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Matter and Interactions Vol1 2 Fourth Edition Chabay
Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Chabay, Ruth W.; Sherwood, Bruce A
ISBN(s): 9781118914533, 1118914503
Edition: Fourth edition
File Details: PDF, 144.94 MB
Year: 2015
Language: english
Chabay ffirs.tex 10/11/2014 9: 32 Page i

FOURTH EDITION

Matter & Interactions

VOLUME I
Modern Mechanics

VOLUME II
Electric and Magnetic Interactions

RUTH W. CHABAY
BRUCE A. SHERWOOD
North Carolina State University
Chabay ffirs.tex 10/11/2014 9: 32 Page ii

VICE PRESIDENT & PUBLISHER Petra Recter

EXECUTIVE EDITOR Jessica Fiorillo
ASSOCIATE EDITOR Aly Rentrop
EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Amanda Rillo
SENIOR MARKETING MANAGER Kristy Ruff
MARKETING ASSISTANT Claudine Scrivanich
SENIOR CONTENT MANAGER Kevin Holm
SENIOR PRODUCTION EDITOR Elizabeth Swain
DESIGN DIRECTOR Harry Nolan
TEXT/COVER DESIGN Maureen Eide
COVER IMAGE Ruth Chabay

Cover Description: The cover image is a snapshot from a VPython program that models the
motion of a mass-spring system in 3D (see Computational Problem P70 in Chapter 4).

This book was set in 10/12 Times Ten Roman in LaTex by MPS and printed and bound by
Quad Graphics. The cover was printed by Quad Graphics.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in

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United States, please contact your local representative.

Complete text ISBN 978-1-118-87586-5

Complete text binder version ISBN 978-1-118-91451-9

Volume 1 ISBN 978-1-118-91449-6

Volume 1 Binder version ISBN 978-1-118-91452-6

Volume 2 ISBN 978-1-118-91450-2

Volume 2 Binder version ISBN 978-1-118-91453-3

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Chabay ftoc.tex 10/11/2014 9: 32 Page iii

Brief Contents

VOLUME I Modern Mechanics

1 Interactions and Motion 1
2 The Momentum Principle 45
3 The Fundamental Interactions 88
4 Contact Interactions 130
5 Determining Forces from Motion 173
6 The Energy Principle 215
7 Internal Energy 284
8 Energy Quantization 323
9 Translational, Rotational, and Vibrational Energy 349
10 Collisions 383
11 Angular Momentum 416
12 Entropy: Limits on the Possible 472

VOLUME II Electric and Magnetic Interactions

13 Electric Field 513
14 Electric Fields and Matter 546
15 Electric Field of Distributed Charges 588
16 Electric Potential 626
17 Magnetic Field 673
18 Electric Field and Circuits 716
19 Circuit Elements 765
20 Magnetic Force 805
21 Patterns of Field in Space 867
22 Faraday’s Law 902
23 Electromagnetic Radiation 939

The Supplements can be found at the web site, www.wiley.com/college/chabay

Supplement S1 Gases and Heat Engines S1-1

Supplement S2 Semiconductor Devices S2-1
Supplement S3 Waves S3-1
iii
Chabay ftoc.tex 10/11/2014 9: 32 Page iv

Contents

VOLUME I CHAPTER 3 The Fundamental

Modern Mechanics Interactions 88
3.1 The Fundamental Interactions 88
CHAPTER 1 Interactions and 3.2 The Gravitational Force 89
3.3 Approximate Gravitational Force Near the Earth’s
Motion 1 Surface 93
3.4 Reciprocity 95
1.1 Kinds of Matter 1 3.5 Predicting Motion of Gravitationally Interacting
1.2 Detecting Interactions 4 Objects 96
1.3 Newton’s First Law of Motion 6 3.6 Gravitational Force in Computational Models 100
1.4 Describing the 3D World: Vectors 8 3.7 The Electric Force 102
1.5 SI Units 17 3.8 The Strong Interaction 104
1.6 Speed and Velocity 18 3.9 The Weak Interaction 106
1.7 Predicting a New Position 20 3.10 Conservation of Momentum 107
1.8 Momentum 24 3.11 The Multiparticle Momentum Principle 110
1.9 Using Momentum to Update Position 27 3.12 Collisions: Negligible External Forces 113
1.10 Momentum at High Speeds 28 3.13 Newton and Einstein 116
1.11 Computational Modeling 31 3.14 Predicting the Future of Complex Systems 117
1.12 *The Principle of Relativity 33 3.15 Determinism 119
1.13 *Updating Position at High Speed 36 3.16 Points and Spheres 121
3.17 Measuring the Gravitational Constant G 122
Summary 37
Questions 38 Summary 122
Problems 39 Questions 123
Computational Problems 42 Problems 123
Answers to Checkpoints 44 Computational Problems 128
Answers to Checkpoints 129

CHAPTER 2 The Momentum CHAPTER 4 Contact Interactions 130

Principle 45
4.1 Beyond Point Particles 130
2.1 The Momentum Principle 45 4.2 The Ball–Spring Model of a Solid 131
2.2 Large Forces and Short Times 50 4.3 Tension Forces 132
2.3 Predicting the Future 55 4.4 Length of an Interatomic Bond 133
2.4 Iterative Prediction: Constant Net Force 57 4.5 The Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond 135
2.5 Analytical Prediction: Constant Net Force 60 4.6 Stress, Strain, and Young’s Modulus 138
2.6 Iterative Prediction: Varying Net Force 65 4.7 Compression (Normal) Forces 141
2.7 Iterative Calculations on a Computer 72 4.8 Friction 141
2.8 *Derivation: Special-Case Average Velocity 75 4.9 Speed of Sound in a Solid and Interatomic Bond
2.9 *Relativistic Motion 77 Stiffness 144
2.10 *Measurements and Units 79 4.10 Derivative Form of the Momentum Principle 146
4.11 Analytical Solution: Spring–Mass System 148
Summary 81
4.12 Analytical vs. Iterative Solutions 152
Questions 81
4.13 Analytical Expression for Speed of Sound 154
Problems 82
4.14 Contact Forces Due to Gases 156
Computational Problems 86
4.15 *Acceleration 160
Answers to Checkpoints 87
4.16 *A Vertical Spring–Mass System 161
4.17 *General Solution for the Mass–Spring System 161

iv
Chabay ftoc.tex 10/11/2014 9: 32 Page v

Contents v

Summary 163 7.5 Energy Transfer Due to a Temperature Difference 297

Questions 164 7.6 Power: Energy per Unit Time 300
Problems 166 7.7 Open and Closed Systems 300
Computational Problems 170 7.8 The Choice of System Affects Energy Accounting 302
Answers to Checkpoints 172 7.9 The Choice of Reference Frame Affects
Energy Accounting 304
7.10 Energy Dissipation 306
7.11 Energy Dissipation in Computational Models 312
CHAPTER 5 Determining Forces from 7.12 *Resonance 314

Motion 173 Summary 315

Questions 316
5.1 Unknown Forces 173 Problems 317
5.2 Identifying all Forces 173 Computational Problems 320
5.3 Determining Unknown Forces 174 Answers to Checkpoints 321
5.4 Uniform Motion 176
5.5 Changing Momentum 184
5.6 Force and Curving Motion 185
5.7 d⃗p/dt for Curving Motion 190
5.8 Unknown Forces: Curving Motion 195
CHAPTER 8 Energy Quantization 323
5.9 Kinesthetic Sensations 200 8.1 Photons 323
5.10 More Complex Problems 202 8.2 Electronic Energy Levels 324
8.3 The Effect of Temperature 334
Summary 205 8.4 Vibrational Energy Levels 335
Questions 206 8.5 Rotational Energy Levels 338
Problems 206 8.6 Other Energy Levels 339
Computational Problems 213 8.7 Comparison of Energy-Level Spacings 339
Answers to Checkpoints 214 8.8 *Random Emission Time 340
8.9 *Case Study: How a Laser Works 340
8.10 *Wavelength of Light 342

CHAPTER 6 The Energy Principle 215 Summary 343

Questions 343
6.1 The Energy Principle 215 Problems 344
6.2 Energy of a Single Particle 216 Computational Problems 346
6.3 Work: Mechanical Energy Transfer 221 Answers to Checkpoints 348
6.4 Work and Energy 227
6.5 Change of Rest Energy 231
6.6 Proof of the Energy Principle for a Particle 234
6.7 Potential Energy in Multiparticle Systems 235
6.8 Gravitational Potential Energy 240
CHAPTER 9 Translational, Rotational, and
6.9 Electric Potential Energy 249 Vibrational Energy 349
6.10 Plotting Energy vs. Separation 250
9.1 Separation of Multiparticle System Energy 349
6.11 General Properties of Potential Energy 255
9.2 Rotational Kinetic Energy 353
6.12 The Mass of a Multiparticle System 258
9.3 Comparing Two Models of a System 359
6.13 Reflection: Why Energy? 263
9.4 Modeling Friction in Detail 368
6.14 Identifying Initial and Final States 264
9.5 *Derivation: Kinetic Energy of a Multiparticle System 373
6.15 Energy in Computational Models 268
9.6 *Derivation: The Point Particle Energy Equation 374
6.16 *A Puzzle 269
6.17 *Gradient of Potential Energy 270 Summary 376
6.18 *Integrals and Antiderivatives 271 Questions 376
6.19 *Approximation for Kinetic Energy 272 Problems 377
6.20 *Finding the Expression for Particle Energy 273 Answers to Checkpoints 382
6.21 *Finding an Angle from the Dot Product 274
Summary 274
Questions 275
Problems 276 CHAPTER 10 Collisions 383
Computational Problems 282
Answers to Checkpoints 283 10.1 Collisions 383
10.2 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 384
10.3 A Head-on Collision of Equal Masses 386
10.4 Head-on Collisions Between Unequal Masses 389
CHAPTER 7 Internal Energy 284 10.5 Frame of Reference 391
10.6 Scattering: Collisions in 2D and 3D 392
10.7 Discovering the Nucleus Inside Atoms 395
7.1 Extended Objects 284
10.8 Distribution of Scattering Angles 398
7.2 Potential Energy of Macroscopic Springs 284
10.9 Computational and Analytical Approaches 400
7.3 Potential Energy of a Pair of Neutral Atoms 290
10.10 Relativistic Momentum and Energy 401
7.4 Internal Energy 292
Chabay ftoc.tex 10/11/2014 9: 32 Page vi

vi Contents

10.11 Inelastic Collisions and Quantized Energy 403 13.3 The Concept of “Electric Field” 515
10.12 Collisions in Other Reference Frames 405 13.4 The Electric Field of a Point Charge 519
13.5 Superposition of Electric Fields 522
Summary 410 13.6 The Electric Field of a Dipole 524
Questions 410 13.7 Choice of System 532
Problems 411 13.8 Is Electric Field Real? 533
Computational Problems 414 13.9 Computational Modeling of Electric Fields 535
Answers to Checkpoints 415
Summary 538
Questions 539
Problems 540
CHAPTER 11 Angular Momentum 416 Computational Problems 544
Answers to Checkpoints 545
11.1 Translational Angular Momentum 416
11.2 Rotational Angular Momentum 422
11.3 Total Angular Momentum 425
11.4 Torque 426 CHAPTER 14 Electric Fields and
11.5 The Angular Momentum Principle 428
11.6 Multiparticle Systems 430
Matter 546
11.7 Systems with Zero Torque 432 14.1 Charged Particles in Matter 546
11.8 Systems with Nonzero Torques 441 14.2 How Objects Become Charged 548
11.9 Predicting Positions When There is Rotation 443 14.3 Polarization of Atoms 551
11.10 Computation and Angular Momentum 445 14.4 Polarization of Insulators 557
11.11 Angular Momentum Quantization 445 14.5 Polarization of Conductors 558
11.12 *Gyroscopes 450 14.6 Charge Motion in Metals 561
11.13 *More on Moment of Inertia 455 14.7 Charge Transfer 568
Summary 457 14.8 Practical Issues in Measuring Electric Field 570
Questions 458 Summary 571
Problems 459 Experiments 572
Computational Problems 469 Questions 578
Answers to Checkpoints 471 Problems 580
Answers to Checkpoints 586

CHAPTER 12 Entropy: Limits on CHAPTER 15 Electric Field of

the Possible 472
Distributed Charges 588
12.1 Irreversibility 472
12.2 The Einstein Model of a Solid 473 15.1 A Uniformly Charged Thin Rod 588
12.3 Thermal Equilibrium of Blocks in Contact 480 15.2 Procedure for Calculating Electric Field 595
12.4 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 484 15.3 A Uniformly Charged Thin Ring 597
12.5 What is Temperature? 485 15.4 A Uniformly Charged Disk 599
12.6 Specific Heat of a Solid 488 15.5 Two Uniformly Charged Disks: A Capacitor 603
12.7 Computational Models 493 15.6 A Spherical Shell of Charge 606
12.8 The Boltzmann Distribution 494 15.7 A Solid Sphere Charged Throughout its Volume 608
12.9 The Boltzmann Distribution in a Gas 498 15.8 Infinitesimals and Integrals in Science 609
15.9 3D Numerical Integration with a Computer 610
Summary 506 15.10 *Integrating the Spherical Shell 613
Questions 507
Problems 508 Summary 614
Computational Problems 511 Questions 616
Answers to Checkpoints 512 Problems 617
Computational Problems 624
Answers to Checkpoints 625

VOLUME II
CHAPTER 16 Electric Potential 626
Electric and Magnetic 16.1 A Review of Potential Energy 626
Interactions 16.2 Systems of Charged Objects 629
16.3 Potential Difference in a Uniform Field 632
16.4 Sign of Potential Difference 635
CHAPTER 13 Electric Field 513
16.5 Potential Difference in a Nonuniform Field 637
16.6 Path Independence 644
16.7 The Potential at One Location 648
13.1 New Concepts 513
16.8 Computing Potential Differences 652
13.2 Electric Charge and Force 513
16.9 Potential Difference in an Insulator 653
Chabay ftoc.tex 10/11/2014 9: 32 Page vii

Contents vii

16.10 Energy Density and Electric Field 656 19.3 Conventional Symbols and Terms 776
16.11 *Potential of Distributed Charges 658 19.4 Work and Power in a Circuit 777
16.12 *Integrating the Spherical Shell 658 19.5 Batteries 779
16.13 *Numerical Integration Along a Path 660 19.6 Ammeters, Voltmeters, and Ohmmeters 781
19.7 Quantitative Analysis of an RC Circuit 783
Summary 661 19.8 Reflection: The Macro-Micro Connection 786
Questions 661 19.9 *What Are AC and DC? 787
Problems 663 19.10 *Electrons in Metals 789
Computational Problems 672 19.11 *A Complicated Resistive Circuit 789
Answers to Checkpoints 672
Summary 792
Experiments 792
Questions 794
CHAPTER 17 Magnetic Field 673 Problems 797
Answers to Checkpoints 803
17.1 Electron Current 673
17.2 Detecting Magnetic Fields 674
17.3 Biot–Savart Law: Single Moving Charge 676
17.4 Relativistic Effects 678
17.5 Electron Current and Conventional Current 679
CHAPTER 20 Magnetic Force 805
17.6 The Biot–Savart Law for Currents 682 20.1 Magnetic Force on a Moving Charge 805
17.7 The Magnetic Field of Current Distributions 683 20.2 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire 810
17.8 A Circular Loop of Wire 686 20.3 Combining Electric and Magnetic Forces 812
17.9 Computation and 3D Visualization 689 20.4 The Hall Effect 814
17.10 Magnetic Dipole Moment 690 20.5 Motional Emf 819
17.11 The Magnetic Field of a Bar Magnet 691 20.6 Magnetic Force in a Moving Reference Frame 824
17.12 The Atomic Structure of Magnets 693 20.7 Magnetic Torque 828
17.13 *Estimate of Orbital Angular Momentum of an 20.8 Potential Energy for a Magnetic Dipole 829
Electron in an Atom 699 20.9 Motors and Generators 834
17.14 *Magnetic Field of a Solenoid 700 20.10 *Case Study: Sparks in Air 836
20.11 *Relativistic Field Transformations 846
Summary 702
Experiments 703 Summary 850
Questions 707 Experiments 851
Problems 708 Questions 851
Computational Problems 713 Problems 854
Answers to Checkpoints 715 Computational Problems 864
Answers to Checkpoints 866

