ISSN 00406015, Thermal Engineering, 2014, Vol. 61, No. 9, pp. 642–648. © Pleiades Publishing, Inc., 2014.

Original Russian Text © A.N. Makarov, 2014, published in Teploenergetika.

STEAM BOILERS, POWERPLANT FUEL, BURNER DEVICES,

AND AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT OF BOILERS

Regularities Pertinent to Heat Transfer between Torch Gas Layers

and Steam Boiler Firebox Waterwalls. Part I. Geometrical
and Physical Torch Model as a Source of Heat Radiation
A. N. Makarov
Tver State Technical University, nab. Afanasiya Nikitina 22, Tver, 170026 Russia
email: [email protected]

Abstract—The progress seen in the 19th–21st centuries in the development of methods for calculating heat
transfer in torch furnaces, fireboxes, and combustion chambers is analyzed. Throughout the 20th century,
calculations of heat transfer were carried out based on the law for radiation from solid bodies deduced by
Y. Stefan and L. Boltzmann. It is shown that the use of this law for calculating heat transfer of a torch (a gaseous
source of radiation) in heating furnaces and powergenerating installations leads to incorrect results. It is substan
tiated that there is crisis of methods for calculating heat transfer in torch furnaces and powergenerating installa
tions. Geometrical and physical torch models in the form of radiating cylindrical gas volumes as sources of heat
radiation are proposed for overcoming this crisis.

Keywords: heat transfer, torch, firebox, steam boiler, radiation, technique

DOI: 10.1134/S004060151406007X

Radiant heat transfer is the main kind of heat trans had been developed by different researchers [10], and
fer in furnaces and combustion chambers and Stefan–Boltzmann’s law is presently formulated as
accounts for 90–98% of the total heat transfer in follows:
steam boiler fireboxes [1–3], threephase AC and DC

( ) ( )
⎡ T 4 T ⎤
electricarc steel melting furnaces [4, 5], and plasma 4
arc steel melting [4, 6] and torch heating and melting q = csε red ⎢ 1 − 2 ⎥ ϕ12, (1)
furnaces [3, 7, 8]. The fraction of heat transferred from ⎣ 100 100 ⎦
the torch to the flame tube in the combustion cham where q is the density of heat flux radiated from fuel to
bers of gas turbine units by convection makes 0.5– the heating surface, W/m2; cs is the black body emis
1.0% and that by radiation, 99.0–99.5% [9].
sivity factor, W/(m2 K4); εred is the reduced emissivity;
Т1 and Т2 are the temperatures of fuel bed and heating
DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORY surface, K; and ϕ12 is the view factor for radiation from
FOR HEAT TRANSFER IN FURNACES, the fuel bed on the heating surface.
FIREBOXES, AND COMBUSTION CHAMBERS
SEEN IN THE 19TH–21ST CENTURIES In carrying out calculations according to expres
Modern science is not a dogma, and some of its sion (1), it is assumed that the gases filling the furnace
fundamental concepts can be revised and supple chamber are transparent for heat radiation and do not
mented with new laws. Since the late 19th century and participate in heat transfer. In 1931, V.N. Shreter also
throughout the 20th century, heat transfer in torch fur recommended to use Stefan–Boltzmann’s law (1) for
naces, fireboxes, and combustion chambers was calcu calculating heat transfer in the case of firing fuel oil in
lated based on the law that was experimentally estab furnace chambers, and the torch was regarded as an
lished by Y. Stefan in 1879 in studying radiation from isothermal gray body filling the entire space of the
solid bodies, which was then theoretically substanti chamber [11]. Despite the use of oversimplified
ated by L. Boltzmann in 1884. In the late 19th – early assumptions and conceptions about heat transfer pro
20th century, solid lumped fuel (coal, peat, and wood) cesses in chambers that were rather far from reality, the
was fired in furnaces on fire grates, and the first results of calculation carried out for pulverizedcoal
descriptions of heat transfer processes were essentially and oilfired furnaces with small sizes of the heat
descriptions of problems and calculation of radiant absorbing surface and highly extended lining turned to
heat transfer between two arbitrarily located surfaces be satisfactory owing to domination of radiation from
(a fuel bed and a heating surfaces) on the basis of Ste gray solid body (lining) over that from the torch. How
fan–Boltzmann’s law. In 1924, M.V. Kirpichev gave ever, with the advent of waterwall fireboxes, such cal
an analysis of methods for solving this problem that culations turned to be unsatisfactory.

