES Measurement of high voltage when very

little current can be supplied by the
circuit being measured
Thermocouple YES YES Measurement of radio frequency ac
signal

D’Arsonval YES YES with Most widely used meter movement for
rectifier measuring direct current or voltage and
resistance

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 The D’Arsonval Meter Movement
PMMC

• The basic moving coil system

generally referred to as a d’Arsonval
meter movement or Permanent
Magnet Coil (PMMC) meter
movement.
• Current-sensitive device capable of
directly measuring only very small
currents.
• Range: 10μA -100mA
• Coil resistance: 10Ω – 1kΩ
• Usage:
✓ dc PMMC ammeters and voltmeters
✓ ac PMMC ammeters and voltmeters
(with rectifiers).

Fig 1: The d’Arsonval meter movement

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 PMMC

Current from the circuit in which measurements are being made with the meter passes
through the windings of the moving coil. Current through the coil causes it to behave as
an electromagnet with its own north and south poles. The poles of the electromagnet
interact with the poles of the permanent magnet, causing the coil to rotate. The pointer
deflects up scale whenever current flows in the proper direction in the coil. For this
reason, all dc meter movements show polarity markings.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 PMMC

C- coil has number of turns

J1, J2 – Jewel bearing
PR- a pointer
pp- soft iron pole piece
PM- permanent magnet

❖ The principle on which

a PMMC is working is
that a torque is excited
on a current-carrying
coil placed in the field
of a permanent
magnet.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 PMMC

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 PMMC

❖ Deflecting Torque Equation of PMMC Instrument

Let, B = flux density in the air gap (wb/m3)
i = current in the coil (A) ; l = effective axial length of the coil (m);
b = breadth of the coil (m) ; n = number of turns of the coil.
✓Now force on one side of the coil is
F = Biln (N)
✓Torque on each side of the coil,
T = F x b/2 (N)
Whereas, b/2 = distance from axis of rotation
✓Total deflecting torque exerted on the coil ???

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 PMMC

✓Total deflecting torque exerted on the coil,

T d = 2 x T = 2 x F x b/2 (N)
= Bilnb (N-m)
✓ for a permanent magnet, B is a constant; also for a given coil, l,
b and n are constant.
Therefore, T d = k1 x i

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 PMMC

✓Control Torque: the control of the movement of the pointer

over the scale is provided by the spirally wound, phosphor-
bronze springs S1 and S2, and a spindle S.

✓ the control torque is proportional to angle θ turned through

the coil.
T c = ks x θ

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 PMMC

✓At steady state condition: control torque = deflection torque

T c = ks x θ = T d = k1 x I

As, θ α I

Thus, the scale of the instrument is linear or uniformly divided.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 PMMC

❖NOTE: damping torque (eddy current damping)

❖ Swamping Resistor: the coil of the instrument is made of copper. Its

resistance varies with temperature. A resistor of low temperature
coefficients, called the swamping resistor, is connected in series with
the coil. Its resistance practically remains constant with temperature.
Hence the effect of temperature on coil resistance is swamped by the
resistor.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 PMMC Instrument on AC

• The PMMC instrument is polarized (terminals +ve & -ve) - it must

be connected correctly for positive (on scale) deflection to occur.

• When an AC with a very low frequency is passed through a PMMC,

the pointer tends to follow the instantaneous level of the AC.

• As the current grows positively, the pointer deflection increases to

a maximum at the peak of the AC.

• As the instantaneous current level falls, the pointer deflection

decreases toward zero. When the AC goes negative, the pointer
deflected (off scale) to the left of zero.

• This kind of pointer movement can occur only with AC having a

frequency of perhaps 0.1Hz or lower.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 PMMC Instrument on AC

• At 50Hz or higher supply frequencies - the damping mechanism of the

instrument and the inertia of the meter movement prevent the pointer
from following the changing instantaneous levels.
•The average value of purely sinusoidal AC is zero.
• Therefore, a PMMC instrument connected directly to measure 50Hz AC
indicates zero average value.
•It is important to note that although a PMMC instrument connected to an
ac supply may indicating zero, there can actually be very large rms current
flowing in its coils

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 • Two types of PMMC meter used in AC measurement :

1. Half wave rectification

2. Full wave rectification

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 D’Arsonval meter movement used with
half wave rectification

To convert alternating current (AC) to unidirectional

current flow, which produces positive deflection when
passed through a PMMC, the diode rectifier is used.
Several types of rectifiers are selected such as a copper
oxide rectifier, a vacuum diode, or semiconductor or
“crystal diode”. VP
Vrms = = 0.5Vp
2
Vave =V dc = 0.318 Vp
Vp 2  Vrms
Vave = = = 0.45Vrms
 

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Cont…

• For example, if the output voltage from a half wave rectifier is

10Vrms so the dc voltmeter will provide an indication of
approximately 4.5V dc → Therefore, the pointer deflected full scale
when 10V dc signal is applied.