CHAPTER 18 Electric Field and CHAPTER 21 Patterns of Field

Circuits 716
in Space 867
18.1 A Circuit Is Not in Equilibrium 716
18.2 Current in Different Parts of a Circuit 717 21.1 Patterns of Electric Field: Gauss’s Law 867
18.3 Electric Field and Current 720 21.2 Definition of “Electric Flux” 869
18.4 What Charges Make the Electric Field Inside the Wires? 722 21.3 Gauss’s Law 871
18.5 Surface Charge Distributions 726 21.4 Reasoning from Gauss’s Law 877
18.6 Connecting a Circuit: The Initial Transient 732 21.5 Gauss’s Law for Magnetism 882
18.7 Feedback 734 21.6 Patterns of Magnetic Field: Ampere’s Law 883
18.8 Surface Charge and Resistors 735 21.7 Maxwell’s Equations 889
18.9 Energy in a Circuit 738 21.8 Semiconductor Devices 889
18.10 Applications of the Theory 742 21.9 *The Differential Form of Gauss’s Law 889
18.11 Detecting Surface Charge 747 21.10 *The Differential Form of Ampere’s Law 895
18.12 *Computational Model of a Circuit 749
Summary 896
Summary 751 Questions 897
Experiments 752 Problems 897
Questions 755 Computational Problem 901
Problems 757 Answers to Checkpoints 901
Answers to Checkpoints 763

CHAPTER 19 Circuit Elements 765

CHAPTER 22 Faraday’s Law 902
22.1 Curly Electric Fields 902
19.1 Capacitors 765 22.2 Faraday’s Law 905
19.2 Resistors 771 22.3 Faraday’s Law and Motional Emf 912
Chabay ftoc.tex 10/11/2014 9: 32 Page viii

viii Contents

22.4 Maxwell’s Equations 915 23.4 Sinusoidal Electromagnetic Radiation 951

22.5 Superconductors 916 23.5 Energy and Momentum in Radiation 955
22.6 Inductance 918 23.6 Effects of Radiation on Matter 959
22.7 *Inductor Circuits 922 23.7 Light Propagation Through a Medium 964
22.8 *Some Peculiar Circuits 926 23.8 Refraction: Bending of Light 966
22.9 *The Differential Form of Faraday’s Law 928 23.9 Lenses 969
22.10 *Lenz’s Rule 929 23.10 Image Formation 972
23.11 *The Field of an Accelerated Charge 983
Summary 930 23.12 *Differential Form of Maxwell’s Equations 985
Questions 931
Problems 932 Summary 986
Answers to Checkpoints 938 Questions 986
Problems 988
Computational Problems 991
Answers to Checkpoints 992
CHAPTER 23 Electromagnetic
Radiation 939
Answers to Odd-Numbered
23.1 Maxwell’s Equations 939
23.2 Fields Traveling Through Space 942 Problems A-1
23.3 Accelerated Charges Produce Radiation 947
Index I-1

The Supplements can be found at the web site, www.wiley.com/college/chabay

SUPPLEMENT S1 Gases and Heat Engines SUPPLEMENT S3 Waves

S1.1 Gases, Solids, and Liquids S1-1 S3.1 Wave Phenomena S3-1
S1.2 Gas Leaks Through a Hole S1-2 S3.2 Multisource Interference: Diffraction S3-8
S1.3 Mean Free Path S1-5 S3.3 Angular Resolution S3-17
S1.4 Pressure and Temperature S1-6 S3.4 Mechanical Waves S3-21
S1.5 Energy Transfers S1-13 S3.5 Standing Waves S3-31
S1.6 Fundamental Limitations on Efficiency S1-21 S3.6 Wave and Particle Models of Light S3-37
S1.7 A Maximally Efficient Process S1-23 S3.7 *Fourier Analysis S3-44
S1.8 *Why Don’t We Attain the Theoretical Efficency? S1-31 S3.8 *Derivation: Two Slits are Like Two Sources S3-45
S1.9 *Application: A Random Walk S1-33 S3.9 *The Wave Equation for Light S3-46

SUPPLEMENT S2 Semiconductor Devices

S2.1 Semiconductor Devices S2-1
Chabay fpref.tex 10/11/2014 9: 33 Page ix

Preface

TO THE STUDENT
This textbook emphasizes a 20th-century perspective on introductory physics.
Contemporary physicists build models of the natural world that are based on
a small set of fundamental physics principles and on an understanding of the
microscopic structure of matter, and they apply these models to explain and
predict a very broad range of physical phenomena. In order to involve students
of introductory physics in the contemporary physics enterprise, this textbook
emphasizes:
Reasoning directly from a small number of fundamental physics principles,
rather than from a large set of special-case equations.
Integrating contemporary insights, such as atomic models of matter,
quantized energy, and relativistic dynamics, throughout the curriculum.
Engaging in the full process of creating and refining physical models
(idealizing, making approximations, explicitly stating assumptions, and
estimating quantities).
Reasoning iteratively about the time-evolution of system behavior, both on
paper and through the construction and application of computational models.
Because the physical world is 3-dimensional, we work in 3D throughout the
text. Many students find the approach to 3D vectors used in this book easier
than standard treatments of 2D vectors.

Textbook and Supplemental Resources

Modern Mechanics (Volume 1, Chapters 1–12) focuses on the atomic structure
of matter and interactions between material objects. It emphasizes the wide
applicability and utility of a small number of fundamental principles: the
Momentum Principle, the Energy Principle, and the Angular Momentum
Principle, and the Fundamental Assumption of Statistical Mechanics. We study
how to explain and predict the behavior of systems as different as elementary
particles, molecules, solid metals, and galaxies.
Electric and Magnetic Interactions (Volume 2, Chapters 13–23) emphasizes
the somewhat more abstract concepts of electric and magnetic fields and
extends the study of the atomic structure of matter to include the role of
electrons. The principles of electricity and magnetism are the foundation for
much of today’s technology, from cell phones to medical imaging.
Additional resources for students are freely available at this site:
www.wiley.com/college/chabay
The web resources include several supplements. A copy of Chapter 1 is
provided for students who are currently using Volume 2 but whose previous
physics course did not use Volume 1. This chapter introduces 3D vectors and
vector algebra, and includes an introduction to computational modeling in
VPython, which is used throughout the textbook.
Supplement S1 treats the kinetic theory of gases and heat engines, and can
be used by students who have completed Chapter 12 on Entropy. Supplement
S2 explains the basic principles of PN junctions in semiconductor devices,
and can be used by students who have completed Chapter 21: Patterns of
Field in Space. Supplement S3 includes a more mathematically sophisticated
treatment of mechanical and electromagnetic waves and wave phenomena, and
ix
Chabay fpref.tex 10/11/2014 9: 33 Page x

x Preface

can be used by students who have completed Chapter 23 on Electromagnetic

Radiation.
Answers to odd-numbered problems may be found at the end of the book.
The new Student Solutions Manual is available for purchase as a printed
supplement and contains fully worked solutions for a subset of end of chapter
problems.

Prerequisites
This book is intended for introductory calculus-based college physics courses
taken by science and engineering students. It requires a basic knowledge
of derivatives and integrals, which can be obtained by studying calculus
concurrently.

Modeling
Matter & Interactions places a major emphasis on constructing and using
physical models. A central aspect of science is the modeling of complex
real-world phenomena. A physical model is based on what we believe
to be fundamental principles; its intent is to predict or explain the most
important aspects of an actual situation. Modeling necessarily involves making
approximations and simplifying assumptions that make it possible to analyze a
system in detail.

Computational Modeling
Computational modeling is now as important as theory and experiment in
contemporary science and engineering. We introduce you to serious computer
modeling right away to help you build a strong foundation in the use of this
important tool.
In this course you will construct simple computational models based on
fundamental physics principles. You do not need any prior programming
experience–this course will teach you the small number of computational
concepts you will need. Using VPython, a computational environment based
on the Python programming language, you will find that after less than an hour
you can write a simple computational model that produces a navigable 3D
animation as a side effect of your physics code.
Computational modeling allows us to analyze complex systems that would
otherwise require very sophisticated mathematics or that could not be analyzed
at all without a computer. Numerical calculations based on the Momentum
Principle give us the opportunity to watch the dynamical evolution of the
behavior of a system. Simple models frequently need to be refined and
extended. This can be done straightforwardly with a computer model but is
often impossible with a purely analytical (non-numerical) model.
VPython is free, and runs on Windows, MacOS, and Linux. Instructions in
Chapter 1 tell you how to install it on your own computer, and how to find a
set of instructional videos that will help you learn to use VPython.

Questions
As you read the text, you will frequently come to a question that looks like this:
QUESTION What should I do when I encounter a question in the
text?
A question invites you to stop and think, to make a prediction, to carry out
a step in a derivation or analysis, or to apply a principle. These questions
are answered in the following paragraphs, but it is important that you make
a serious effort to answer the questions on your own before reading further.
Be honest in comparing your answers to those in the text. Paying attention to
surprising or counterintuitive results can be a useful learning strategy.
Chabay fpref.tex 10/11/2014 9: 33 Page xi

Preface xi

Checkpoints
Checkpoints at the end of some sections ask you to apply new concepts or
techniques. These may involve qualitative reasoning or simple calculations.
You should complete these checkpoints when you come to them, before
reading further. The goal of a checkpoint is to help you consolidate your
understanding of the material you have just read, and to make sure you are
ready to continue reading. Answers to checkpoints are found at the end of
each chapter.

Conventions Used in Diagrams

Force The conventions most commonly used to represent vectors and scalars in
diagrams in this text are shown in the margin. In equations and text, a vector
Component of force
will be written with an arrow above it: ⃗p.
Velocity
Momentum TO THE INSTRUCTOR
Electric field The approach to introductory physics in this textbook differs significantly from
that in most textbooks. Key emphases of the approach include:
Component of electric field
Starting from fundamental principles rather than secondary formulas
Magnetic field Atomic-level description and analysis
Component of magnetic field Modeling the real world through idealizations and approximations
Computational modeling of physical systems
Position Unification of mechanics and thermal physics
Angular momentum Unification of electrostatics and circuits
The use of 3D vectors throughout
Torque

Distance Web Resources for Instructors

A path
Instructor resources are available at this web site:
www.wiley.com/college/chabay
Resources on this site include lecture-demo software, textbook figures,
clicker questions, test questions, lab activities including experiments and
computational modeling, a computational modeling guide, and a full solutions
manual. Contact your Wiley representative for information about this site.
Electronic versions of the homework problems are available in WebAssign:
www.webassign.net
Some instructor resources are available through WebAssign as well.
Other information may be found on the authors’ Matter & Interactions web
site:
matterandinteractions.org
Also on the authors’ website are reprints of published articles about Matter &
Interactions, including these:
Chabay, R. & Sherwood, B. (1999). Bringing atoms into first-year physics.
American Journal of Physics 67, 1045–1050.
Chabay, R. W. & Sherwood, B. (2004). Modern mechanics. American Journal
of Physics 72, 439–445.
Chabay, R. W. & Sherwood, B. (2006). Restructuring Introductory E&M.
American Journal of Physics 74, 329–336.
Chabay, R. & Sherwood, B. (2008) Computational physics in the introductory
calculus-based course. American Journal of Physics 76(4&5), 307–313.
Beichner, R., Chabay, R., & Sherwood, B. (2010) Labs for the Matter &
Interactions curriculum. American Journal of Physics 78(5), 456–460.
Chabay fpref.tex 10/11/2014 9: 33 Page xii

xii Preface

Computational Homework Problems

Some important homework problems require the student to write a simple
computer program. The textbook and associated instructional videos teach
VPython, which is based on the Python programming language, and which
generates real-time 3D animations as a side effect of simple physics code
written by students. Such animations provide powerfully motivating and
instructive visualizations of fields and motions. VPython supports true vector
computations, which encourages students to begin thinking about vectors as
much more than mere components. VPython can be obtained at no cost for
Windows, Macintosh, and Linux at vpython.org.
In the instructor resources section of matterandinteractions.org is “A Brief
Guide to Computational Modeling in Matter & Interactions” which explains
how to incorporate computation into the curriculum in a way that is easy
for instructors to manage and which is entirely accessible to students with
no prior programming experience. There you will also find a growing list of
advanced computational physics textbooks that use VPython, which means
that introducing students to Python and VPython in the introductory physics
course can be of direct utility in later courses. Python itself is now widely used
in technical fields.

Desktop Experiment Kit for Volume 2

On the authors’ web site mentioned above is information about a desktop
experiment kit for E&M that is distributed by PASCO. The simple equipment
in this kit allows students to make key observations of electrostatic, circuit,
and magnetic phenomena, tightly integrated with the theory (www.pasco.com,
search for EM-8675). Several chapters contain optional experiments that can
be done with this kit. This does not preclude having other, more complex
laboratory experiences associated with the curriculum. For example, one such
lab that we use deals with Faraday’s law and requires signal generators, large
coils, and oscilloscopes. You may have lab experiments already in place that
will go well with this textbook.

What’s New in the 4th Edition

The 4th edition of this text includes the following major new features:
Increased support for computational modeling throughout, including sample
code.
Discussion throughout the text contrasting iterative and analytical problem
solutions.
Many new computational modeling problems (small and large).
Improved discussion throughout the text of the contrast between models of
a system as a point particle and as an extended system.
An improved discussion of the Momentum Principle throughout Volume 1,
emphasizing that the future momentum depends on two elements: the
momentum now, and the impulse applied.
Improved treatment of polarization surface charge in electrostatics
(Chapter 14) and circuits (Chapter 18) based on the results of detailed
3D computational models.
A more extensive set of problems at the end of each chapter, with improved
indication of difficulty level.
In order to reduce cost and weight, some materials that have seen
little use by instructors have been moved to the Wiley web site
(www.wiley.com/college/chabay) where they are freely available. These
materials include Supplement S1 (Chapter 13 in the 3rd Edition: kinetic
theory of gases, thermal processes, and heat engines), Supplement S2 on PN
Chabay fpref.tex 10/11/2014 9: 33 Page xiii

Preface xiii

junctions (formerly an optional section in Chapter 22 in the 3rd Edition),

and Supplement S3 (a significantly extended version of Chapter 25 in the 3rd
Edition: electromagnetic interference and diffraction, wave-particle duality,
and a new section on mechanical waves and the wave equation).

Additional changes in the 4th Edition include:

In Chapter 5, improved treatment of curving motion and an added section

on the dynamics of multiobject systems.
An improved sequence of topics in Chapter 6, with an explicit discussion of
the role of energy in computational models, and an improved treatment of
path independence, highlighting its limitation to point particles.
A new section in Chapter 7 on the effect of the choice of reference frame on
the form of the Energy Principle, and explicit instruction on how to model
several kinds of friction in a computational model.
In Chapter 8, discussion of the lifetime of excited states and on the
probabilistic nature of energy transitions.
In Chapter 9, now renamed “Translational, Rotational, and Vibrational
Energy,” improved treatment of the energetics of deformable systems.
In Chapter 11, analysis of a physical pendulum.
A detailed discussion in Chapter 16 of how to calculate potential difference
by numerical path integration.
An improved treatment of motional emf in the case of a bar dragged along
rails (Chapter 20).