642
 REGULARITIES PERTINENT TO HEAT TRANSFER BETWEEN TORCH GAS 643

In 1932, L.K. Ramzin developed an1 analytical ature of combustion products at the furnace outlet Tf''
method for calculating heat radiation in furnaces tak and dimensionless temperature Θ''f has the form
ing into account the temperature field in the chamber
(volume zones) that is correlated to a first approxima
Θ''f =
Tf''
= Bo 0.6 , (2)
tion with the fuel combustion conditions. In 1934– Tаd M Bu 0.3 + Bo 0.6
1940, V.N. Timofeev continued the works of where Таd is the adiabatic combustion temperature, K,
L.K. Ramzin and proposed to supplement expression (1) and М is the parameter that takes into account the
with efficient emissivity of the wall and the torch emis effect on heat transfer intensity of burner arrangement
sivity equal to the emissivity of triatomic gases con levels, the extent to which furnace gases are ballasted
tained in it. In studying the emissivity of gas, many by inert components, and other factors.
experiments were carried out on determining the The distribution of heat fluxes over the furnace
absorption and emission bands for gas, and it should chamber height is determined by carrying out a zone
be noted that different researchers obtained different wise or zonal calculation of the furnace. If such calcu
data [3]. This may possibly be attributed to the fact lation is not carried out, the 1998 edition of the stan
that the width of the bands depends on the gas temper dard method suggests to determine the radiant heat
ature, and as the gas layer thickness increases, the radi flux in an individual zone qr using the following
ation from spectrum regions with low emissivity is expression [16]:
amplified in the neighborhood with radiating bands Bf.rQrψ ,
[3]. In 1947–1952, specialists of the AllUnion (pres qr = y h (3)
ently AllRussia) Thermal Engineering Institute Fwψ av
(VTI) carried out work aimed at analyzing all these where yh is the heat absorption distribution coefficient
investigations for selecting the most reliable results over the furnace height; Bf.r is the fuel rate, m3/h; Qr is
with a view to construct the calculated radiation the radiant heat flux in the furnace chamber,
graphs for СО2 and Н2О. In 1952, emissivity graphs for (W h)/m3; ψ is the waterwall thermal efficiency; ψav is
carbon dioxide and steam were constructed on the the average value of thermal efficiency factor; and Fw
basis of these data for a thermal design of boiler unit is the total surface area of furnace walls, m2.
[12]. The investigations carried out in 1940–1950 The waterwall thermal efficiency ψ appearing in
showed that the radiation from gases forming a torch expression (3) depends both on the incident heat flux
does not obey Stefan–Boltzmann’s law. The radiation and on the emission properties of deposits. This coef
from the carbon dioxide vapor contained in the gas is ficient is also applied for calculating the Boltzmann
proportional to the temperature to power 3.5 and that criterion. In [17] it is pointed out that the numerical
from steam, to the temperature to power 3 [13]. values of the thermal efficiency used in [16] were
selected empirically for bringing the results from cal
In 1957, the first edition of thermal design of boiler culations of total heat transfer carried out according to
units was published [14], which was the result of joint the standard method in agreement with experimental
work carried out by many scientists and specialists of data. It should be noted that these numerical values are
research and education institutes, including the Cen lower than their true values. In view of insufficient dif
tral Boiler–Turbine Institute (TsKTI), VTI, Power ferentiation of the waterwall fouling thermal resistance
Engineering Institute (ENIN), ORGRES, Moscow as a function of boiler load, properties of coal and the
Power Engineering Institute (MEI), Leningrad Poly conditions under which it is prepared and fired, the
technic Institute (LPI), and others. The final version temperature of combustion products at the furnace
of the first edition of the standard method was drawn outlet Tf'' calculated using the standard method is
by specialists of the VTI and TsKTI. In 1973, the sec determined with a large error. The recommendations
ond revised edition of the standard method for thermal given in the standard method do not contain sufficient
design of boiler units [15] was published, which was details for selecting the values of waterwall fouling
supplemented with a wide body of reference data on thermal resistance coefficient for “offdesign” coals,
the physicochemical properties of domestically pro even though their composition and properties have
duced fuels, combustion products, and air, and with been studied to a sufficient detail. The authors of [17]
substantiated the possibility of obtaining more accu
lookup tables of the properties of steam and water. In rate results from calculations of heat transfer in a fur
1998, the revised and extended third edition of this nace carried out according to the third edition of the
standard method [16] was published, in which the standard method without changing it by varying the
similarity theory of furnace processes and the Boltz waterwall fouling thermal resistance coefficient taking
mann’s criterion for radiant heat transfer (Bo) and the into account the effect of different factors on the
Bouguer criterion for absorption capacity (Bu) are waterwall fouling and slagging processes. In [18], some
used for calculating heat transfer in furnaces. The doubts regarding the applicability of the standard
basic calculation formula for determining the temper method [16] to calculations of heat transfer in stoker