•When we apply a 10Vrms sinusoidal AC waveform, the pointer will

deflect to 4.5V → This means that the AC voltmeter is not as
sensitive as DC voltmeter.

•In fact, an AC voltmeter using half wave rectification is only

approximately 45% as sensitive as a dc voltmeter.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Cont…

• Actually, the circuit would probably be designed for full-scale

deflection with a 10V rms AC applied, which means the multiplier
resistor would be only 45% of the value of the multiplier resistor
for 10V dc voltmeter. Since we have seen that the equivalent dc
voltage is equal to 45% of the rms value of the ac voltage.

E dc 0.45E rms
Rs = − Rm = − Rm
I dc I dc

Sac = 0.45Sdc

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Cont..
Commercially produced ac voltmeters that use half wave
rectification also has an additional diode and a shunt as shown in
Figure below:

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Cont..

•The additional diode D2 is reverse biased on the positive half cycle

and has virtually no effect on the behavior of the circuit.
•In the negative half cycle, D2 is forward biased and provides an
alternate path for reverse biased leakage current that would normally
through the meter movement and diode D1.
•The purpose of the shunt resistor Rsh is to increase the current flow
through D1 during positive half cycle so that the diode is operating in
a more linear portion of its characteristic curve.
•Although this shunt resistor improves the linearity of the meter on
its low voltage ac ranges, it also further reduces the AC sensitivity.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 PMMC

Benefits

▪ sensitive to the small current

▪ accurate and reliable
▪ uniform scale up to 270 degree or more
▪ effective built-in damping
▪ low power consumption: 25 μW – 200 μW
▪ free from hysteresis and not effected by the external fields
because of its permanent magnet shields the coil from external
magnetic fields.
▪ easily adopted as a multi-range instrument.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 PMMC

Limitations

▪ this type of instrument suits for DC only. In AC, the instrument does
not operate because of equal amount force experienced by the pointer
but opposite direction. Due to the inertia of the pointer, it (pointer)
remains at zero position.
▪ the moving system is highly delicate so needs careful handling.
▪ the coil being very fine, can not withstand prolonged overloading.
▪ Costlier
▪ Error occur at the later stage due to Ageing effect (permanent magnet
and control spring).

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

D’Ársonval Meter Movement: PMMC

used in a DC Ammeter
• Since the windings of the moving coil are very fine wire, the basic
d’Arsonval meter movement has only limited usefulness without
modification.
• One desirable modification is to increase the range of current that
can be measured with the basic meter movement.
• This done by placing a low resistance called a shunt (Rsh), and its
function is to provide an alternate path for the total metered
current ‘I’ around the meter movement.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

Basic DC Ammeter Circuit

Ammeter

Where,

Rsh = resistance of the shunt

Rm = internal resistance of the meter
movement (resistance of the moving
coil)
Ish = current through the shunt
Im = full-scale deflection current of the
meter movement
I = full-scale deflection current for the Fig. 1-2 D’Ársonval meter movement
ammeter used in ammeter circuit

In most circuits, Ish >> Im

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

• The voltage drop across the meter movement is

Vm = I m Rm
• The shunt resistor is parallel with the meter movement, thus the voltage
drop for both is equal

Vsh = Vm
• Then the current through the shunt is,

I sh = I − I m

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

Then we can get shunt resistor as

Vsh I m Rm I m Im
Rsh = = = Rm = Rm..............1.0
(I − I m )
Ohm
I sh I sh I sh

Example 1-1
Calculate the value of the shunt resistance required to convert a 1-mA
meter movement, with a 100-ohm internal resistance, into a 0- to 10-mA
ammeter?