Suggestions for Condensed Courses

In a large course for engineering and science students with three 50-minute
lectures and one 110-minute small-group studio lab per week, or in a studio
format with five 50-minute sessions per week, it is possible to complete most
but not all of the mechanics and E&M material in two 15-week semesters. In
an honors course, or a course for physics majors, it is possible to do almost
everything. You may be able to go further or deeper if your course has a weekly
recitation session in addition to lecture and lab.
What can be omitted if there is not enough time to do everything? In
mechanics, the one thing we feel should not be omitted is the introduction to
entropy in terms of the statistical mechanics of the Einstein solid (Chapter 12).
This is a climax of the integration of mechanics and thermal physics. One
approach to deciding what mechanics topics can be omitted is to be guided
by what foundation is required for Chapter 12. See other detailed suggestions
below.
In E&M, one should not omit electromagnetic radiation and its effects on
matter (Chapter 23). This is the climax of the whole E&M enterprise. One way
to decide what E&M topics can be omitted is to be guided by what foundation
is required for Chapter 23. See other detailed suggestions below.
Any starred section (*) can safely be omitted. Material in these sections is
not referenced in later work. In addition, the following sections may be omitted:
Chapter 3 (The Fundamental Interactions): The section on determinism
may be omitted.
Chapter 4 (Contact Interactions): Buoyancy and pressure may be omitted
(one can return to these topics by using Supplement S1 on gases).
Chapter 7 (Internal Energy): If you are pressed for time, you might choose
to omit the second half of the chapter on energy dissipation, beginning with
Section 7.10.
Chapter 9 (Translational, Rotational, and Vibrational Energy): The
formalism of finding the center of mass may be skipped, because the important
Chabay fpref.tex 10/11/2014 9: 33 Page xiv

xiv Preface

applications have obvious locations of the center of mass. Although they are
very instructive, it is possible to omit the sections contrasting point-particle
with extended system models; you may also omit the analysis of sliding friction.
Chapter 10 (Collisions): A good candidate for omission is the analysis of
collisions in the center-of-mass frame. Since there is a basic introduction to
collisions in Chapter 3 (before energy is introduced), one could omit all of
Chapter 10. On the other hand, the combined use of the Momentum Principle
and the Energy Principle can illuminate both fundamental principles.
Chapter 11 (Angular Momentum): The main content of this chapter should
not be omitted, as it introduces the third fundamental principle of mechanics,
the Angular Momentum Principle. One might choose to omit most applications
involving nonzero torque.
Chapter 12 (Entropy: Limits on the Possible): The second half of this
chapter, on the Boltzmann distribution, may be omitted if necessary.
Chapter 15 (Electric Field of Distributed Charges): It is important that
students acquire a good working knowledge of the patterns of electric field
around some standard charged objects (rod, ring, disk, capacitor, sphere). If
however they themselves are to acquire significant expertise in setting up
physical integrals, they need extensive practice, and you might decide that the
amount of time necessary for acquiring this expertise is not an appropriate use
of the available course time.
Chapter 16 (Electric Potential): The section on dielectric constant can be
omitted if necessary.
Chapter 17 (Magnetic Field): In the sections on the atomic structure of
magnets, you might choose to discuss only the first part, in which one finds
that the magnetic moment of a bar magnet is consistent with an atomic model.
Omitting the remaining sections on spin and domains will not cause significant
difficulties later.
Chapter 19 (Circuit Elements): The sections on series and parallel resistors
and on internal resistance, meters, quantitative analysis of RC circuits, and
multiloop circuits can be omitted. Physics and engineering students who need
to analyze complex multiloop circuits will later take specialized courses on the
topic; in the introductory physics course the emphasis should be on giving all
students a good grounding in the fundamental mechanisms underlying circuit
behavior.
Chapter 20 (Magnetic Force): We recommend discussing Alice and
Bob and Einstein, but it is safe to omit the sections on relativistic
field transformations. However, students often express high interest in the
relationship between electric fields and magnetic fields, and here is an
opportunity to satisfy some aspects of their curiosity. Motors and generators
may be omitted or downplayed. The case study on sparks in air can be omitted,
because nothing later depends critically on this topic, though it provides an
introductory-level example of a phenomenon where an intuitively appealing
model fails utterly, while a different model predicts several key features of
the phenomenon. Another possibility is to discuss sparks near the end of the
course, because it can be a useful review of many aspects of E&M.
Chapter 22 (Faraday’s Law): Though it can safely be omitted, we
recommend retaining the section on superconductors, because students are
curious about this topic. The section on inductance may be omitted.
Chapter 23 (Electromagnetic Radiation): The treatment of geometrical
optics may be omitted.

Acknowledgments
We owe much to the unusual working environment provided by the
Department of Physics and the former Center for Innovation in Learning at
Carnegie Mellon, which made it possible during the 1990s to carry out the
Chabay fpref.tex 10/11/2014 9: 33 Page xv

Preface xv

research and development leading to the first edition of this textbook in 2002.
We are grateful for the open-minded attitude of our colleagues in the Carnegie
Mellon physics department toward curriculum innovations.
We are grateful to the support of our colleagues Robert Beichner and
John Risley in the Physics Education Research and Development group at
North Carolina State University, and to other colleagues in the NCSU physics
department.
We thank Fred Reif for emphasizing the role of the three fundamental
principles of mechanics, and for his view on the reciprocity of electric and
gravitational forces. We thank Robert Bauman, Gregg Franklin, and Curtis
Meyer for helping us think deeply about energy.
Much of Chapter 12 on quantum statistical mechanics is based on
an article by Thomas A. Moore and Daniel V. Schroeder, “A different
approach to introducing statistical mechanics,” American Journal of Physics,
vol. 65, pp. 26–36 (January 1997). We have benefited from many stimulating
conversations with Thomas Moore, author of another introductory textbook
that takes a contemporary view of physics, Six Ideas that Shaped Physics.
Michael Weissman and Robert Swendsen provided particularly helpful
critiques on some aspects of our implementation of Chapter 12.
We thank Hermann Haertel for opening our eyes to the fundamental
mechanisms of electric circuits. Robert Morse, Priscilla Laws, and Mel
Steinberg stimulated our thinking about desktop experiments. Bat-Sheva
Eylon offered important guidance at an early stage. Ray Sorensen provided
deep analytical critiques that influenced our thinking in several important
areas. Randall Feenstra taught us about semiconductor junctions. Thomas
Moore showed us a useful way to present the differential form of Maxwell’s
equations. Fred Reif helped us devise an assessment of student learning of
basic E&M concepts. Uri Ganiel suggested the high-voltage circuit used to
demonstrate the reality of surface charge. The unusual light bulb circuits at
the end of Chapter 22 are based on an article by P. C. Peters, “The role
of induced emf’s in simple circuits,” American Journal of Physics 52, 1984,
208–211. Thomas Ferguson gave us unusually detailed and useful feedback on
the E&M chapters. Discussions with John Jewett about energy transfers were
helpful. We thank Seth Chabay for help with Latin.
We thank David Andersen, David Scherer, and Jonathan Brandmeyer for
the development of tools that enabled us and our students to write associated
software.
The research of Matthew Kohlmyer, Sean Weatherford, and Brandon
Lunk on student engagement with computational modeling has made major
contributions to our instruction on computational modeling. Lin Ding
developed an energy assessment instrument congruent with the goals of this
curriculum.
We thank our colleagues David Brown, Krishna Chowdary, Laura Clarke,
John Denker, Norman Derby, Ernst-Ludwig Florin, Thomas Foster, Jon D.H.
Gaffney, Chris Gould, Mark Haugan, Joe Heafner, Robert Hilborn, Eric Hill,
Andrew Hirsch, Leonardo Hsu, Barry Luokkala, Sara Majetich, Jonathan
Mitschele, Arjendu Pattanayak, Jeff Polak, Prabha Ramakrishnan, Vidhya
Ramachandran, Richard Roth, Michael Schatz, Robert Swendsen, Aaron
Titus, Michael Weissman, and Hugh Young.
We thank a group of reviewers assembled by the publisher, who gave us
useful critiques on the second edition of this textbook: Kelvin Chu, Michael
Dubson, Tom Furtak, David Goldberg, Javed Iqbal, Shawn Jackson, Craig
Ogilvie, Michael Politano, Norris Preyer, Rex Ramsier, Tycho Sleator, Robert
Swendsen, Larry Weinstein, and Michael Weissman. We also thank the group
who offered useful critiques on the third edition: Alex Small, Bereket Behane,
Craig Wiegert, Galen Pickett, Ian Affleck, Jeffrey Bindel, Jeremy King, Paula
Heron, and Surenda Singh.
Chabay fpref.tex 10/11/2014 9: 33 Page xvi

xvi Preface

We have benefited greatly from the support and advice of Stuart Johnson
and Jessica Fiorillo of John Wiley & Sons. Elizabeth Swain of John Wiley &
Sons was exceptionally skilled in managing the project. Helen Walden did a
superb job of copyediting; any remaining errors are ours.
This project was supported, in part, by the National Science Foundation
(grants MDR-8953367, USE-9156105, DUE-9554843, DUE-9972420,
DUE-0320608, DUE-0237132, and DUE-0618504). We are grateful to
the National Science Foundation and its reviewers for their long-term support
of this challenging project. Opinions expressed are those of the authors, and
not necessarily those of the Foundation.

How the Figures Were Made

Almost all of the figures in this book were produced by us (for the third
edition the Aptara studio created the figures that show human figures, and the
studio added full color to our two-color versions from the second edition). Our
main tool was Adobe Illustrator. The many 3D computer-generated images
were made using VPython, with optional processing in POV-Ray using a
module written by Ruth Chabay to generate a POV-Ray scene description file
corresponding to a VPython scene, followed by editing in Adobe Photoshop
before exporting to Illustrator. We used TeXstudio for editing LaTeX, with a
package due in part to the work of Aptara. All the computer work was done
on Windows computers.

Ruth Chabay and Bruce Sherwood

Santa Fe, New Mexico, July 2014

Biographical Background
Ruth Chabay earned a Ph.D in physical chemistry from the University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; her undergraduate degree was in chemistry
from the University of Chicago. She is Professor Emerita in the Department
of Physics at North Carolina State University and was Weston Visiting
Professor, Department of Science Teaching, at the Weizmann Institute of
Science in Rehovot, Israel. She has also taught at the University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign and Carnegie Mellon University. She is a Fellow of the
American Physical Society.
Bruce Sherwood’s Ph.D is in experimental particle physics from the
University of Chicago; his undergraduate degree was in engineering science
from Purdue University, after which he studied physics for one year at the
University of Padua, Italy. He is Professor Emeritus in the Department of
Physics at North Carolina State University. He has also taught at Caltech, the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and Carnegie Mellon University.
He is a Fellow of the American Physical Society and of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science.
Chabay and Sherwood have been joint recipients of several educational
awards. At Carnegie Mellon University they received the Ashkin Award for
Teaching in the Mellon College of Science in 1999 and the Teaching Award of
the National Society of Collegiate Scholars in 2001. At North Carolina State
University they received the Margaret Cox Award for excellence in teaching
and learning with technology in 2005. In 2014 the American Association of
Physics Teachers presented them with the David Halliday and Robert Resnick
Award for Excellence in Undergraduate Physics Teaching.
Chabay c01.tex 7/11/2014 15: 23 Page 1

CHAPTER

1
y

〈0, 1, 0〉

〈1, 0, 0〉
〈0, 0, 1〉
Interactions and x

z
Motion
This textbook deals with the nature of matter and its interactions. The main
goal of this textbook is to have you engage in a process central to science:
constructing and applying physical models based on a small set of powerful
fundamental physical principles and the atomic structure of matter. The variety
of phenomena that we will be able to model, explain, and predict is very wide,
including the orbit of stars around a black hole, nuclear fusion, the formation
of sparks in air, and the speed of sound in a solid. This first chapter deals with
the physical idea of interactions.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter you should be able to
Deduce from observations of an object’s motion whether or not it has
interacted with its surroundings.
Mathematically describe position and motion in three dimensions.
Mathematically describe momentum and change of momentum in three
dimensions.
Read and modify a simple computational model of motion at constant
velocity.

1.1 KINDS OF MATTER

We will deal with material objects of many sizes, from subatomic particles to
galaxies. All of these objects have certain things in common.

Atoms and Nuclei

Ordinary matter is made up of tiny atoms. An atom isn’t the smallest type
of matter, for it is composed of even smaller objects (electrons, protons, and
neutrons), but many of the ordinary everyday properties of ordinary matter can
be understood in terms of atomic properties and interactions. As you probably
know from studying chemistry, atoms have a very small, very dense core, called
the nucleus, around which is found a cloud of electrons. The nucleus contains
protons and neutrons, collectively called nucleons. Electrons are kept close to
the nucleus by electric attraction to the protons (the neutrons hardly interact
with the electrons).
QUESTION Recall your previous studies of chemistry. How many
protons and electrons are there in a hydrogen atom? In a helium or
carbon atom?
1
Chabay c01.tex 7/11/2014 15: 23 Page 2

2 Chapter 1 Interactions and Motion

When you encounter a question in the text, you should think for a
moment before reading on. Active reading contributes to significantly greater
Hydrogen
understanding. In the case of the questions posed above, if you don’t remember
1 electron
the properties of these atoms, it may help to refer to the periodic table on the
1 × 10 –10 m inside front cover of this textbook.
Hydrogen is the simplest atom, with just one proton and one electron.
A helium atom has two protons and two electrons. A carbon atom has six
Carbon protons and six electrons. Near the other end of the chemical periodic table,
6 electrons a uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons. Figure 1.1 shows the relative
sizes of the electron clouds in atoms of several elements but cannot show the
nucleus to the same scale; the tiny dot marking the nucleus in the figure is much
larger than the actual nucleus.
The radius of the electron cloud for a typical atom is about 1 × 10−10 meter.
Iron The reason for this size can be understood using the principles of quantum
26 electrons mechanics, a major development in physics in the early 20th century. The radius
of a proton is about 1 × 10−15 meter, very much smaller than the radius of the
electron cloud.
Nuclei contain neutrons as well as protons (Figure 1.2). The most common
form or “isotope” of hydrogen has no neutrons in the nucleus. However, there
exist isotopes of hydrogen with one or two neutrons in the nucleus (in addition
Uranium to the proton). Hydrogen atoms containing one or two neutrons are called
92 electrons deuterium or tritium. The most common isotope of helium has two neutrons
(and two protons) in its nucleus, but a rare isotope has only one neutron; this
is called helium-3.
The most common isotope of carbon has six neutrons together with the six
protons in the nucleus (carbon-12), whereas carbon-14 with eight neutrons is
Figure 1.1 Atoms of hydrogen, carbon,
iron, and uranium. The gray blur represents
an isotope that plays an important role in dating archaeological objects.
the electron cloud surrounding the nucleus. Near the other end of the periodic table, uranium-235, which can undergo
The black dot shows the location of the a fission chain reaction, has 92 protons and 143 neutrons, whereas uranium-238,
nucleus. On this scale, however, the which does not undergo a fission chain reaction, has 92 protons and 146
nucleus would be much too small to see. neutrons.

Hydrogen nucleus Molecules and Solids

1 proton
When atoms come in contact with each other, they may stick to each
1 × 10 –15 m other (“bond” to each other). Several atoms bonded together can form a
Deuterium nucleus molecule—a substance whose physical and chemical properties differ from
1 proton + 1 neutron those of the constituent atoms. For example, water molecules (H2 O) have
properties quite different from the properties of hydrogen atoms or oxygen
Tritium nucleus atoms.
1 proton + 2 neutrons An ordinary-sized rigid object made of bound-together atoms and big
enough to see and handle is called a solid, such as a bar of aluminum. A new
Helium-3 nucleus
2 protons + 1 neutron kind of microscope, the scanning tunneling microscope (STM), is able to map
the locations of atoms on the surface of a solid, which has provided new
techniques for investigating matter at the atomic level. Two such images appear
Helium-4 nucleus
2 protons + 2 neutrons
in Figure 1.3. You can see that atoms in a crystalline solid are arranged in
a regular three-dimensional array. The arrangement of atoms on the surface
depends on the direction along which the crystal is cut. The irregularities
Carbon nucleus in the bottom image reflect “defects,” such as missing atoms, in the crystal
6 protons + 6 neutrons structure.

Figure 1.2 Nuclei of hydrogen, helium,

Liquids and Gases
and carbon. Note the very much smaller
scale than in Figure 1.1! When a solid is heated to a higher temperature, the atoms in the solid vibrate
more vigorously about their normal positions. If the temperature is raised
high enough, this thermal agitation may destroy the rigid structure of the
Chabay c01.tex 7/11/2014 15: 23 Page 3

1.1 Kinds of Matter 3

solid. The atoms may become able to slide over each other, in which case the
substance is a liquid.
At even higher temperatures the thermal motion of the atoms or
molecules may be so large as to break the interatomic or intermolecular bonds
completely, and the liquid turns into a gas. In a gas the atoms or molecules are
quite free to move around, only occasionally colliding with each other or the
walls of their container.
We will learn how to analyze many aspects of the behavior of solids and
gases. We won’t have much to say about liquids, because their properties are
much harder to analyze. Solids are simpler to analyze than liquids because
the atoms stay in one place (though with thermal vibration about their usual
positions). Gases are simpler to analyze than liquids because between collisions
the gas molecules are approximately unaffected by the other molecules.
Liquids are the awkward intermediate state, where the atoms move around
rather freely but are always in contact with other atoms. This makes the analysis
of liquids very complex.