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644 MAKAROV

furnaces were outspoken. Attempts to use [16] for cal peratures and physical characteristics are replaced by
culating heat transfer in stoker furnaces result in their piecewisecontinuous approximations consisting
obtaining underestimated intensity of furnace heat of a finite number of radiating macrosystems (homo
transfer as compared with its actual values. The actual geneous zones). Thus, the integrodifferential equa
temperature of gases at the furnace outlet is well below tions describing radiant heat transfer are replaced by
that calculated according to the standard method. The an approximating system of algebraic equations, and
results obtained from the use of [16] for calculating the the sought temperatures of zones and heat fluxes
furnaces of hot water boilers show that the standard between them are determined by solving this system of
method does not always yield the necessary accuracy, equations.
because it fails to fully take into account the specific Despite the fact that the zonal method has been
features pertinent to the temperature field of furnaces constantly improved for the last 50 years and has
[19]. Nonetheless, with carefully selected coefficients become an engineering calculation method, it still has
and with a more exactly determined value of the certain shortcomings:
parameter М that takes into account the structure of
the furnace temperature field, the standard method —The differential and algebraic equations of heat
provides satisfactory agreement between the calcu transfer are not analytical expressions, which crown
lated and experimental data. Despite the fact that the the development of any theory if it is possible to solve
third edition of the standard method [16] does not differential equations.
have the status of a document to be mandatorily —In calculating radiation from gas, Stefan–Bolt
applied at thermal power industry facilities, all Rus zmann’s law is used, which was derived for calculating
sian enterprises engaged in calculations, design, man radiation from solid bodies.
ufacture, and operation of boiler units, as well as the —Radiation and absorption of radiation from
relevant education institutions have adopted this doc macrolevel systems, volume and surface zones are cal
ument for practical use. Specialists of NPO TsKTI, culated, whereas radiation in microlevel systems, radi
VTI, Sibenergomash, and other organizations have ating particles, and elementary radiating volumes is
developed algorithms and computer programs for not taken into account.
computeraided thermal design of heatrecovery boil
ers, power processing, hotwater, and industrial boil —The volume radiation from the gas that fills fire
ers. All versions of these computer programs are in boxes, furnaces and combustion chambers is replaced
compliance with the regulations stipulated by the in calculations by surface radiation.
standard thermal design method [16] and are being
constantly improved.
CRISIS OF METHODS FOR CALCULATING
The range of modern methods for calculating radi HEAT TRANSFER IN TORCH FURNACES,
ant heat transfer is fairly wide, starting from calcula FIREBOXES, AND COMBUSTION CHAMBERS
tions at the microlevel of photon emissions by atoms
and ending with obtaining a macropattern of radiation By now, quite a number of facts have been revealed
in large objects. In calculations of radiation in the that point to the need of sophisticating and further
microworld, the molecularkinetic theory of elemen developing the theory of heat transfer in torch fur
tary radiation processes is developed, and with regard naces, fireboxes, and combustion chambers, and for
of macroworld, the theory of radiation in process mac elaborating new calculation methods. To obtain a
rosystems is being sophisticated. The theory of radiant higher power output in heating furnaces, the fuel rate
heat transfer in fireboxes, furnaces, and combustion is increased without changing the torch temperature.
chambers is a theory of radiating technological macro The torch power Pt, W, and, hence, the furnace output
systems, in which the radiation in microlevel objects in terms of heating the articles, can be increased by
and in the macrosystem as a whole has to be calcu increasing the fuel rate Bf.r, m3/h or by using fuel with
lated. In [20], the modern methods for calculating a higher specific heating value Qir , (W h)/m3:
radiant heat transfer are analyzed: the MonteCarlo
statistical modeling method, the Shwartzshild–Shuter Pt = Qir Bf.r + Qph.aVa, (4)
and Eddington methods for solving transfer equations,
the Chandrasekar and Vladimirov iteration methods, where Qph.a and Va are the physical heat introduced
the method of spherical harmonic components, and into the furnace by air, (W h)/m3 and its flow rate,
others. The method of zonal mathematical modeling m3/h.
method has received the widest use for calculations of In [21], its authors presented the parameters char
heat transfer in fireboxes, furnaces and combustion acterizing the injection burner torch in the antecham
chambers. ber of a calcining machine operating in the process
The basic idea of the zonal method is that the radi mode with the gas flow rate to the burner varied from
ating surfaces and gas volumes (radiation takes place 100 to 500 m3/h. It was found from the study results
from the surfaces of these volumes) are subdivided into that the variation of gas flow rate had almost no effect
zones, and that the continuous distributions of tem on the flame temperature; however, the furnace