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

Solution:

Vm = I m Rm = 1mA 100  = 0.1V

Vsh = Vm = 0.1V

I sh = I − I m = 10 mA − 1mA = 9mA

Vsh 0.1V
Rsh = = = 11.11
I sh 9mA

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

Ayrton Shunt or Universal Shunt

William Edward Ayrton studied under Lord

Kelvin at Glasgow. In 1873 he was appointed
to the first chair in natural philosophy and
telegraphy at Imperial Engineering College,
Tokyo. In 1879 he was the first to advocate
power transmission at high voltage, and with
John Perry (1850-1920) he invented the
spiral-spring ammeter, the wattmeter, and
other electrical measuring instruments. The
ammeter (a contraction of ampere meter)
was one of the first to measure current and
voltage reliably. They also worked on railway
electrification, produced a dynamometer
and the first electric tricycle.

William Edward Ayrton (1847-1908)

British Engineer

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

The Ayrton Shunt

• The purpose of designing the shunt circuit is to allow to measure

current I that is some number n times larger than Im.
• The number n is called a multiplying factor and relates total current
and meter current as
I = nIm

• We can get shunt resistance with n times larger than Im is

Rm
Rsh =
n −1

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

Examples 1-2
• A 100 µA meter movement with an internal resistance of 800 Ω is used in
a 0- to 100 mA ammeter. Find the value of the required shunt resistance.
Answ: ~ 0.80 ohm

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

Advantages of the Ayrton:

• Eliminates the possibility of the meter

movement being in the circuit without any
shunt resistance.
• May be used with a wide range of meter
movements.

Ayrton shunt circuit

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

• The individual resistance values of the shunts are calculated by starting

with the most sensitive range and working toward the least sensitive
range
• The shunt resistance is Rsh = Ra + Rb + Rc

• On this range the shunt resistance is equal to Rsh and can be computed
by Equation
Rm
Rsh =
n −1

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

I m ( Rsh + Rm )
Rb + Rc =
I2

I m ( Rsh + Rm )
Rc =
I3

Ra = Rsh − ( Rb + Rc )

Rb = ( Rb + Rc ) − Rc

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

D’Ársonval Meter Movement: PMMC

used in A DC Voltmeter

• The basic d’Ársonval meter movement can

be converted to a dc voltmeter by
connecting a multiplier Rs in series with the
meter movement
• The purpose of the multiplier:
– is to extend the voltage range of the
meter
– to limit current through the d’Arsonval
meter movement to a maximum full- Fig 2-1 The basic d’Arsonval meter
scale deflection current. Movement Used In A DC Voltmeter

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

• To find the value of the multiplier resistor, first determine the sensitivity,
S, of the meter movement.

1
Sensitivit y = (/V)
I fs

Rs = S  Range − Internal Resistance

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

Example 1-2

❖ Calculate the value of the multiplier resistance on the 50V

range of a dc voltmeter that used a 500A meter movement with
an internal resistance of 1k ?

1 1
= 2k 
Sensitivity,
S= =
I fs 500 V

Multiplier, Rs = S X Range – internal Resistance

= (2k X 50) – 1k
= 99k

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

Voltmeter Loading Effects

When a voltmeter is used to measure the voltage across a circuit

component, the voltmeter circuit itself is in parallel with the circuit
component. Since the parallel combination of two resistors is less than
either resistor alone, the resistance seen by the source is less with the
voltmeter connected than without. Therefore, the voltage across the
component is less whenever the voltmeter is connected. The decrease in
voltage may be negligible or it may be appreciable, depending on the
sensitivity of the voltmeter being used. This effect is called voltmeter
loading. The resulting error is called a loading error.

Sensitivity of the voltmeter ?

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

Example 1-3

❖ Two different voltmeters are used to

measure the voltage across resistor RB in the
circuit of Figure 2-2. The meters are as
follows.

Meter A : S = 1k/V, Rm = 0.2k,

range = 10V
Meter B : S = 20k/V, Rm = 1.5k,
range=10V

Calculate:
(a) Voltage across RB without any meter
connected across it. Fig. 2.2
(b) Voltage across RB when meter A is used.
(c) Voltage across RB when meter B is used
(d) Error in voltmeter readings.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

Solution:

(a) The voltage across resistor RB without either meter connected is

found Using the voltage divider equation:

 RB 
VRB = E  
(
 A R + R )
B 

 5kΩ 
= 30V  
 25k + 5k 
= 5V

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

RTA = S  Range = 1k/V 10 V = 10 kΩ

(b) starting with meter A,
the total resistance it
presents to the circuit is RB  RTA
Re1 =
RB + RTA
5kΩ 10kΩ
=
The parallel combination 5kΩ + 10kΩ
of RB and meter A is = 3.33kΩ