Planets, Stars, Solar Systems, and Galaxies

In our brief survey of the kinds of matter that we will study, we make a giant
leap in scale from atoms all the way up to planets and stars, such as our
Earth and Sun. We will see that many of the same principles that apply to
atoms apply to planets and stars. By making this leap we bypass an important
physical science, geology, whose domain of interest includes the formation of
Figure 1.3 Two different surfaces of a mountains and continents. We will study objects that are much bigger than
crystal of pure silicon. The images were mountains, and we will study objects that are much smaller than mountains, but
made with a scanning tunneling we don’t have time to apply the principles of physics to every important kind of
microscope. (Images courtesy of Randall
matter.
Feenstra, IBM Corp.)
Our Sun and its accompanying planets constitute our Solar System. It is
located in the Milky Way galaxy, a giant rotating disk-shaped system of stars.
On a clear dark night you can see a band of light (the Milky Way) coming from
the huge number of stars lying in this disk, which you are looking at from a
position in the disk, about two-thirds of the way out from the center of the disk.
Our galaxy is a member of a cluster of galaxies that move around each other
much as the planets of our Solar System move around the Sun (Figure 1.4). The
Universe contains many such clusters of galaxies.

Point Particles
Cluster It is common in physics to talk about the motion of a “point particle.” What
of galaxies
we mean by a particle is an object whose size, shape, and internal structure
are not important to us in the current context, and which we can consider
to be located at a single point in space. In modeling the motion of a real
object (whether it is a galaxy or a proton), we often choose to make the
simplifying assumption that it is a point particle, as if Superman or a giant space
alien had come along and squeezed the object until it was compressed into
a very tiny, structureless microscopic speck with the full mass of the original
Galaxy
object.
Of course, there are many situations in which it would be absurd to use
The planet
this approximation. The Earth, for example, is a large, complex object, with a
Jupiter in our
Solar System core of turbulent molten rock, huge moving continents, and massive sloshing
oceans. Radioactivity keeps its core hot; electromagnetic radiation from the
Sun warms its surface; and thermal energy is also radiated away into space.
Figure 1.4 Our Solar System exists inside If we are interested in energy flows or continental motion or earthquakes we
a galaxy, which itself is a member of need to consider the detailed structure and composition of the Earth. However,
a cluster of galaxies. (Photos courtesy if what we want to do is model the motion of the Earth as it interacts with other
NASA/JPL-Caltech) objects in our Solar System, it works quite well to ignore this complexity, and to
Chabay c01.tex 7/11/2014 15: 23 Page 4

4 Chapter 1 Interactions and Motion

treat the Earth, the Sun, the Moon, and the other planets as if they were point
particles.
Even most very tiny objects, such as atoms, protons, and neutrons, are not
truly point particles—they do have finite size, and they have internal structure,
which can influence their interactions with other objects. By contrast, electrons
may really be point particles—they appear to have no internal structure, and
attempts to measure the radius of an electron have not produced a definite
number (recent experiments indicate only that the radius of an electron is less
than 2 × 10−20 m, much smaller than a proton).
As we consider various aspects of matter and its interactions, it will be
important for us to state explicitly whether or not we are modeling material
objects as point particles, or as extended and perhaps deformable macroscopic
chunks of matter. In Chapters 1–3 we will emphasize systems that can usefully
be modeled as particles. In Chapter 4 we will begin to consider the detailed
internal structure of material objects.

1.2 DETECTING INTERACTIONS

Objects made of different kinds of matter interact with each other in
various ways: gravitationally, electrically, magnetically, and through nuclear
interactions. How can we detect that an interaction has occurred? In this
section we consider various kinds of observations that indicate the presence
+
+

of interactions.
+

QUESTION Before you read further, take a moment to think about

+

your own ideas of interactions. How can you tell that two objects
+
+

are interacting with each other?

+
+

Change of Direction of Motion

+
+

Suppose that you observe a proton moving through a region of outer space,
Figure 1.5 A proton moves through space,
far from almost all other objects. The far from almost all other objects. The proton moves along a path like the one
initial direction of the proton’s motion is shown in Figure 1.5. The arrow indicates the initial direction of the proton’s
upward, as indicated by the arrow. The ×’s motion, and the ×’s in the diagram indicate the position of the proton at equal
represent the position of the proton at time intervals.
equal time intervals. QUESTION Do you see evidence in Figure 1.5 that the proton is
interacting with another object?
Evidently a change in direction is a vivid indicator of interactions. If you
observe a change in direction of the motion of a proton, you will find another
+
object somewhere that has interacted with this proton.
+ QUESTION Suppose that the only other object nearby was another
proton. What was the approximate initial location of this second
+
proton?
+ Since two protons repel each other electrically, the second proton must have
+ been located to the right of the bend in the first proton’s path.
+
+
+ Change of Speed
+

Suppose that you observe an electron traveling in a straight line through outer
Figure 1.6 An electron moves through
space, far from almost all other objects. space far from almost all other objects (Figure 1.6). The path of the electron is
The initial direction of the electron’s shown as though a camera had taken multiple exposures at equal time intervals.
motion is upward and to the left, as QUESTION Where is the electron’s speed largest? Where is the
indicated by the arrow. The ×’s represent electron’s speed smallest?
the position of the electron at equal time
intervals. The speed is largest at the upper left, where the ×’s are farther apart, which
means that the electron has moved farthest during the time interval between
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1.2 Detecting Interactions 5

exposures. The speed is smallest at the bottom right, where the ×’s are closer
together, which means that the electron has moved the least distance during
the time interval between exposures.
QUESTION Suppose that the only other object nearby was another
electron. What was the approximate initial location of this other
electron?
The other electron must have been located directly just below and to the right
of the starting location, since electrons repel each other electrically.
Evidently a change in speed is an indicator of interactions. If you observe
a change in speed of an electron, you will find another object somewhere that
has interacted with the electron.

Velocity Includes Both Speed and Direction

In physics, the word “velocity” has a special technical meaning that is different
from its meaning in everyday speech. In physics, the quantity called “velocity”
denotes a combination of speed and direction. Even if the speed or direction
of motion is changing, the velocity has a precise value (speed and direction) at
any instant. In contrast, in everyday speech, “speed” and “velocity” are often
used as synonyms. In physics and other sciences, however, words have rather
precise meanings and there are few synonyms.
For example, consider an airplane that at a particular moment is flying
with a speed of 1000 kilometers/hour in a direction that is due east. We say
the velocity is 1000 km/h, east, where we specify both speed and direction. An
airplane flying west with a speed of 1000 km/h would have the same speed but
1 2 a different velocity.
Figure 1.7 Two successive positions of a We have seen that a change in an object’s speed, or a change in the
particle (indicated by a dot), with arrows direction of its motion, indicates that the object has interacted with at least one
indicating the velocity of the particle at other object. The two indicators of interaction, change of speed and change of
each location. The shorter arrow indicates direction, can be combined into one compact statement:
that the speed of the particle at location 2 A change of velocity (speed or direction or both) indicates the
is less than its speed at location 1.
existence of an interaction.
In physics diagrams, the velocity of an object is represented by an arrow: a line
with an arrowhead. The tail of the arrow is placed at the location of the object
at a particular instant, and the arrow points in the direction of the motion of
the object at that instant. The length of the arrow is proportional to the speed
of the object. Figure 1.7 shows two successive positions of a particle at two
3 different times, with velocity arrows indicating a change in speed of the particle
2
(it’s slowing down). Figure 1.8 shows three successive positions of a different
particle at three different times, with velocity arrows indicating a change in
1 direction but no change in speed. Note that the arrows themselves are straight;
even if the path of the particle curves over time, at any instant the particle may
Figure 1.8 Three successive positions of a
be considered to be traveling in a specific direction.
particle (indicated by a dot), with arrows
indicating the velocity of the particle at
We will see a little later that velocity is only one example of a physical
each location. The arrows are the same quantity that has a “magnitude” (an amount or a size) and a direction. Other
length, indicating the same speed, but they examples of such quantities are position relative to an origin in 3D space,
point in different directions, indicating a changes in position or velocity, and force. In Section 1.4 we will see how to
change in direction and therefore a change represent such quantities as vectors: single mathematical entities that combine
in velocity. information about magnitude and direction.

Uniform Motion
Suppose that you observe a rock moving along in outer space far from all other
objects. We don’t know what made it start moving in the first place; presumably
a long time ago an interaction gave it some velocity and it has been coasting
through the vacuum of space ever since.
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6 Chapter 1 Interactions and Motion

It is an observational fact that such an isolated object moves at constant,

unchanging speed, in a straight line. Its velocity does not change (neither
its direction nor its speed changes). We call motion with unchanging
velocity “uniform motion” (Figure 1.9). Other terms for uniform motion
include “uniform velocity” and “constant velocity,” since velocity refers to both
speed and direction.
QUESTION Is an object at rest in uniform motion?
If an object remains at rest, then neither the speed nor direction of the object’s
velocity changes. This is a special case of uniform motion: the object’s speed
is constant (zero is a valid value of speed) and the direction of motion, while
undefined, is not changing.
QUESTION If we observe an object in uniform motion, can we
conclude that it has no interactions with its surroundings?
When we observe an object in uniform motion, one possibility is that it has no
interactions at all with its surroundings. However, there is another possibility:
the object may be experiencing multiple interactions that cancel each other out.
In either case, we can correctly deduce that the “net” (total) interaction of the
object with its surroundings is zero.

Checkpoint 1 (a) Which of the following do you see moving with constant
velocity? (1) A ship sailing northeast at a speed of 5 meters per second
(2) The Moon orbiting the Earth (3) A tennis ball traveling across the court
after having been hit by a tennis racket (4) A can of soda sitting on a table
Figure 1.9 “Uniform motion”—no change (5) A person riding on a Ferris wheel that is turning at a constant rate.
in speed or direction. (b) In which of the following situations is there observational evidence for
significant interaction between two objects? How can you tell? (1) A ball
bounces off a wall with no change in speed. (2) A baseball that was hit by
a batter flies toward the outfield. (3) A communications satellite orbits the
Earth. (4) A space probe travels at constant speed toward a distant star.
(5) A charged particle leaves a curving track in a particle detector.

1.3 NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION

The basic relationship between change of velocity and interaction is
summarized qualitatively by what is known as Newton’s “first law of
motion,” though it was originally discovered by Galileo. In his original Latin,
Newton said, “Corpus omne perseverare in statu suo quiescendi vel movendi
uniformiter in directum, nisi quatenus a viribus impressis cogitur statum illum
mutare.” A literal translation is “Every body persists in its state of resting or
of moving uniformly in a direction, except to the extent that it is compelled to
change that state by forces pressed upon it.” Expressing this in more modern
language, we have this:
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
Every body persists in its state of rest or of moving with constant speed
in a constant direction, except to the extent that it is compelled to change
that state by forces acting on it.

“Force” is the way in which the amount of interaction is quantified, and we’ll
discuss force in detail in Chapter 2. The words “except to the extent” imply
that the stronger the interaction, the more change there will be in direction
and/or speed. The weaker the interaction, the less change. If there is no net
(total) interaction at all, the object’s motion will be uniform (constant speed
and direction); this could happen either because there are no interactions or
because there are interactions that cancel each other, such as equally strong
pushes to the left and right. It is important to remember that if an object is not
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1.3 Newton’s First Law of Motion 7

moving at all, its velocity is not changing, so it too may be considered to be in

uniform motion.
Newton’s first law of motion is only qualitative, because it doesn’t give
us a way to calculate quantitatively how much change in speed or direction
will be produced by a certain amount of interaction, a subject we will take up
in the next chapter. Nevertheless, Newton’s first law of motion is important in
providing a conceptual framework for thinking about the relationship between
interaction and motion.
This law represented a major break with ancient tradition, which assumed
that constant pushing was required to keep something moving. This law
says something radically different: no interactions at all are needed to keep
something moving!
QUESTION To move a box across a table at constant speed in
a straight line, you must keep pushing it. Does this contradict
Newton’s first law?
Since a constant interaction is required to keep the box moving, we might be
tempted to conclude that Newton’s first law of motion does not apply in many
everyday situations. However, what matters is the net interaction of the box
with its surroundings, which could be zero if there are multiple interactions
that cancel each other out.
Motion of box
QUESTION In addition to your hand, what other objects in the
Push by table surroundings interact with the box?
The table also interacts with the box, in a way that we call friction. If you push
Push by hand just hard enough to compensate exactly for the table friction, the sum of all
the interactions is zero, and the box moves at constant speed as predicted by
Newton’s first law (Figure 1.10). (If you push harder than the table does, the
box’s speed steadily increases.)
Figure 1.10 The red arrows represent the It is difficult to observe motion without friction in everyday life, because
magnitude and direction of the pushes the objects almost always interact with many other objects, including air, flat
box gets from your hand and from the surfaces, and so on. You may be able to think of situations in which you have
friction with the table. If these pushes add seen an object keep moving at constant (or nearly constant) velocity, without
up to zero, the box moves with constant being pushed or pulled. One example of a nearly friction-free situation is a
speed in a straight line, indicated by the hockey puck sliding on ice. The puck slides a long way at nearly constant speed
green arrow. in a straight line (constant velocity) because there is little friction with the ice.
An even better example is the uniform motion of an object in outer space, far
from all other objects.
QUESTION Is a change of position an indicator of an interaction?
Not necessarily. If the change of position occurs simply because a particle is
moving at constant speed and direction, then a mere change of position is not
an indicator of an interaction, since uniform motion is an indicator of zero net
interaction. We need to know the object’s velocity at each observation to be
able to make further deductions.
QUESTION If you observe an object at rest in one location, and
later you observe it again at rest but in a different location, can
you conclude that an interaction took place?
Yes. You can infer that there must have been an interaction to give the
object some velocity to move the object toward the new position, and another
interaction to slow the object to a stop in its new position.
QUESTION Is it possible to deduce the existence of an interaction
even though you do not observe a change?
As we saw when we considered pushing a box across a table at constant
speed, sometimes we may find indirect evidence for an additional interaction.
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8 Chapter 1 Interactions and Motion

When something doesn’t change although we would normally expect a change

due to a known interaction, we can logically deduce that an additional
interaction must be occurring. For example, consider a helium-filled balloon
that hovers motionless in the air despite the downward gravitational pull of the
Earth. Evidently there is some additional kind of interaction that opposes
the gravitational interaction. In this case, interactions with air molecules
have the net effect of pushing up on the balloon (“buoyancy”). The lack of
change implies that the effect of the air molecules exactly compensates for the
gravitational interaction with the Earth.
The stability of the nucleus of an atom is another example of indirect
evidence for an additional interaction. The nucleus contains positively charged
protons that repel each other electrically, yet the nucleus remains intact.
We conclude that there must be some other kind of interaction present, a
nonelectric attractive interaction that overcomes the electric repulsion. This
is evidence for a nonelectric interaction called the “strong interaction,” which
as we will see acts among protons and neutrons to hold the nucleus together.
We will discuss the strong interaction in Chapter 3.

Other Indicators of Interaction

Change of velocity is not the only indication that an object has interacted with
its surroundings, but it is the only change possible for a single object that is
modeled as a point particle, which has neither shape nor internal structure.
In later chapters we will examine other kinds of changes, such as change of
temperature, change of shape or configuration, and change of identity (for
example, in nuclear reactions). In Chapters 1–3, however, we will concentrate
on how interactions change motion.