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 REGULARITIES PERTINENT TO HEAT TRANSFER BETWEEN TORCH GAS 645

throughput capacity increased with increasing the fuel releases (the torch itself) must be considered sepa
flow rate and, hence, so was the torch power. rately from the zones containing combustion prod
Steam admission to the torch in the burner throat ucts.
was used in openhearth furnaces; as a result, the torch The zonal method for calculating heat transfer in
temperature decreased by 35–60°C, the fuel combus torch furnaces and fireboxes that is based on Stefan–
tion process became more efficient, the transfer of Boltzmann’s law does not allow one to reveal the dis
heat to the bath increased, and a higher furnace tribution of heat fluxes over all heating surfaces. For
throughput was obtained [22]. For reducing the emis example, engineers who calculated heat transfer in
sions of nitrogen oxides from steam boiler furnaces, torch heating metallurgical furnaces obtained that the
the torch temperature in them is decreased by admit average heat flux had the same value both over the
ting recirculation gases into the furnace chamber; the height and over the entire perimeter for all facet sur
taking of this measure does not lead to a drop in the faces of the ingots being heated [7]. However, accord
boiler steam output [23]. Field experience gained from ing to the field experience gained from operation of
operation of torch furnaces and fireboxes shows that torch heating metallurgical furnaces, the heating pat
with the torch temperature decreased by 10–20% tern of ingots is essentially nonuniform both over the
without decreasing the fuel rate, the throughput height and perimeter [8]. The zonal method was used
capacity of furnaces and fireboxes remains at the same to calculate the distribution of radiant heat flux in the
level; i.e., there is no degradation of heat transfer. At steam boiler firebox chambers over the frontal wall
the same time, calculations carried out using expres height along the wall’s vertical symmetry axis [1–3,
sions (1)–(4) show that the radiant heat flux falling on 17]. No data were available on calculating the density
the heating surface drops by a factor of 1.5–2.0 as the of radiant heat fluxes over the perimeter and height of
torch temperature decreases by 10–20%. In [24], data the frontal and lateral walls, and at the periphery of the
are presented, according to which decrease of power walls of steam boiler fireboxes. An analysis of the dis
unit load and fuel flow rate are accompanied by a tribution of radiant flux densities over the wall perim
growth of air excess factor and lead to a decrease in the eters and heights observed during the operation of
torch luminous part with concurrent increase of its steam boiler fireboxes showed that this distribution has
temperature. In this case, according to Stefan–Boltz a significantly nonuniform pattern [19, 20]. An obvi
mann’s law (1), the heat fluxes falling on the waterwall ous need arose to use a fundamentally different
surfaces grow and the boiler output power increases, approach to solving the problem of heat transfer in
which is in contradiction to common sense and to the furnaces, fireboxes, and combustion chambers.
energy conservation law.
Paradoxical cases are observed in using the existing THE MODEL OF ELECTRIC ARC