 Re1 
VRB = E 
 e1
R + R A
Therefore, the voltage reading
obtained with meter A, determined 3.33kΩ
= 30V 
by the voltage divider equation, is 3.33kΩ + 25kΩ
= 3.53V

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

Cont…

(c) The total resistance that meter B presents to the circuit is

RTB = S x Range = 20k/V x 10 V = 200 k

The parallel combination of RB and meter B is

Re2 = (RB x RTB)/(RB + RTB) = (5kx200k)/(5k+200k) = 4.88 k

Therefore, the voltage reading obtained with meter B, determined

by use of the voltage divider equation, is

VRB = E(Re2)/(Re2+RA) = 30 V x (4.88k)/(4.88k+25k)

= 4.9 V

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

(d)
(Expected value - Measured value)
Voltmeter A error = 100%
Expected value

Voltmeter A error = (5 V – 3.53 V)/5 V x (100%

= 29.4%
Voltmeter B error = (5 V – 4.9 V)/5 V x (100%)
=2%

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

Ammeter insertion effects

❖ Inserting an ammeter in a circuit always increases the resistance of the

circuit and reduces the current in the circuit. This error caused by the
meter depends on the relationship between the value of resistance in the
original circuit and the value of resistance in the ammeter.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

** For high range ammeter, the internal resistance in the

ammeter is low.
** For low range ammeter, the internal resistance in the
ammeter is high.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

E
Ie =
R1

Fig. 2-3: Expected current value in a series circuit

E
Im =
R1 + Rm

Fig 2-4: Series circuit with ammeter

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

hence;
Im R1
=
I e R1 + Rm
Therefore

 Im 
Insertion error = 1 −  100%
 Ie 

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

Example 1-4
A current meter that has an internal resistance of 78 ohms is used to
measure the current through resistor Rc in Fig. 2.5. Determine the
percentage of error of the reading due to ammeter insertion.

Fig. 2.5

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Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

Solution:

Fig. 2-6
The current meter will be connected into the circuit between points X and Y
in the schematic in Fig. 2.6. When we look back into the circuit from
terminals X and Y, we can express Thevenin’s equivalent resistance as

RTH = Rc +
(Ra Rb )
(Ra + Rb )
RTH = 1 k + 0.5 k = 1.5 k

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

Therefore, the ratio of meter current to expected current:

Im R1
=
I e (R1 + rm )

Im/Ie= 1.5 k/(1.5 k + 78) = 0.95

Solving for Im yields, Im = 0.95Ie

Insertion error = [1 – (Im/Ie)] x 100% = 5.0%

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

The Ohmmeter (Series ohmmeter)

The ohmmeter consists of battery, resistor and PMMC.

The full-scale deflection current,

E
I fs =
R Z + Rm
Fig. 2-7 Basic ohmmeter circuit

• Function of Rz and Rm are to limit the current through the

meter.
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Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

Rz = variable resistor

Fig. : Basic ohmmeter circuit with unknown resistor, Rx connected

between probes.

To determine the value of unknown resistor, Rx, The Rx is

connected to terminal X and Y. Fig. shows the basic ohmmeter
circuit with unknown resistor, Rx connected between probes.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

The circuit current,

E
I=
R Z + Rm + R x

The ratio of the current, I to the full-scale deflection current, Ifs is

 E 
 
I  R + R + R x  ( RZ + Rm )
= Z m
=
I fs  E  ( RZ + Rm + Rx )
 
 Z
R + R m

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

Summary

• Basic d’Arsonval meter movement – current sensitive device

capable of directly measuring only very small currents.
• Large currents can be measured by adding shunts.
• Voltage can be measured by adding multipliers.
• Resistance – adding battery and a resistance network.
• All ammeters & voltmeters introduce some error – meter
loads the circuit (common instrumentation problem).

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

Moving Iron type Instruments

❖ Construction and basic principle operation

▪ Moving-iron instruments are generally used to measure

alternating voltages and currents.
▪ In moving-iron instruments the movable system consists of one
or more pieces of specially-shaped soft iron, which are so
pivoted as to be acted upon by the magnetic field produced by
the current in coil.