Checkpoint 2 (a) Apply Newton’s first law to each of the following

situations. In which situations can you conclude that the object is
undergoing a net interaction with one or more other objects? (1) A
book slides across the table and comes to a stop. (2) A proton in a
particle accelerator moves faster and faster. (3) A car travels at constant
speed around a circular race track. (4) A spacecraft travels at a
constant speed toward a distant star. (5) A hydrogen atom remains at
rest in outer space. (b) A spaceship far from all other objects uses its
rockets to attain a speed of 1 × 104 m/s. The crew then shuts off the power.
According to Newton’s first law, which of the following statements about
the motion of the spaceship after the power is shut off are correct? (Choose
all statements that are correct.) (1) The spaceship will move in a straight
line. (2) The spaceship will travel on a curving path. (3) The spaceship will
enter a circular orbit. (4) The speed of the spaceship will not change. (5) The
spaceship will gradually slow down. (6) The spaceship will stop suddenly.

1.4 DESCRIBING THE 3D WORLD: VECTORS

Physical phenomena take place in the 3D world around us. In order to be able
to make quantitative predictions and give detailed, quantitative explanations,
we need tools for describing precisely the positions and velocities of objects in
3D, and the changes in position and velocity due to interactions. These tools
are mathematical entities called 3D “vectors.” A symbol denoting a vector is
written with an arrow over it:
⃗r is a vector
In three dimensions a vector is a triple of numbers ⟨x, y, z⟩. Quantities like the
position or velocity of an object can be represented as vectors:
⃗r1 = ⟨3.2, −9.2, 66.3⟩ m (a position vector)
⃗v1 = ⟨−22.3, 0.4, −19.5⟩ m/s (a velocity vector)
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1.4 Describing the 3D World: Vectors 9

Many vectors have units associated with them, such as meters or meters per
second. In this course, we will work with the following important physical
quantities that are vectors: position, velocity, rate of change of velocity
(acceleration), momentum, rate of change of momentum, force, angular
y
momentum, torque, electric field, magnetic field, energy flow, and momentum
flow. All of these vectors have associated physical units.
We use the notation ⟨x, y, z⟩ for vectors because it emphasizes the fact that
a vector is a single entity, and because it is easy to work with. This notation
appears in many calculus textbooks; you will probably encounter other ways
x of expressing vectors mathematically as well.

z Position Vectors
Figure 1.11 Right-handed 3D coordinate A position vector is a simple example of a physical vector quantity. We will use
system. The xy plane is in the plane of a 3D Cartesian coordinate system to specify positions in space and other vector
the page, and the z axis projects out of quantities. Usually we will orient the axes of the coordinate system as shown
the page, toward you. in Figure 1.11: +x axis to the right, +y axis upward, and +z axis coming out of
the page, toward you. This is a “right-handed” coordinate system: if you hold
the thumb, first, and second fingers of your right hand perpendicular to each
other, and align your thumb with the x axis and your first finger with the y axis,
your second finger points along the z axis. In some math textbook discussions
of 3D coordinate systems, the x axis points out, the y axis points to the right, and
the z axis points up. This is the same right-handed coordinate system, viewed
y from a different “camera position.” Since we will sometimes consider motion
in a single plane, it makes sense to orient the xy plane in the plane of a vertical
page or computer display, so we will use the viewpoint in which the y axis
points up.
A position in 3D space can be considered to be a vector, called a position
ry = 3 m r
vector, pointing from an origin to that location. Figure 1.12 shows a position
rx = 4 m x vector, represented by an arrow with its tail at the origin, that might represent
your final position if you started at the origin and walked 4 meters along the
rz = 2 m
x axis, then 2 meters parallel to the z axis, then climbed a ladder so you were
3 meters above the ground. Your new position relative to the origin is a vector
z that can be written like this:
Figure 1.12 A position vector
⃗r = ⟨4, 3, 2⟩ m and its x, y, and z ⃗r = ⟨4, 3, 2⟩ m
components.
Each of the numbers in the triple is called a “component” of the vector, and
is associated with a particular axis. Usually the components of a vector are
denoted symbolically by the subscripts x, y, and z:

⃗v = ⟨vx , vy , vz ⟩ (a velocity vector)

⃗r = ⟨rx , ry , rz ⟩ (a position vector)
⃗r = ⟨x, y, z⟩ (alternative notation for a position vector)

The components of the position vector ⃗r = ⟨4, 3, 2⟩ m are:

rx = 4 m (the x component)
ry = 3 m (the y component)
rz = 2 m (the z component)

The x component of the vector ⃗v is the number vx . The z component of the

vector ⃗v1 = ⟨−22.3, 0.4, −19.5⟩ m/s is −19.5 m/s. A component such as vx is not
a vector, since it is only one number.

QUESTION Can a vector be zero?

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10 Chapter 1 Interactions and Motion

The zero vector ⟨0, 0, 0⟩ is a legal vector, which we will sometimes write as ⃗0.
A zero position vector describes the position of an object located at the
origin. A zero velocity vector describes the velocity of an object that is at rest
y at a particular instant.

Drawing Vectors
A position vector is special in that its tail is always at the origin of a coordinate
system, but this is not the case for other vectors. It is important to note that
b the x component of a vector specifies the difference between the x coordinate
x of the tail of the vector and the x coordinate of the tip of the vector. It does
ry = 3 m not give any information about the location of the tail of the vector (compare
Figures 1.12 and 1.13). By convention, arrows representing vector quantities
rx = 4 m
z rz = 2 m such as velocity are usually drawn with the tail of the arrow at the location of
the object.
Figure 1.13 The arrow represents the In Figure 1.12 we represented your position vector relative to the origin
vector ⃗b = ⟨4, 3, 2⟩ m, drawn with its tail graphically by an arrow whose tail is at the origin and whose arrowhead is at
at location ⟨0, 0, 2⟩. your position. The length of the arrow represents the distance from the origin,
and the direction of the arrow represents the direction of the vector, which
is the direction of a direct path from the initial position to the final position
(the “displacement”; by walking and climbing you “displaced” yourself from
y
the origin to your final position).
Since it is difficult to draw a 3D diagram on paper, when working on paper
you will usually be asked to draw vectors that all lie in a single plane. Figure 1.14
x shows an arrow in the xy plane representing the vector ⟨−3, −1, 0⟩.

Scalars
Figure 1.14 The position vector A quantity that is represented by a single number is called a scalar. A scalar
⟨−3, −1, 0⟩, drawn at the origin, in the quantity does not have a direction. Examples include the mass of an object,
xy plane. The components of the vector such as 50 kg, or the temperature, such as −20 ◦ C. Vectors and scalars are very
specify the displacement from the tail to different entities; a vector can never be equal to a scalar, and a scalar cannot
the tip. The z axis, which is not shown,
be added to a vector. Scalars can be positive, negative, or zero:
comes out of the page, toward you.
m = 50 kg
T = −20 ◦ C

Vector Operations
Vectors are mathematical entities, and have their own mathematical
operations. Some of these operations are the same as those you already know
for scalars. Others, such as multiplication, are quite different, and division by a
vector is not legal. Here are the vector operations that we will discuss and use
in this textbook:

VECTOR OPERATIONS
Mathematical operations that are defined for vectors:
Multiply or divide a vector by a scalar: 2⃗a, ⃗v/5
Find the magnitude of a vector: |⃗a |
Find a unit vector giving direction: â
Add one vector to another: ⃗a + ⃗b
Subtract one vector from another: ⃗a − ⃗b
Differentiate a vector: d⃗r/dt
Dot product of two vectors (result is a scalar): ⃗a • ⃗b
Cross product of two vectors (result is a vector): ⃗a × ⃗b
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1.4 Describing the 3D World: Vectors 11

The dot product will be introduced in Chapter 5, and the cross product in
3p Chapter 11.
There are certain operations that are neither legal nor meaningful for
vectors:
2p
A vector cannot be set equal to a scalar.
A vector cannot be added to or subtracted from a scalar.
A vector cannot occur in the denominator of an expression. (Although you
p can’t divide by a vector, note that you can legally divide by the magnitude of
a vector, which is a scalar.)
1 As with scalars, you can’t add or subtract vectors that have different units.
2p

–p Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar

A vector can be multiplied (or divided) by a scalar. If a vector is multiplied by
a scalar, each of the components of the vector is multiplied by the scalar:
– 2p
If ⃗r = ⟨x, y, z⟩, then a⃗r = ⟨ax, ay, az⟩

– 3p ⃗v ⟨ vx vy vz ⟩
If ⃗v = ⟨vx , vy , vz ⟩, then = , ,
b b b b
Figure 1.15 Multiplying a vector by a
scalar changes the magnitude of the vector. 1
Multiplying by a negative scalar reverses
⟨6, −20, 9⟩ = ⟨3, −10, 4.5⟩
2
the direction of the vector.
Multiplication by a scalar “scales” a vector, keeping its direction the same but
making its magnitude larger or smaller (Figure 1.15). Multiplying by a negative
y scalar reverses the direction of a vector.

(−1)⟨0, 0, 4⟩ = ⟨0, 0, −4⟩

ry = 3 m r Checkpoint 3 You stand at location ⃗r = ⟨2, −3, 5⟩ m. Your friend stands at

location ⃗r/2. What is your friend’s position vector?
rx = 4 m x
rz = 2 m
Magnitude
z Figure 1.16 shows a vector representing a displacement of ⟨4, 3, 2⟩ m from the
origin. What is the distance from the tip of this vector to the origin? Using a
Figure 1.16 A vector representing a
3D extension of the Pythagorean theorem for right triangles (Figure 1.17), we
displacement from the origin.
find that
√ √
(4 m)2 + (3 m)2 + (2 m)2 = 29 m = 5.39 m

We say that the magnitude |⃗r | of the position vector ⃗r is

√(x2 + z2) + y2 |⃗r | = 5.39 m
y
The magnitude of a vector is written either with absolute-value bars around the
vector as |⃗r |, or simply by writing the symbol for the vector without the little
arrow above it, r.
z
√(x2 + z2)
MAGNITUDE OF A VECTOR
x √
Figure 1.17 The magnitude of a vector is If the vector ⃗r = ⟨rx , ry , rz ⟩ then |⃗r | = r2x + r2y + r2z (a scalar).
the square root of the sum of the squares
of its components (3D version of the The magnitude of a vector is always a positive number. The magnitude
Pythagorean theorem). of a vector is a single number, not a triple of numbers, and it is a scalar,
not a vector.
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12 Chapter 1 Interactions and Motion

You may wonder how to find the magnitude of a quantity like −3⃗r, which
involves the product of a scalar and a vector. This expression can be factored:

|−3⃗r | = |−3| · |⃗r |

The magnitude of a scalar is its absolute value, so:

√
|−3⃗r | = |−3| · |⃗r | = 3 r2x + r2y + r2z

1
Checkpoint 4 If ⃗v = ⟨2, −3, 5⟩ m/s, what is − ⃗v ?
2

Unit Vectors
One way to describe the direction of a vector is by specifying a unit vector.
A unit vector is a vector of magnitude 1, pointing in some direction. A unit
vector is written with a “hat” (caret) over it instead of an arrow. The unit vector
â is called “a-hat.”
QUESTION Is the vector ⟨1, 1, 1⟩ a unit vector?
√
⟨1, 1, 1⟩√is 1√
The magnitude of √ 2 + 12 + 12 = 1.73, so this is not a unit vector.

The vector ⟨1/ 3, 1/ 3, 1/ 3⟩ is a unit vector, since its magnitude is 1:

√
y ( )2 ( )2 ( )2
1 1 1
√ + √ + √ =1
3 3 3
Note that every component of a unit vector must be less than or equal to 1.
In our 3D Cartesian coordinate system, there are three special unit vectors,
oriented along the three axes. They are called i-hat, j-hat, and k-hat, and they
point along the x, y, and z axes, respectively (Figure 1.18):

k î = ⟨1, 0, 0⟩
x ȷ̂ = ⟨0, 1, 0⟩
k̂ = ⟨0, 0, 1⟩
z
One way to express a vector is in terms of these special unit vectors:
Figure 1.18 The unit vectors î, ȷ̂, k̂.
⟨0.02, −1.7, 30.0⟩ = 0.02î + (−1.7)ȷ̂ + 30.0k̂

Not all unit vectors point along an axis, as shown in Figure 1.19. For example,
the vectors
v = 〈1.5, 1.5, 0〉 m/s
ĝ = ⟨0.5774, 0.5774, 0.5774⟩ and r̂ = ⟨0.424, 0.566, 0.707⟩

are both approximately unit vectors, since the magnitude of each

is approximately equal to 1. Again, note that every component of a unit
vector is less than or equal to 1.
Any vector may be factored into the product of a unit vector in the
v = 〈 2 , 2 , 0〉
√ √
2 2
direction of the vector, multiplied by a scalar equal to the magnitude of
the vector.
Figure 1.19 The unit vector v̂ has the same ⃗ = |⃗
w w| · ŵ
direction as the vector ⃗v, but its magnitude
is 1, and it has no physical units. For example, a vector of magnitude 5, aligned with the y axis, could be
written as:
⟨0, 5, 0⟩ = 5⟨0, 1, 0⟩

Therefore, to find a unit vector in the direction of a particular vector, we just

divide the vector by its magnitude:
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1.4 Describing the 3D World: Vectors 13

FINDING A UNIT VECTOR

⃗r ⟨x, y, z⟩
r̂ = =√
⟨ |⃗r | (x2 + y2 + z2 ) ⟩
x y z
r̂ = √ ,√ ,√
(x2 + y2 + z2 ) (x2 + y2 + z2 ) (x2 + y2 + z2 )

EXAMPLE Magnitude and Direction

Factor the vector ⃗v = ⟨−22.3, 0.4, −19.5⟩ m/s into a magnitude times a unit
vector.
√
Solution |⃗v| = (−22.3)2 + (0.4)2 + (−19.5)2 m/s = 29.6 m/s
⃗v ⟨−22.3, 0.4, −19.5⟩ m/s
v̂ = = = ⟨−0.753, 0.0135, −0.658⟩
|⃗v| 29.6 m/s
⃗v = (29.6 m/s)⟨−0.753, 0.0135, −0.658⟩

We can now explain algebraically why multiplying a vector by a scalar changes

the magnitude but not the direction of a vector. If we write the original vector
as the product of a magnitude and a unit vector, after multiplying by a scalar
the unit vector is unchanged, but the magnitude is increased or decreased:

⃗a = ⟨3, −2, 4⟩ = (5.385)⟨0.577, −0.371, 0.743⟩

2 ·⃗a = (2)(5.385)⟨0.577, −0.371, 0.743⟩
= 10.770⟨0.577, −0.371, 0.743⟩
= ⟨6, −4, 8⟩

EQUALITY OF VECTORS
A vector is equal to another vector if and only if all the components of
the vectors are equal.
⃗ =⃗r
w means that
wx = rx and wy = ry and wz = rz
r1 The magnitudes and directions of two equal vectors are the same:
|⃗
w| = |⃗r | and ŵ = r̂

r2 Checkpoint 5 (a) Consider the vectors ⃗r1 and ⃗r2 represented by arrows
in Figure 1.20. Are these two vectors equal?(b) If ⃗a = ⟨400, 200, −100⟩ m/s2 ,
Figure 1.20 Are these two vectors equal? and ⃗c = ⃗a, what is the unit vector ĉ in the direction of ⃗c ?
(Checkpoint 5)
Vector Addition and Subtraction
Vectors may be added, and one vector may be subtracted from another vector.
However, a scalar cannot be added to or subtracted from a vector.

ADDING AND SUBTRACTING VECTORS

The sum or difference of two vectors is another vector, obtained by
adding or subtracting the components of the vectors. Given two vectors
⃗ = ⟨Ax , Ay , Az ⟩ and B
A ⃗ = ⟨Bx , By , Bz ⟩, then
⃗ +B
A ⃗ = ⟨(Ax + Bx ), (Ay + By ), (Az + Bz )⟩
⟨1, 2, 3⟩ + ⟨−4, 5, 6⟩ = ⟨−3, 7, 9⟩
⃗ −B
A ⃗ = ⟨(Ax − Bx ), (Ay − By ), (Az − Bz )⟩
⟨1, 2, 3⟩ − ⟨−4, 5, 6⟩ = ⟨5, −3, −3⟩
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14 Chapter 1 Interactions and Motion

⃗ =A
If C ⃗ + B,
⃗ then C ⃗ −B ⃗ =A ⃗ and so on, just as in scalar addition and
y
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ + (−B),
subtraction. Note also that A − B = A ⃗ which is sometimes useful in the
context of graphical subtraction (see below).
B
QUESTION Is adding the magnitudes of two vectors equivalent to
adding two vectors, then taking the magnitude?
A
No. The magnitude of a vector is not in general equal to the sum of
x
the magnitudes of the two original vectors! For example, the magnitude
y of the vector ⟨3, 0, 0⟩ is 3, and the magnitude of the vector ⟨−2, 0, 0⟩ is 2, but
the magnitude of the vector (⟨3, 0, 0⟩ + ⟨−2, 0, 0⟩) is 1, not 5!