calculation methods. It follows from expression (4) AND TORCH AS HEAT RADIATION SOURCES
that the torch power can be increased by additionally IN FURNACES AND FIREBOXES
heating the air supplied to the burner. For example,
with air heated from 20 to 600°C, the torch power The laws of heat transfer for torch gas layers and
increased by 17%, and its temperature rose from 1300 electric arc burning in metal vapors of electric arc steel
to 2000°C, i.e., by a factor of 1.5 [25]. According to melting furnaces disclosed in 2001 make it possible to
expression (1), the density of heat flux radiated from overcome the shortcomings of the zonal method of
the torch to the calculated zone should increase by a calculating heat transfer and to develop new possibili
factor of 5, and the heating rate of articles being pro ties for analyzing heat transfer in furnaces, fireboxes,
cessed should also increase by a factor of 5, which is in and combustion chambers [27, 28]. The regularities
contradiction with the energy conservation law. Under describing the conversion of fuel energy into thermal
the real conditions of heating furnace operation, with energy, radiant energy in the torch, and the conversion
air subjected to preheating and with the torch power of electric energy into radiant energy in an electric fur
increased by 17%, the heat flux density and the heating nace arc were established by the author of this article
rate increase by 12–15%, i.e., in direct proportion to in 2001, and during the subsequent decade, this scien
the growth of torch power and not to the fourth power tific disclosure was verified and approbated, and works
of temperature [25]. Field experience gained from were carried out on experimentally confirming and
operation of furnaces, fireboxes, and combustion developing the geometrical, physical, and analytic
chambers shows that the fuel flow rate and fuel heating models of torch as a source of heat radiation, and on
value and, accordingly, the power and amount of ther elaborating the techniques for calculating heat transfer
mal energy released in the torch and not the torch in torch furnaces, fireboxes, and combustion cham
temperature are the parameters that have the deter bers. After carrying out these works, the author of this
mining effect on heat transfer and throughput capacity article filed an application for a scientific disclosure,
of furnaces and fireboxes. Hence, in carrying out cal and in 2011 the relevant patent was granted [27, 28].
culations of heat transfer in heating furnaces and com Radiant heat transfer and its dependence on the
bustion chambers, the zones in which the combustion power and sizes of radiation sources is a method of
reaction takes place and fuel combustion energy transferring heat from energy sources to heating sur

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646 MAKAROV

N2 volume (Fig. 1) and derived the following analytical

expression for calculating the radiant flux falling from
dF01
the arc of elementary cylindrical volume with diame
ter d, m, height l, m, and power Parc, W on an elemen

β
tary area dF01 arbitrarily located in space
0.9Parc cos α cos β
dα q i.arc = , (5)
d O M π 2r 2
where α, β, and r are the trigonometric and geometri
dωα cal parameters determined from the constructions (see
α
r Fig. 1).
A N1
l