• Range: 10mA -100A

• Usage:
✓dc MI ammeters and voltmeters
✓ac MI ammeters and voltmeters

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Moving Iron type Instruments

❖ There are two general types of moving-iron instruments namely:

• Repulsion (or double iron) type (figure 1)
• Attraction (or single-iron) type (figure 2)

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Moving Iron type Instruments

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Moving Iron type Instruments

❖ The brief description of different components of a moving-iron

instrument is given below:
▪ Moving element: a small piece of soft iron in the form of a vane or
rod.
▪ Coil: to produce the magnetic field due to current flowing through it
and also to magnetize the iron pieces.
▪ In repulsion type, a fixed vane or rod is also used and magnetized
with the same polarity.
▪ Control torque is provided by spring or weight (gravity).
▪ Damping torque is normally pneumatic, the damping device
consisting of an air chamber and a moving vane attached to the
instrument spindle.
▪ Deflecting torque produces a movement on an aluminum pointer
over a graduated scale.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Moving Iron type Instruments

How it works?

• The deflecting torque (Td) in any moving-iron instrument is

because of forces on a small piece of magnetically ‘soft’ iron that
is magnetized by a coil carrying the operating current.
• In repulsion type moving–iron instrument consists of two
cylindrical soft iron vanes mounted within a fixed current-carrying
coil.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Moving Iron type Instruments

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Moving Iron type Instruments

▪ One iron vane is held fixed to the coil frame and other is free to
rotate, carrying with it the pointer shaft. Two irons lie in the
magnetic field produced by the coil that consists of only few turns
if the instrument is an ammeter or of many turns if the
instrument is a voltmeter.
▪ Current in the coil induces both vanes to become magnetized and
repulsion between the similarly magnetized vanes produces a
proportional rotation. The deflecting torque is proportional to
the square of the current in the coil, making the instrument
reading is a true ‘RMS’ quantity. Rotation is opposed by a
hairspring that produces the restoring torque. Only the fixed coil
carries load current, and it is constructed so as to withstand high
transient current.
▪ Limitation: Moving iron instruments having scales that are
nonlinear and somewhat crowded in the lower range of
calibration.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Moving Iron type Instruments

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Moving Iron type Instruments

Ammeter
▪ Instrument used to measure current in the circuit.
▪ Always connected in series with the circuit and carries the current
to be measured.
▪ This current flowing through the coil produces the desired
deflecting torque.
▪ It should have low resistance as it is to be connected in series.
Voltmeter
• Instrument used to measure voltage between two points in a
circuit.
• Always connected in parallel.
• Current flowing through the operating coil of the meter produces
deflecting torque.
• It should have high resistance. Thus, a high resistance of order of
kilo ohms is connected in series with the coil of the instrument.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Moving Iron type Instruments

Ranges of Ammeter and Voltmeter

1. For a given moving-iron instrument the ampere-turns necessary to

produce full-scale deflection are constant.
2. One can alter the range of ammeters by providing a shunt coil with
the moving coil.
3. Voltmeter range may be altered connecting a resistance in series
with the coil. Hence the same coil winding specification may be
employed for a number of ranges.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Moving Iron type Instruments

❖ Deflecting Torque Equation of MI Instruments

Mechanical work done = torque x angular displacement
= Td. dθ
✓Now there will be a change in the amount of energy stored in the
magnetic field because of change in Inductance.

✓Let, ‘I’ be the initial current; ‘L’ be the instrument inductance; and ‘θ’ is
the deflection. (change in ‘dI’ causes change in ‘dθ’ and ‘dL’.

Then the applied voltage must be increased by:

e = dφ/dt = d(LI)/dt = I dL/dt + L dI/dt (1)

✓ The electrical energy supplied is = e.I.dt (2) [W=P dt]

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Moving Iron type Instruments

✓ The electrical energy supplied is = e.I.dt = I2 dL + IL dI

✓ Therefore, the change in stored energy =
1 1 2
(
= I + dI ) (
2
L + dL ) I L
−
2 2
1
 IL dL + I 2 L
2
(by neglecting the 2nd and higher order terms)

Therefore, the change in stored energy:

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Moving Iron type Instruments

✓ From the principle of conservation of energy,

Electrical energy supplied = increase in stored energy + mechanical work done

1 2
I dL + IL dI = ILdI + I dL + Td d
2
2
1 2
 I dL = Td d
2
1 2 dL
 Td = I ( N − m)
2 d

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Moving Iron type Instruments

❖Control Torque Equation of MI Instruments

Tc = k s d

• At steady state condition;

1 dL
k s = I 2
2 d
1 I 2 dL
 =
2 k s d
  I2

So, MI instruments are able to read True rms value of the

operating current.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Moving Iron type Instruments

Benefits

❖ The instruments are suitable for use in AC and DC circuits.