B
Checkpoint 6 If F ⃗ 1 = ⟨300, 0, −200⟩ and F ⃗ 2 = ⟨150, −300, 0⟩, calculate the
following quantities and make the requested comparisons: (a) F ⃗1 + F
⃗2
A ⃗1 + F⃗ 2 | (c) |F⃗ 1 | + |F⃗ 2 | (d) Is |F
⃗1 + F ⃗ 2 | = |F⃗ 1 | + |F
⃗ 2 |? (e) F
⃗1 − F
⃗2
(b) |F
x ⃗1 − F
(f) |F ⃗ 2 | (g) |F
⃗ 1 | − |F
⃗ 2 | (h) Is |F
⃗1 − F
⃗ 2 | = |F⃗ 1 | − |F
⃗ 2 |?
y
The sum of two vectors has a geometric interpretation. In Figure 1.21 you first
walk along displacement vector A, ⃗ followed by walking along displacement
By
A+B ⃗ ⃗ = A+
⃗ B?
⃗ The x component Cx
B vector B. What is your net displacement vector C
Ay
of your net displacement is the sum of Ax and Bx . Similarly, the y component
Cy of your net displacement is the sum of Ay and By .
A

x GRAPHICAL ADDITION OF VECTORS

Ax Bx
⃗ and B
To add two vectors A ⃗ graphically (Figure 1.21):
Figure 1.21 The procedure for adding two
vectors graphically: To add A⃗ +B ⃗ Draw the first vector A. ⃗
⃗
graphically, move B so the tail of B⃗ is at the Move the second vector B ⃗ (without rotating it) so its tail is located
⃗
tip of A, then draw a new arrow starting at at the tip of the first vector.
⃗ and ending at the tip of B.
the tail of A ⃗ Draw a new vector from the tail of vector A ⃗ to the tip of vector B. ⃗

GRAPHICAL SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS

A
⃗ graphically (Figure 1.22):
⃗ from another vector A
To subtract one vector B
A−B
Draw the first vector A. ⃗
B ⃗ (without rotating it) so its tail is located
Move the second vector B
Figure 1.22 The procedure for subtracting at the tail of the first vector.
vectors graphically: Draw vectors tail to Draw a new vector from the tip of vector B ⃗ to the tip of vector A. ⃗
tail; draw a new vector from the tip of the
second vector to the tip of the first vector.
Note that you can check this algebraically and graphically. As shown in
⃗ −B
Figure 1.22, since the tail of A ⃗ is located at the tip of B,
⃗ then the vector
a2 ⃗ should be the sum of B ⃗ and A⃗ − B,
⃗ as indeed it is:
A
a1 a2 + a1 ⃗ − B)
⃗ + (A
B ⃗
⃗ =A

a2 a1 Graphical addition and subtraction of collinear vectors would be messy and

difficult to interpret if we actually drew the arrows on top of each other. To
make diagrams easier to interpret, we typically offset arrows slightly so we can
a2 − a1 see the results (Figure 1.23).
Figure 1.23 To add (top diagram) and
subtract (bottom diagram) collinear
Checkpoint 7 Which of the following statements about the three vectors
vectors graphically, we offset the arrows
in Figure 1.24 are correct?
slightly for clarity.
(a) ⃗s = ⃗t −⃗r (b) ⃗r = ⃗t −⃗s (c) ⃗r +⃗t =⃗s (d) ⃗s +⃗t =⃗r (e) ⃗r +⃗s = ⃗t
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1.4 Describing the 3D World: Vectors 15

Commutativity and Associativity

r s
Vector addition is commutative:
⃗ +B
A ⃗ =B ⃗
⃗ +A
t
Vector subtraction is not commutative:
Figure 1.24 Checkpoint 7.
⃗ −B
A ⃗ =
/B ⃗
⃗ −A
The associative property holds for vector addition and subtraction:
⃗ + B)
(A ⃗ =A
⃗ −C ⃗ + (B ⃗
⃗ − C)

Applications of Vector Subtraction

Since we are interested in changes caused by interactions, we will frequently
need to calculate the change in a vector quantity. For example, we may want
to know the change in a moving object’s position or the change in its velocity
during some time interval. Finding such changes requires vector subtraction.
The Greek letter ∆ (capital delta suggesting “D for Difference”) is
traditionally used to denote the change in a quantity (either a scalar or a
vector). We use the subscript i to denote an initial value of a quantity, and the
subscript f to denote the final value of a quantity.

∆ (DELTA) IS THE SYMBOL FOR A CHANGE

The symbol ∆ (delta) means “final minus initial.” If a vector ⃗ri

denotes the initial position of an object relative to the origin (its position
at the beginning of a time interval), and⃗rf denotes the final position of the
object, then
6m ∆⃗r =⃗rf −⃗ri
∆⃗r means “change of ⃗r ” or ⃗rf −⃗ri (displacement).
4 ∆t means “change of t” or tf − ti (time interval).

2
r2 Since subtraction is not commutative, the order of the quantities matters: the
symbol ∆ (delta) always means “final minus initial,” not “initial minus final.”
0
r2 – r1 For example, when a child’s height changes from 1.1 m to 1.2 m, the change is
r1 ∆y = +0.1 m, a positive number. If your bank account dropped from $150 to
–2 $130, what was the change in your balance? ∆ (bank account) = −20 dollars.
Another important application of vector subtraction is the calculation
–4 of relative position vectors, vectors that represent the position of one
–4 –2 0 2 4 6m object relative to another object.
Figure 1.25 Relative position vector.
RELATIVE POSITION VECTOR
If object 1 is at location ⃗r1 and object 2 is at location ⃗r2 (Figure 1.25), the
position of 2 relative to 1 is:

String ⃗r2 relative to 1 =⃗r2 −⃗r1

|A| = 1 Checkpoint 8 At 10:00 AM you are at location ⟨−3, 2, 5⟩ m. By 10:02 AM

A you have walked to location ⟨6, 4, 25⟩ m. (a) What is ∆⃗r, the change in
θx your position? (b) What is ∆t, the time interval during which your position
changed?
x
Ax

Figure 1.26 A unit vector whose direction Unit Vectors and Angles
is at a known angle from the +x axis. Suppose that a taut string is at an angle θx to the +x axis, and we need a unit
vector in the direction of the string. Figure 1.26 shows a unit vector  pointing
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16 Chapter 1 Interactions and Motion

along the string. What is the x component of this unit vector? Consider the
triangle whose base is Ax and whose hypotenuse is |Â| = 1. From the definition
of the cosine of an angle we have this:
adjacent Ax
cos θ = = , so Ax = cos θx
hypotenuse 1
In Figure 1.26 the angle θx is shown in the first quadrant (θx less than 90◦ ), but
this works for larger angles as well. For example, in Figure 1.27 the angle from
the +x axis to a unit vector B̂ is in the second quadrant (θx greater than 90◦ )
and cos θx is negative, which corresponds to a negative value of Bx .
Figure 1.27 A unit vector in the second What is true for x is also true for y and z. Figure 1.28 shows a 3D unit
quadrant from the +x axis. vector r̂ and indicates the angles between the unit vector and the x, y, and z
axes. Evidently we can write
r̂ = ⟨cos θx , cos θy , cos θz ⟩
These three cosines of the angles between a vector (or unit vector) and
the coordinate axes are called the “direction cosines” of the vector. The cosine
function is never greater than 1, just as no component of a unit vector can be
greater than 1.
A common special case is that of a unit vector lying in the xy plane,
with zero z component (Figure 1.29). In this case θx + θy = 90◦ , so that
cos θy = cos(90◦ − θx ) = sin θx , therefore you can express the cosine of θy as the
sine of θx , which is often convenient. However, in the general 3D case shown
in Figure 1.28 there is no such simple relationship among the direction angles
or among their cosines.
Figure 1.28 A 3D unit vector and its
angles to the x, y, and z axes. FINDING A UNIT VECTOR FROM ANGLES
To find a unit vector if angles are given:
Redraw the vector of interest with its tail at the origin, and
determine the angles between this vector and the axes.
Imagine the vector ⟨1, 0, 0⟩, which lies on the +x axis. θx is the angle
through which you would rotate the vector ⟨1, 0, 0⟩ until its direction
matched that of your vector. θx is positive, and θx ≤ 180◦ .
θy is the angle through which you would rotate the vector ⟨0, 1, 0⟩
until its direction matched that of your vector. θy is positive, and
Figure 1.29 If a vector lies in the xy plane, θy ≤ 180◦ .
cos θy = sin θx . θz is the angle through which you would rotate the vector ⟨0, 0, 1⟩
until its direction matched that of your vector. θz is positive, and
θz ≤ 180◦ .

EXAMPLE From Unit Vector to Angles

A vector ⃗r points from the origin to the location ⟨−600, 0, 300⟩ m. What is
the angle that this vector makes to the x axis? To the y axis? To the z axis?

Solution ⟨−600, 0, 300⟩ m

r̂ = √ = ⟨−0.894, 0, 0.447⟩
(−600)2 + (0)2 + (300)2 m
But we also know that r̂ = ⟨cos θx , cos θy , cos θz ⟩, so cos θx = −0.894,
and the arccosine gives θx = 153.4◦ . Similarly,
cos θy = 0, so θy = 90◦ (which checks; no y component)
Figure 1.30 Look down on the xz plane. cos θz = 0.447, so θz = 63.4◦
The difference in the two angles is 90◦ ,
as it should be. Looking down on the xz plane in Figure 1.30, you can see that the difference
between θx = 153.4◦ and θz = 63.4◦ is 90◦ , as it should be.
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1.5 SI units 17

EXAMPLE From Angle to Unit Vector

A rope lying in the xy plane, pointing up and to the right, supports a climber
at an angle of 20◦ to the vertical (Figure 1.31). What is the unit vector
pointing up along the rope?

Solution Follow the procedure given above for finding a unit vector from angles. In
Figure 1.32 we redraw the vector with its tail at the origin, and we determine
the angles between the vector and the axes.
If we rotate the unit vector ⟨1, 0, 0⟩ from along the +x axis to the vector of
interest, we see that we have to rotate through an angle θx = 70◦ . To rotate the
20° unit vector ⟨0, 1, 0⟩ from along the +y axis to the vector of interest, we have to
rotate through an angle of θy = 20◦ . The angle from the +z axis to our vector
is θz = 90◦ . Therefore the unit vector that points along the rope is:
Figure 1.31 A climber supported by a rope.
⟨cos 70◦ , cos 20◦ , cos 90◦ ⟩ = ⟨0.342, 0.940, 0⟩

You may have noticed that the y component of the unit vector can also be
calculated as sin 70◦ = 0.940, and it can be useful to recognize that a vector
component can be obtained using sine instead of cosine. There is, however,
an advantage in consistently calculating in terms of direction cosines. This is a
method that always works, especially in 3D, and that helps avoid errors due to
choosing the wrong trig function.

Checkpoint 9 (a) A unit vector lies in the xy plane, at an angle of 160◦

from the +x axis, with a positive y component. What is the unit vector?
(It helps to draw a diagram.) (b) A string runs up and to the left in the xy
Figure 1.32 Redraw the vector with its tail plane, making an angle of 40◦ to the vertical. Determine the unit vector
at the origin. Identify the angles between that points along the string.
the positive axes and the vector. In this
example the vector lies in the xy plane.
Reorienting the Coordinate Axes
In order to describe position and displacement we had to choose an origin and a
set of axes. What if we had made different choices? Certain quantities related to
vectors change when a different orientation is chosen for the coordinate axes,
but others remain the same. Scalar quantities such as mass and temperature do
not change. The magnitude of a vector remains the same when axes are
oriented differently, even though the components of the vector do change—the
x component of velocity will have a different value if the x axis is chosen to have
a different orientation. (Because of this, a vector component is not considered
Quantity Unit Symbol mathematically to be a true scalar, even though it is a single number. However,
mass kilogram kg this distinction is not going to be important in the context of the physics we will
distance meter m study in this course.)
time second s
charge coulomb C
1.5 SI UNITS
Figure 1.33 Basic SI units.
In this book we use the SI (Système Internationale) unit system, as is customary
in technical work. The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg), the unit of distance
is the meter (m), and the unit of time is the second (s) (Figure 1.33). In later
chapters we will encounter other SI units, such as the newton (N), which is a
1 × 103 kilo 1 × 10−3 milli unit of force. Many quantities combine SI units (for example, velocity, which
6 −6 has units of m/s).
1 × 10 mega 1 × 10 micro
1 × 109 giga 1 × 10−9 nano It is essential to use SI units in physics equations; this may require that you
12 −12 convert from some other unit system to SI units. Common metric prefixes are
1 × 10 tera 1 × 10 pico
shown in Figure 1.34. If mass is known in grams, you need to divide by 1000
Figure 1.34 Common metric prefixes. and use the mass in kilograms. If a distance is given in centimeters, you need
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18 Chapter 1 Interactions and Motion

to divide by 100 to convert the distance to meters. If the time is measured in

minutes, you need to multiply by 60 to use a time in seconds. A convenient
way to do such conversions is to multiply by factors that are equal to 1, such as
(1 min)/(60 s) or (100 cm)/(1 m). As an example, consider converting 60 miles
per hour to SI units, meters per second. Start with the 60 mi/h and multiply by
factors of 1:
( )( )( )( )( )( )( )


mi

1h 1min 5280 ft 12 in 2.54 
cm 1m m
60  = 26.8


h 60 
min 60 s 1 

mi 1 
f t 1 in 100 
cm s
Observe how most of the units cancel, leaving final units of m/s.

Checkpoint 10 A snail moved 80 cm (80 centimeters) in 5 min. What was

its average speed in SI units? Write out the factors as was done above.

1.6 SPEED AND VELOCITY

Because it has a magnitude and a direction, velocity is a vector quantity.
Velocity is unusual among vector quantities because its magnitude has a special
name: “speed.” In everyday conversation the words “velocity” and “speed”
are often used interchangeably, but because the vector quantity velocity
(represented by ⃗v ) and the scalar quantity speed (|⃗v|) have quite different
meanings in physics, we will need to use these terms precisely.
Motion is important in everyday life, and it may be somewhat surprising to
reflect on the fact that neither velocity nor speed can be measured directly in a
single measurement. To determine the speed of a moving object it is necessary
to measure two times and two positions, and to calculate the speed by dividing
the distance traveled by the time elapsed, as reflected in the familiar expression
v = d/t. Even the radar guns commonly used to measure the speed of cars
or baseballs do not make instantaneous measurements. The wavelength of
radar waves reflected from a moving object is different from that of the original
waves; the original and reflected waves must be compared over a period of time
to determine the speed of the moving object.
Since the measurement interval is finite, it is of course possible that the
moving object is speeding up or slowing down during that interval. So what
speed do we actually measure, if we are not measuring the exact speed at one
instant? We refer to the results of our measurements as “average speed” or, if
we include direction, “average velocity.”

EXAMPLE A Sprinter’s Average Speed

At the 2008 summer Olympics in Beijing, the Jamaican sprinter Usain Bolt
won the gold medal in the 100 m race, finishing in a time of 9.69 s, and
setting a new world record for the event. What was his average speed? From
videos of the event one can determine that he reached the 60 meter mark
at a time 5.73 s after the start of the race. Was his speed constant?