The expression for calculating the radiant flux den

dF0
sity from a shielded subsurface arc on the calculated
area has the form
O1
0.9Parc cos α cos β l open
q i.arc = , (6)
Fig. 1. Modeling of electric arc by an elementary cylindri π 2r 2l arc
cal ionized gas volume. dF0 is the cylinder lateral surface
area; ОО1 is the cylinder axis; N1 and N2 are the normals where larc and lopen are the length of the arc and the
to the ОО1 axis toward the cylinder center and to the area length of its open part not shielded by slag or metal, m.
dF01 toward its center; dα is the plane angle within which
the cylinder radiates onto the area dF01; dωα is the spatial Subsequently, an analytical model of electric arc
angle at which the area dF01 is seen from the point A; l and was developed representing it as a heat radiation
d are the cylinder height and diameter, respectively; r is the source in electric arc and plasmaarc steel melting fur
distance AM; α is the angle between N1 and AM; and β is naces, and analytical expressions were obtained for
the angle between N2 and AM.
calculating heat fluxes from long arcs for any spatial
location of heating surfaces and electric arcs, and pro
faces that is common for torch and electric arc fur cedures for calculating heat transfer in these furnaces
naces, steam boiler fireboxes, and combustion cham were developed on the basis of these expressions [5,
bers. In view of high temperature levels of the intrafur 29–32].
nace atmosphere consisting of metal vapors and high The photographs of a torch produced by a single
temperature gases, the heat transfer processes in elec burner show that this torch has the shape of a geomet
tric arc steel melting furnaces remained poorly studied rical body close to a body of revolution in the form of
for a long period of time. A procedure for calculating a truncated cone with a vertex at the burner throat. On
heat transfer was lacking, and a few physical phenom the snapshot made with a shorter exposure interval, we
ena taking place in electric arc steel melting furnaces can clearly see the geometrical body of a revolution
had not have scientific explanation till the early 1980s. ellipsoid inside the truncated cone. Figure 2a shows
Photographs of electric arc in furnaces showed that the torch produced by a single burner.
such arc is a spatial body consisting of ionized isother
mal coaxial gas layers in the shape of a truncated cone The ellipsoid of revolution (Fig. 2b) is an active
or cylinder [5]. Some researchers tried to apply Ste zone in which the combustion reaction proceeds. The
fan–Boltzmann’s law for calculating radiant heat combustion products are displaced from the active
transfer in electric arc furnaces, but such calculations volume by new portions of reacting fuel and occupy
were not met with success. The effective arc tempera the entire free volume of a furnace, firebox, or com
ture in 3 and 150ton furnaces is the same and is equal bustion chamber. The results from performed calcula
to around 6000°C [4]. Hence, the calculation of heat tions showed that the radiation emitted onto the heat
transfer in 3 and 150ton furnaces carried out accord ing surfaces from passive gas volumes containing the
ing to Stefan–Boltzmann’s formula will give the same combustion products is small as compared with the
heat fluxes applied to the metal to be melted and, radiation emitted from the active volume in which the
accordingly, the same throughput capacity of the fur fuel combustion reaction proceeds. The heat flux from
naces. But the throughput of 3tom furnaces is 1 t/h the passive volume of gas is taken into account in the
and that of 150ton furnaces, 200 t/h, and its value is form of radiant and convective components of the
determined not by the temperature, but by the power total heat flux. The torch length is equal to the length
levels of arcs, which are equal to 0.4 MW in 3ton fur of revolution ellipsoid, in which no less than 97% of
naces and 80 MW in 150ton furnaces. fuel is burnt. In constructing a torch model for carry
ing out heat transfer calculations, it was proposed to
In 1980, the authors of [5] advanced a hypothesis inscribe isothermal coaxial cylindrical nonionized gas
about the possibility of modeling the radiation from all volumes into the ellipsoid of rotation that consist of a
isothermal coaxial cylindrical ionized gas layers by multitude of radiating and absorbing isothermal coaxial
radiation from one elementary cylindrical ionized gas cylindrical nonionized gas layers as is shown in Fig. 2b.

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 REGULARITIES PERTINENT TO HEAT TRANSFER BETWEEN TORCH GAS 647

(a) 3
1300°С
2
1
900°C
1400°C 1500 1400 1300 1200°C 1400
A–A

900
1500 1700°С
(b)
3
4 5
1 1600

1200°C
1700
1300

1400°C 1500 1400 A A

Fig. 2. Torch shape and structure with distribution of iso

therms over the volume (a) and the torch geometrical
model in a heating furnace (b). (1) Burner, (2) torch,
(3) combustion products, (4) ellipsoid of rotation (torch),
and (5) cylindrical gas volumes.

The power unit boiler firebox has the shape of a 1700°C

rectangular parallelepiped the height of which is a fac
tor of 2–3 larger than its width and a factor of 4–5
larger than its depth. The torch fills the entire firebox Fig. 3. Torch and distribution of isotherms in the steam
chamber over its height and perimeter. The combus boiler firebox. (1) Burners, (2) firebox, (3) torch, and
(4) waterwall surfaces.
tion process is finished behind the aerodynamic pro
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