❖ The instruments are robust, owing to the simple construction of
the moving parts.
❖ The stationary parts of the instruments are also simple.
❖ Instrument is low cost compared to moving coil instrument.
❖ Torque/weight ratio is high, thus less frictional error.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Moving Iron type Instruments

Limitations

▪ Error due to variation in temperature.

▪ Error due to friction is quite small as torque-weight ratio is high in
moving coil instruments.
▪ Stray fields cause relatively low values of magnetizing force
produced by the coil. Efficient magnetic screening is essential to
reduce this effect.
▪ Error due to variation of frequency causes change of reactance of
the coil and also changes the eddy currents induced in
neighboring metal.
▪ Deflecting torque is not exactly proportional to the square of the
current due to non-linear characteristics of iron material (I2R loss).

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer
(Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

❖ Problem with other measuring instruments

• The necessity for the a.c. calibration of moving iron instruments as
well as other types of instruments, which cannot be correctly
calibrated, requires the use of a transfer type of instrument.
• A transfer instrument is one that may be calibrated with a d.c.
Source and then used without modification to measure a.c.
• This requires the transfer type instrument to have the same
accuracy for both d.c. and a.c., which the electrodynamometer
instruments have.
• These standards are precision resistors and the Weston standard
cell (which is a d.c. cell).
• It is obvious, therefore, that it would be impossible to calibrate an
a.c. instrument directly against the fundamental standards.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

❖ The calibration of an a.c. instrument may be performed as follows.

▪ The transfer instrument is first calibrated on d.c.

▪ This calibration is then transferred to the a.c. instrument on

alternating current, using operating conditions under which the latter
operates properly.

▪ Electrodynamics instruments are capable of service as transfer

instruments.

▪ Indeed, their principal use as ammeters and voltmeters in laboratory

and measurement work is for the transfer calibration of working
instruments and as standards for calibration of other instruments as
their accuracy is very high.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

❖ Electrodynamometer types of instruments are used as a.c.

voltmeters and ammeters both in the range of power frequencies
and lower part of the audio power frequency range. They are used
as wattmeters, voltmeters and with some modification as power
factor meters and frequency meters.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer
(Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

Source

Fixed Coil Moving Fixed Coil

Coil

❖ Most fundamental and versatile meter use today.

• is a current-sensitive device – the pointer deflects up scale because of
current flow through moving coil.
• Most important applications: voltmeter and ammeter standard.
VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal
 • The single-coil electrodynamometer movement consists of a fixed coil
divided into two equal halves.
• Both halves of the split fixed coil and the moving coil are connected in
series – current from the circuit being measured passed through all the
coils causing magnetic field around the fixed coils. The moving coil
rotates in this magnetic field.
• The electrodynamometer – handle much more current than d’ Arsonval
movement. It can handle ~ 100mA.
• The electrodynamometer – have a very low sensitivity rating of ~ 20 to
100 Ω/V.
• Most extensive application: Wattmeter and power factor meter.
• The magnetic torque that cause pointer deflect up scale:
 m = K m El cos 
Θm – angular deflection of the pointer E – rms value of source voltage
Km – instrument constant (degrees/watt) l – rms value of source current
cos θ – power factor

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

Operating Principle
• It would have a torque in one direction during one half of the cycle and an
equal effect in the opposite direction during the other half of the cycle.

• If the frequency were very low, the pointer would swing back and forth
around the zero point.

• However, for an ordinary meter, the inertia is so great that on power

frequencies the pointer does not go very far in either direction but merely
stays (vibrates slightly) around zero.

• If, however, we were to reverse the direction of the flux each time the
current through the movable coil reverses, a unidirectional torque would be
produced for both positive and negative halves of the cycle.

• In electrodynamometer instruments the field can be made to reverse

simultaneously with the current in the movable coil if the field (fixed) coil is
connected in series with the movable coil.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

Construction

Fixed Coils
• The field is produced by a fixed coil.
• This coil is divided into two sections to give a more uniform field near the centre and
to allow passage of the instrument shaft.