Solution Bolt’s average speed over the entire 100 m was

100 m
|⃗vavg | = = 10.32 m/s
9.69 s
However, his average speed over the first 60 m was
60 m
|⃗vavg | = = 10.47 m/s
5.73 s
Bolt clearly slowed down at the end of the race, beginning to celebrate his win
even before reaching the finish line.
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1.6 Speed and Velocity 19

If we wanted to know Bolt’s speed as accurately as possible at the instant he

Star Comet reached the 60 m mark, we would need to know his position at two times: just
rf location B before he reached the mark, and just afterward. The smaller the time interval,
the closer the average speed we calculate is to the actual instantaneous speed.
ri
– ri
= rf Vector Velocity
∆r
Comet As with speed, to determine velocity we need two measurements separated
location A in time. With this data we can find the “displacement,” or change of position
Figure 1.35 A comet orbiting a star moves ∆⃗r = ⃗rf −⃗ri of an object during a time interval, where ⃗ri is the initial 3D
from location A to location B in 5 years. position and ⃗rf is the final 3D position (note that as with relative position
The vector ∆⃗r is the displacement of the vectors, we always calculate “final minus initial”). For example, Figure 1.35
comet during this time period. shows the displacement of a comet over a 5 month period. Dividing the (vector)
displacement by the (scalar) time interval tf − ti (final time minus initial time)
gives the average (vector) velocity of the object:

DEFINITION: AVERAGE VELOCITY

⃗rf −⃗ri
⃗vavg =
tf − ti
A more compact way of writing this expression, using the “∆” symbol
(capital Greek delta, defined in Section 1.4), is

∆⃗r
⃗vavg =
∆t
Note that we are using vector subtraction here to find the displacement of a
single object from one time to another, while earlier we used vector subtraction
to find the relative position of one object with respect to a second object at a
single time. The mathematical operation is the same, but the physical meaning
is different.

EXAMPLE Average Velocity of a Bee

Consider a bee in flight. At time ti = 15.0 s after 9:00 AM, the bee’s position
vector was ⃗ri = ⟨2, 4, 0⟩ m. At time tf = 15.1 s after 9:00 AM, the bee’s
position vector was ⃗rf = ⟨3, 3.5, 0⟩ m. What was the average velocity
of the bee during this interval? Express this vector as the product of
the magnitude of the velocity (speed) and a unit vector in the direction
of the velocity.

Solution On the diagram shown in Figure 1.36, we draw and label three arrows
representing the vectors ⃗ri , ⃗rf , and ⃗rf −⃗ri . The tail of the latter arrow is placed
5m at the bee’s initial position. The vector ⃗rf −⃗ri , which points in the direction of
the bee’s motion, is the displacement of the bee during this time interval.
4 rf – ri
We calculate the bee’s displacement vector numerically by taking the
difference of the two vectors, final minus initial:
3 ri

rf ⃗rf −⃗ri = ⟨3, 3.5, 0⟩ m − ⟨2, 4, 0⟩ m = ⟨1, −0.5, 0⟩ m

2
This numerical result should be consistent with our graphical construction.
1 Look at the components of ⃗rf −⃗ri in Figure 1.36. Do you see that this vector
has an x component of +1 and a y component of −0.5 m?
0
0 1 2 3 4 5m The average velocity of the bee, a vector quantity, is the (vector)
displacement ⃗rf −⃗ri divided by the (scalar) time interval tf − ti .
Figure 1.36 The displacement vector
points from initial position to final position.
⃗rf −⃗ri ⟨1, −0.5, 0⟩ m ⟨1, −0.5, 0⟩ m
⃗vavg = = = = ⟨10, −5, 0⟩ m/s
tf − ti (15.1 − 15.0) s 0.1 s
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20 Chapter 1 Interactions and Motion

Since we divided ⃗rf −⃗ri by a scalar (tf − ti ), the average velocity ⃗vavg points in
the direction of the bee’s motion, assuming that the bee flew in a straight line.
The average speed of the bee is the magnitude of its velocity:
√
|⃗vavg | = 102 + (−5)2 + 02 m/s = 11.18 m/s

The direction of the bee’s motion, expressed as a unit vector, is:

⃗vavg ⟨10, −5, 0⟩ m/s

v̂avg = = = ⟨0.894, −0.447, 0⟩
|⃗vavg | 11.18 m/s

Note that the “m/s” units cancel; the result is dimensionless. We can check that
this really is a unit vector:
√
0.8942 + (−0.447)2 + 02 = 0.9995

This is not quite 1.0 due to rounding the velocity coordinates and speed to
three significant figures. To check, we can put the pieces back together and
5m see what we get. The original vector factors into the product of the magnitude
times the unit vector:
4 rf – r i
|⃗v|v̂ = (11.18 m/s)⟨0.894, −0.447, 0⟩ = ⟨10, −5, 0⟩ m/s
ri
3 This is the same as the original vector ⃗v.
vavg
rf
2
Scaling a Vector to Fit on a Graph
1 We can plot the average velocity vector on the same graph that we use for
showing the vector positions of the bee (Figure 1.37). However, note that
0 velocity has units of meters per second whereas positions have units of meters,
0 1 2 3 4 5m so we are mixing quantities on this diagram.
Figure 1.37 Average velocity vector: Moreover, the magnitude of the vector, 11.18 m/s, doesn’t fit on a graph
displacement divided by time interval. that is only 5 units wide (in meters). It is standard practice in such situations to
scale down the arrow representing the vector to fit on the graph, preserving the
correct direction. In Figure 1.37 we’ve scaled down the arrow representing
the velocity vector by about a factor of 3 to make the arrow fit on the graph.
Of course if there is more than one velocity vector we use the same scale
factor for all the velocity vectors. The same kind of scaling is used with other
physical quantities that are vectors, such as force and momentum, which we
will encounter later.

Checkpoint 11 At a time 0.2 s after it has been hit by a tennis racket,

a tennis ball is located at ⟨5, 7, 2⟩ m, relative to an origin in one corner of a
tennis court. At a time 0.7 s after being hit, the ball is located at ⟨9, 2, 8⟩ m.
(a) What is the average velocity of the tennis ball? (b) What is the average
speed of the tennis ball? (c) What is the unit vector in the direction of the
ball’s average velocity?

1.7 PREDICTING A NEW POSITION

We can rewrite the velocity relationship in the form

(⃗rf −⃗ri ) = ⃗vavg (tf − ti )

That is, the (vector) displacement of an object is its average (vector) velocity
times the time interval. This is just the vector version of the simple notion that
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1.7 Predicting a New Position 21

if you run at a speed of 7 m/s for 5 s you move a distance of (7 m/s)(5 s) = 35 m,

or that a car going 50 mi/h for 2 h goes (50 mi/h)(2 h) = 100 mi.
Is (⃗rf −⃗ri ) = ⃗vavg (tf − ti ) a valid vector relation? Yes, multiplying a vector
⃗vavg times a scalar (tf − ti ) yields a vector. We make a further rearrangement to
obtain a relation for updating the position when we know the velocity:

THE POSITION UPDATE EQUATION

⃗rf =⃗ri +⃗vavg (tf − ti )

or
⃗rf =⃗ri +⃗vavg ∆t

This equation says that if we know the starting position, the average
velocity, and the time interval, we can predict the final position. This
equation will be important throughout our work.

The position update equation ⃗rf = ⃗ri +⃗vavg ∆t is a vector equation, so we can
write out its full component form:

⟨xf , yf , zf ⟩ = ⟨xi , yi , zi ⟩ + ⟨vavg,x , vavg,y , vavg,z ⟩ ∆t

Because the x component on the left of the equation must equal the x
component on the right (and similarly for the y and z components), this
compact vector equation represents three separate component equations:

xf = xi + vavg,x ∆t
yf = yi + vavg,y ∆t
zf = zi + vavg,z ∆t

EXAMPLE Predicting the Position of a Ball

At time ti = 12.18 s after 1:30  a ball’s position vector is⃗ri = ⟨20, 8, −12⟩ m.
The ball’s velocity at that moment is ⃗v = ⟨9, −4, 6⟩ m/s. At time tf = 12.21 s
after 1:30 , where will the ball be, assuming that its velocity hardly
changes during this short time interval?

Solution ⃗rf = ⟨20, 8, −12⟩ m + (⟨9, −4, 6⟩ m/s)(12.21 − 12.18) s

⃗rf = ⟨20, 8, −12⟩ m + ⟨0.27, −0.12, 0.18⟩ m
⃗rf = ⟨20.27, 7.88, −11.82⟩ m

Checkpoint 12 A proton traveling with a velocity of ⟨3 × 105 , 2 × 105 ,

−4 × 105 ⟩ m/s passes the origin at a time 9.0 s after a proton detector is
turned on. Assuming that the velocity of the proton does not change, what
will be its position at time 9.7 s?

Instantaneous Velocity
Figure 1.39 shows the path of a ball, with positions marked at 1 s intervals, and
the table in Figure 1.38 lists the position information. While the ball is in the air,
its velocity is constantly changing, due to interactions with the Earth (gravity)
and with the air (air resistance).
Chabay c01.tex 7/11/2014 15: 23 Page 22

22 Chapter 1 Interactions and Motion

D
Loc. t (s) Position (m) rCB C
y
A 0.0 ⟨0, 0, 0⟩
B 1.0 ⟨22.3, 26.1, 0⟩ rDB rEB E
C 2.0 ⟨40.1, 38.1, 0⟩ B
D 3.0 ⟨55.5, 39.2, 0⟩
E 4.0 ⟨69.1, 31.0, 0⟩
F 5.0 ⟨80.8, 14.8, 0⟩
F
Figure 1.38 Table showing elapsed time and
position of the ball at each location marked
by a dot in Figure 1.39.

A
x
Figure 1.39 The trajectory of a ball through air. The axes represent the x and y
distance from the ball’s initial location; each square on the grid corresponds to 10
meters. The position of the ball at intervals of 1 s is represented by the colored dots.
Three different displacements, corresponding to three different time intervals, are
indicated by arrows on the diagram.

Suppose we ask: What is the velocity of the ball at the precise instant that it
reaches location B? This quantity would be called the “instantaneous velocity”
of the ball. We can start by approximating the instantaneous velocity of the ball
by finding its average velocity over some larger time interval.
We can use the position and time data in Figure 1.38 to calculate the
average velocity of the ball over three different intervals, by finding the ball’s
displacement during each interval, and dividing by the appropriate ∆t for that
interval:

∆⃗rEB ⃗rE −⃗rB (⟨69.1, 31.0, 0⟩ − ⟨22.3, 26.1, 0⟩) m

⃗vEB = = =
∆t tE − tB (4.0 − 1.0) s
m
= ⟨15.6, 1.6, 0⟩
s
v instantaneous
∆⃗rDB ⃗rD −⃗rB (⟨55.5, 39.2, 0⟩ − ⟨22.3, 26.1, 0⟩) m
⃗vDB = = =
∆t tD − tB (3.0 − 1.0) s
m
v CB = ⟨16.6, 6.55, 0⟩
s
D
∆⃗rCB ⃗rC −⃗rB (⟨40.1, 38.1, 0⟩ − ⟨22.3, 26.1, 0⟩) m
⃗vCB = = =
C v DB ∆t tC − tB (2.0 − 1.0) s
m
= ⟨17.8, 12.0, 0⟩
B v EB s
Not surprisingly, the average velocities over these different time intervals are
not the same, because both the direction of the ball’s motion and the speed of
Figure 1.40 A segment of the trajectory the ball were changing continuously during its flight. The three average velocity
shown in Figure 1.39. The three different vectors that we calculated are shown in Figure 1.40.
average velocity vectors calculated above
are shown by three arrows, each with its QUESTION Which of the three average velocity vectors depicted in
tail at location B. The three arrows Figure 1.40 best approximates the instantaneous velocity of the ball
representing average velocities are drawn
at location B?
with their tails at the location of interest.
The dashed arrow represents the actual
Simply by looking at the diagram, we can tell that ⃗vCB is closest to the actual
instantaneous velocity of the ball at
location B. Note that since the units of instantaneous velocity of the ball at location B, because its direction is closest
velocity are m/s, these arrows use a to the direction in which the ball is actually traveling. Because the direction
different scale from the distance scale used of the instantaneous velocity is the direction in which the ball is moving at a
for the path of the ball. particular instant, the instantaneous velocity is tangent to the ball’s path. Of the
three average velocity vectors we calculated, ⃗vCB best approximates a tangent
to the path of the ball. Evidently ⃗vCB , the velocity calculated with the shortest
Chabay c01.tex 7/11/2014 15: 23 Page 23

1.7 Predicting a New Position 23

time interval, tC − tB , is the best approximation to the instantaneous velocity at

location B. If we used even smaller values of ∆t in our calculation of average
velocity, such as 0.1 s, or 0.01 s, or 0.001 s, we would presumably have better
and better estimates of the actual instantaneous velocity of the object at the
instant when it passes location B.
We can draw two important conclusions about instantaneous velocity:
The direction of the instantaneous velocity of an object is tangent to the path
of the object’s motion.
3 Smaller time intervals yield more accurate estimates of instantaneous
4 2 velocity.
5 Star 1

Checkpoint 13 A comet travels in an elliptical path around a star, in the

direction shown in Figure 1.41. Which arrow best indicates the direction of
a the comet’s instantaneous velocity vector at each of the numbered locations
h b in the orbit?
g c
f d
e Velocity Is a Rate of Change
j zero magnitude
You may already have learned about derivatives in calculus. Because
Figure 1.41 A comet goes around a star. instantaneous velocity is the rate of change of position, it is a derivative, the
limit of ∆⃗r/∆t as the time interval ∆t used in the calculation gets closer and
closer to zero:
∆⃗r d⃗r
⃗v = lim , which is written as ⃗v =
∆t→0 ∆t dt
In Figure 1.40, the process of taking the limit is illustrated graphically. As
smaller values of ∆t are used in the calculation, the average velocity vectors
approach the limiting value: the actual instantaneous velocity.
The rate of change (derivative) of a vector is also a vector. Differentiating
a vector simply requires differentiating each component:
⟨ ⟩
d⃗r d dx dy dz
⃗v = = ⟨x, y, z⟩ = , , = ⟨vx , vy , vz ⟩
dt dt dt dt dt

The derivative of the position vector ⃗r gives components that are the
components of the velocity, as we should expect.
Informally, you can think of d⃗r as a very small (“infinitesimal”)
displacement, and dt as a very small (“infinitesimal”) time interval. It is as
though we had continued the process illustrated in Figure 1.40 to smaller
and smaller time intervals, down to an extremely tiny time interval dt with a
correspondingly tiny displacement d⃗r. The ratio of these tiny quantities is the
instantaneous velocity.
The ratio of these two tiny quantities need not be small. For example,
suppose that an object moves in the x direction a tiny distance of 1 × 10−15 m,
the radius of a proton, in a very short time interval of 1 × 10−23 s:

⟨1 × 10−15 , 0, 0⟩ m
⃗v = = ⟨1 × 108 , 0, 0⟩ m/s
1 × 10−23 s

which is one-third the speed of light (3 × 108 m/s)!

Acceleration
Velocity is the time rate of change of position: ⃗v = d⃗r/dt. Similarly, we define
“acceleration” as the time rate of change of velocity: ⃗a = d⃗v/dt. Acceleration,
which is itself a vector quantity, has units of meters per second per second,
written as m/s/s or m/s2 .
Chabay c01.tex 7/11/2014 15: 23 Page 24

24 Chapter 1 Interactions and Motion

DEFINITION: ACCELERATION
Instantaneous acceleration is the time rate of change of velocity:
d⃗v
⃗a =
dt
Average acceleration can be calculated from a change in velocity:
∆⃗v
⃗aavg =
∆t
The units of acceleration are m/s2 .

EXAMPLE Acceleration of a Car

A car traveling in the +x direction speeds up from 20 m/s to 26 m/s in 3 s.
What is its average acceleration?

Solution ∆⃗v (⟨26, 0, 0⟩ − ⟨20, 0, 0⟩) m/s

⃗aavg = = = ⟨2, 0, 0⟩ m/s/s
∆t 3s
For another example, if you drop a rock near the surface of the Earth, its speed
increases 9.8 m/s every second, so its acceleration is 9.8 m/s/s, as long as air
resistance is negligible.
Because velocity is a vector, there are two parts to its time derivative,
acceleration:
⃗v = |⃗v|v̂
d⃗v d|⃗v| dv̂
⃗a = = v̂ + |⃗v|
dt dt dt
As we’ll see in later chapters, these two parts of the acceleration are associated
with pushing or pulling parallel to the motion (changing the speed) or
perpendicular to the motion (changing the direction).