Moving Coil
• A single element instrument has one moving coil.
• The moving coil is wound either as a self-sustaining coil or else on a non-metallic
former.
• A metallic former cannot be used as eddy current would be induced in it by the
alternating field.
• Light but rigid construction is used for the moving coil.
• It should be noted that both fixed and moving coils are air cored.

Control
• The controlling torque is provided by two control springs.
• These springs act as leads to the moving coil.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

Moving System

• The moving coil is mounted on an aluminum spindle.

• The moving system also carries the counter weights and truss type pointer.
• Sometimes a suspension may be used in case a high sensitivity is desired.

Damping

• Air friction damping is employed for these instruments and is provided by a

pair of aluminum vanes, attached to the spindle at the bottom.
• These vanes move in sector shaped chambers.
• Eddy current damping cannot be used in these instruments as the
operating field is very weak (on account of the fact that the coils are air cored)
and any introduction of a permanent magnet required for eddy current
damping would distort the operating magnetic field of the instrument.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

Shielding

• The field produced by the fixed coils is somewhat weaker than in other
types of instruments
• It is nearly 0.005 to 0.006 Wb/m
• In D.C. Measurements even the earth magnetic field may affect the
readings.
• Thus it is necessary to shield an electrodynamometer type instrument from
the effect of stray magnetic fields.
• Air cored electrodynamometer type instruments are protected against
external magnetic fields by enclosing them in a casing of high permeability
alloy.
• This shunts external magnetic fields around the instrument mechanism and
minimizes their effects on the indication.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

Cases and Scales

• Laboratory standard instruments are usually contained in highly polished

wooden cases.
• These cases are so constructed as to remain dimensionally stable over long
periods of time.
• The glass is coated with some conducting material to completely remove
the electrostatic effects.
• Adjustable leveling screws support the case.
• A spirit level is also provided to ensure proper leveling.
• The scales are hand drawn, using machine sub-dividing equipment.
• Diagonal lines for fine sub-division are usually drawn for main markings on
the scale.
• Most of the high-precision instruments have a 300 mr scale with 100, 120
or 150 divisions

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

Torque Equation

Let, i1 = instantaneous value of current in the fixed coils: A.

i2 = instantaneous value of current in the moving coil: A.

L1 = self-inductance of fixed coils: H.

L2 = self-inductance of moving coils H,

M = mutual inductance between fixed and moving coils:

Flux linkages of coil 1, ψ1 = L1 i1 + Mi2

Flux linkages f coil 2, ψ2 = L2 i2 + Mi1

Electrical input energy = e1i1dt+e2i2dt

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

Errors in Electrodynamometer Instruments

i) Frequency error

ii) Eddy current error

iii) External magnetic field

iv) Temperature changes

Advantages
i) These instruments can be used on both a.c & d.c

ii) Accurate rms value

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

Disadvantages

(i) They have a low torque/weight ratio and hence have a low sensitivity.

(ii) Low torque/weight ratio gives increased frictional losses.

(iii) They are more expensive than either the PMMC or the moving iron type
instruments.

(iv) These instruments are sensitive to overloads and mechanical impacts.

Therefore, they must be handled with great care.

(v) The operating current of these instruments is large owing to the fact that
they have weak magnetic field. The flux density is about 0.006 Wb/m as
against 0.1 to 0.5 Wb/m in PMCC instruments

(vi) They have a non-uniform scale.

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

; Note: treat here i2 as

i2

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 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

Copyright © Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal
 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrodynamometer (Electrodynamics) Type Instruments

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Electrostatic Instruments

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 Electrostatic Instruments

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 Electrostatic Instruments

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 Electrostatic Instruments

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 Electrostatic Instruments

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 Induction Type Instruments

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 Induction Type Instruments

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 Induction Type Instruments

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 Induction Type Instruments

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 Electro-thermal Instruments

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 Electro-thermal Instruments

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 Electro-thermal Instruments

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 Electro-thermal Instruments

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 Electro-thermal Instruments

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 Rectifiers

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 Rectifiers

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Rectifiers

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Rectifiers

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Rectifiers

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Rectifiers

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Rectifiers

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 True RMS Voltmeters

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 True RMS Voltmeters

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 Comparison of Instruments

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Comparison of Instruments

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal

 Thank you

VSSUT, Burla Measurement and Instrumentation Dr. Gyan Ranjan Biswal