Checkpoint 14 (a) Powerful sports cars can go from zero to 25 m/s (about
60 mi/h) in 5 s. (1) What is the magnitude of the average acceleration?
(2) How does this compare with the acceleration of a rock falling near
the Earth’s surface? (b) Suppose the position of an object at time t is ⟨3 +
5t, 4t2 , 2t − 6t3 ⟩. (1) What is the instantaneous velocity at time t? (2) What
is the instantaneous acceleration at time t? (3) What is the instantaneous
velocity at time t = 0? (4) What is the instantaneous acceleration at time
t = 0?

1.8 MOMENTUM
In trying to model the real world, physicists look for powerful ideas that
are very general—that is, that apply to a very large range of systems and
phenomena. Some of the most powerful and general principles involve
“hidden” quantities—things we do not perceive directly. Momentum is such a
quantity.
We have discussed velocity, a vector quantity that describes motion and can
be determined from measurements of position and time; position, time, speed,
and now 3D velocity are all familiar quantities. However, velocity is not the
whole story. Consider the following thought experiment:
Suppose you gently toss a tennis ball to a friend, in such a way that just
before the ball reaches her hands, its velocity is ⟨0.3, −0.2, 0⟩ m/s. When your
friend catches the ball, she must interact with the ball to stop its motion,
changing its velocity from ⟨0.3, −0.2, 0⟩ m/s to ⃗0 m/s.
Chabay c01.tex 7/11/2014 15: 23 Page 25

1.8 Momentum 25

Now suppose that you again toss a ball to your friend with the same
velocity; this time, however, the ball is a bowling ball! When the ball reaches
her hands with velocity ⟨0.3, −0.2, 0⟩ m/s, your friend must interact much more
strongly with the ball to change its velocity to ⃗0 m/s (Figure 1.42). Even
though the change in the velocities of the two balls is identical, the amount of
interaction needed to cause this change is very different. Evidently the mass
of the moving object must explicitly be taken into account.
The larger the mass of the object, the stronger the interaction required to
change its motion. Since the same is true for the velocity of the object (your
friend would have had to interact more strongly to stop a tennis ball with
velocity ⟨40, 0, 0⟩ m/s), we will surmise that it is the product of mass and velocity
that is important. This quantity is called “momentum”; since it is the product of
a scalar and a vector, momentum is a vector. For reasons lost in the mists
Figure 1.42 Catching a bowling ball of history, the symbol used to represent momentum is ⃗p. Momentum is of
requires a larger interaction than catching fundamental importance not only in classical (prequantum) mechanics but also
a tennis ball with the same velocity. in relativity and quantum mechanics. In Chapter 3 we will discuss the fact that
momentum is a “conserved” quantity; the total momentum of the universe is
constant.

APPROXIMATE DEFINITION OF MOMENTUM

⃗p ≈ m⃗v

Scalar Vector The units of momentum are kg · m/s. We will see in Section 1.10 that
this expression is a good approximation for the momentum of objects
traveling at speeds less than about one-tenth of the speed of light.

Although we can see and compare velocities, momentum is a quantity that

Figure 1.43 The approximate expression we can’t see directly. We will encounter other important quantities that aren’t
for momentum is the product of a scalar directly visible, such as energy, angular momentum, and electric and magnetic
times a vector. The scalar factor, mass, fields. Like velocity, momentum is a vector quantity, so it has a magnitude and a
must be positive, so the direction of an direction. Since the mass m must be a positive number, this scalar factor cannot
object’s momentum is the same as the
change the direction of the vector (Figure 1.43). Therefore the direction of an
direction of its velocity.
object’s momentum is the same as the direction of its velocity.

Change of Momentum
Looking back at Newton’s first law of motion, we can see that the idea that a
body “persists in its state of rest or of moving with constant speed in a constant
pi direction...” can be stated compactly as “the momentum of a body remains
constant...” In Chapter 2 we will relate momentum change to interaction
pf = 0 mathematically, using the concept of “force” to quantify interactions. This will
allow us to predict quantitatively the motion of objects whose momentum is
Figure 1.44 The system is the ball. The changed by interactions with their surroundings.
initial state is just before touching your Change in momentum, therefore, is an important quantity. We have just
friend’s hands, and the final state is just noted that it was harder for the person to change the momentum of a bowling
after the ball has come to a stop in her ball than to change the momentum of a tennis ball with the same velocity.
hands. Calculating a change of momentum requires vector subtraction.

EXAMPLE Magnitude of Momentum Change

Consider the tennis ball and bowling ball discussed above. What is the
magnitude of the change in the momentum of each ball when your friend
catches it?

Solution The mass of a regulation tennis ball is about 58 g, or 0.058 kg in S.I. units.
The momentum of the tennis ball just before it reaches your friend’s hands
(Figure 1.44) is:
⃗pi = (0.058 kg)⟨0.3, −0.2, 0⟩ m/s = ⟨0.0174, −0.0116, 0⟩ kg · m/s
Chabay c01.tex 7/11/2014 15: 23 Page 26

26 Chapter 1 Interactions and Motion

The final momentum of the tennis ball is ⃗0 kg · m/s, and the change in the tennis
ball’s momentum is:

∆⃗p = ⃗pf −⃗pi = ⟨0, 0, 0⟩ kg · m/s − ⟨0.0174, −0.0116, 0⟩ kg · m/s

= ⟨−0.0174, 0.0116, 0⟩ kg · m/s

The magnitude of the tennis ball’s change in momentum is:

√
|∆⃗p| = −0.01742 + 0.01162 kg · m/s = 0.0209 kg · m/s

For a bowling ball of mass 5.8 kg (about 13 lb):

⃗pi = (5.8 kg)⟨0.3, −0.2, 0⟩ m/s = ⟨1.74, −1.16, 0⟩ kg · m/s

∆⃗p = ⟨0, 0, 0⟩ kg · m/s − ⟨1.74, −1.16, 0⟩ kg · m/s
= ⟨−1.74, 1.16, 0⟩ kg · m/s
pC √
pD |∆⃗p| = −1.742 + 1.162 kg · m/s = 2.09 kg · m/s
pB C D
The change in velocity of each ball was the same, but the magnitude of the
E pE change in momentum of the bowling ball was 100 times larger than the change
B of momentum of the tennis ball.
Figure 1.45 A portion of the trajectory of
a ball moving through air, subject to Momentum is a vector quantity and proportional to the velocity, so just as
gravity and air resistance. The arrows was the case with velocity, there are two aspects of momentum that can change:
represent the momentum of the ball at the magnitude and direction. A mathematical description of change of momentum
locations indicated by letters. must include either a change in the magnitude of the momentum, or a change
in the direction of the momentum, or both.

EXAMPLE Change in Magnitude and Direction of Momentum

Figure 1.45 shows a portion of the trajectory of a ball in air, subject to
gravity and air resistance. At location B, the ball’s momentum is ⃗pB =
⟨3.03, 2.83, 0⟩ kg · m/s. At location C, the ball’s momentum is ⃗pC =
⟨2.55, 0.97, 0⟩ kg · m/s. Find the change in the ball’s momentum between
these locations, and show it on the diagram. What changed: the direction
of the ball’s momentum, the magnitude of the ball’s momentum, or both?

Solution ∆⃗p = ⃗pC −⃗pB = ⟨2.55, 0.97, 0⟩ kg · m/s − ⟨3.03, 2.83, 0⟩ kg · m/s
= ⟨−0.48, −1.86, 0⟩ kg · m/s

Both the x and y components of the ball’s momentum decreased, so ∆⃗p has
negative x and y components. This is consistent with the graphical subtraction
pB
p shown in Figure 1.46.
It is clear from the diagram that both the magnitude and direction of the
pC ball’s momentum changed. The arrow representing ⃗pB is longer than the arrow
Figure 1.46 Graphical calculation of ∆⃗p. representing ⃗pC , and the directions of the arrows are different.

EXAMPLE A Ball Bounces Off a Wall

A tennis ball of mass 58 g travels with velocity ⟨50, 0, 0⟩ m/s toward a wall.
After bouncing off the wall, the tennis ball is observed to be moving at
nearly the same speed, in the opposite direction. (a) Draw a diagram
showing the initial and final momentum of the tennis ball. (b) What is
the change in the momentum of the tennis ball? (c) Compare the change
in the magnitude of the tennis ball’s momentum to the magnitude of the
change of the ball’s momentum.
Chabay c01.tex 7/11/2014 15: 23 Page 27

1.9 Using Momentum to Update Position 27

Solution (a) The initial and final momenta of the ball are shown in Figure 1.47.
(b) ⃗pi = (0.058 kg)⟨50, 0, 0⟩ m/s = ⟨2.9, 0, 0⟩ kg · m/s
⃗pf = (0.058 kg)⟨−50, 0, 0⟩ m/s = ⟨−2.9, 0, 0⟩ kg · m/s
∆⃗p = ⟨−2.9, 0, 0⟩ kg · m/s − ⟨2.9, 0, 0⟩ kg · m/s
pi ∆⃗p = ⟨−5.80, 0, 0⟩ kg · m/s
pf (c) The change in the magnitude of the ball’s momentum was:

∆|⃗p| = |⃗pf | − |⃗pi |

Figure 1.47 The initial and final √ √
∆|⃗p| = −2.92 + 02 + 02 kg · m/s − 2.92 + 02 + 02 kg · m/s
momentum of the tennis ball.
∆|⃗p| = 0 kg · m/s

The magnitude of the change in the ball’s momentum was:

√
|∆⃗p| = −5.82 + 02 + 02 = 5.8 kg · m/s

How do we make sense of this difference? The interaction with the wall
made a large change in the (vector) momentum of the ball; the magnitude
of this change is twice as large as the magnitude of the ball’s original
momentum. However, because the change in the ball’s speed was negligible,
the change in the magnitude of its momentum was also negligible. We will
see in Chapter 2 that this distinction is important, because it is the change
in the vector momentum that is proportional to the strength of an interaction
with the surroundings. In discussing momentum change we will almost always
be interested in ∆⃗p and its magnitude (|∆⃗p|), rather than in the change in
the magnitude (∆|⃗p|).

B
pB
Mars Checkpoint 15 The planet Mars has a mass of 6.4 × 1023 kg, and travels in
pA
a nearly circular orbit around the Sun, as shown in Figure 1.48. When it is
at location A, the velocity of Mars is ⟨0, 0, −2.5 × 104 ⟩ m/s. When it reaches
x
Sun location B, the planet’s velocity is ⟨−2.5×104 , 0, 0⟩ m/s. We’re looking down
A
on the orbit from above the north poles of the Sun and Mars, with +x to the
C right and +z down the page. (a) What is ∆⃗p, the change in the momentum
D of Mars between locations A and B? (b) On a copy of the diagram in Figure
z 1.48, draw two arrows representing the momentum of Mars at locations C
Figure 1.48 The nearly circular orbit of and D, paying attention to both the length and direction of each arrow.
Mars around the Sun, viewed from above (c) What is the direction of the change in the momentum of Mars between
the orbital plane (+x to the right, +z down locations C and D? Draw the vector ∆⃗p on your diagram.
the page). Not to scale: The sizes of the
Sun and Mars are exaggerated.

1.9 USING MOMENTUM TO UPDATE POSITION

If you know the momentum of an object, you can calculate the change in
position of the object over a given time interval. This is straightforward if the
object is traveling at a speed low enough that the approximate expression for
momentum can be used, since in this case ⃗v ≈ ⃗p/m.

EXAMPLE Displacement of an Ice Skater

An ice skater whose mass is 50 kg moves with constant momentum
⟨400, 0, 300⟩ kg · m/s. At a particular instant in her skating program she
passes location ⟨0, 0, 3⟩ m. What was her location at a time 3 s earlier?
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était employé dans une maison de commerce. Sa mère avait un peu
de bien, mais cela ne devait pas lui faire une grande fortune, et je
ne le voyais pas assez au-dessus de moi pour redouter une
séparation motivée, comme cela arrive toujours, parce qu’on devient
riche et que votre position, votre rang, vous obligent à vous marier.
Sa mère habitait la campagne; moi, je demeurais avec lui et je
portais son nom, quoique l’on sût à quoi s’en tenir. Il gagnait peu,
mais j’apportais tant d’ordre dans notre petit ménage, que nous
étions heureux; avec ma sotte confiance, je ne voyais pas de
changement possible dans l’avenir. Il se nommait Édouard M....., son
nom ne pouvait tenter personne; mon passé seul me séparait de lui,
mais j’étais convaincue que je parviendrais à l’oublier moi-même en
le lui faisant oublier à force de tendresse et d’abnégation. Pendant
huit ans, je fus sa servante, son esclave, son bon génie, l’âme de
son âme, l’esprit de son esprit. Il devint rangé, laborieux, instruit,
parce que je l’encourageais au travail. Je ne devais jamais le quitter;
il voulait m’épouser dès que sa mère serait convaincue que je
l’aimais assez pour lui être dévouée et le rendre heureux; il me
proposa plusieurs fois d’en finir malgré elle si elle faisait encore une
objection, et je refusai parce que je voulais gagner mon bonheur.

É
Il y a un an, Édouard changea tout à coup; il était rêveur,
préoccupé, contraint en ma présence. Les affaires l’absorbaient, me
disait-il; son patron quittait le commerce et songeait à le mettre à la
tête de son établissement, sa mère désirait ardemment lui voir une
position; mais à tout cela il y avait un obstacle: l’obstacle, c’était
moi. On cherchait bien à me le faire comprendre; mais ma confiance
ou plutôt ma bêtise s’obstinait à ne pas voir clair.
Je comprenais seulement que sa position avec moi n’étant pas
régulière pour le monde, il voulait m’épouser.
Un jour, je crus mourir de joie en lui apprenant que j’allais être
mère. Un enfant devait me régénérer, faire tout oublier; c’était le
pardon que Dieu m’envoyait! Au lieu de me sourire en apprenant
cette nouvelle, Édouard devint pâle comme la mort, et, au lieu de
me serrer la main, il recula.
J’eus le pressentiment de mon malheur, mais je ne voulais pas y
croire, et il fut obligé de me le dire en pleurant; larmes hypocrites et
plus cruelles que l’insulte des passants.
—Ma mère a pris des informations sur ton passé, ma pauvre Louise
(j’avais pris mon autre nom de baptême), et elle a su... Un mariage
entre nous est désormais impossible, mais je ne t’abandonnerai pas.
L’idée d’une séparation me porta un coup si terrible, que je sentis de
suite que je ne devais pas m’en relever.
S’il n’avait agi que pour le monde, je me serais résignée, et puis
peut-être la vue de son enfant l’aurait-elle fait changer d’idée; mais il
agissait par égoïsme, par ambition et parce qu’il ne m’aimait plus.
Il fallait me briser pour se débarrasser de moi, et ne pas attendre
surtout, dans la crainte du blâme, que mon enfant fût là.
Il me chercha mille querelles, je supportai tout pour mon enfant;
mais un jour il m’humilia avec cruauté. Ce jour-là, il fut le plus lâche
de tous les hommes! Il me reprocha un passé que je lui avais avoué.
Ce passé, disait-il, ne lui donnait aucune confiance, aucune sécurité,
et mon enfant, ma seule force, pouvait aussi bien être d’un autre
que de lui.
Il a fallu que je sois bien misérable pour ne pas tuer cet homme,
bien forte pour ne pas devenir folle.
A moi, l’on ne me pardonnait pas ma chute! Amour, dévouement,
maternité, rien ne pouvait me relever, et lui pouvait commettre de
plus grandes fautes que moi, être mon complice, m’insulter, me
chasser à son gré, sûr que cela n’altérerait en rien l’estime qu’on
avait pour lui.
Je trouvais les choses d’ici-bas mal organisées, et, pour la première
fois de ma vie, j’eus l’impudence de me plaindre d’un sort que je
m’étais fait, il est vrai, mais sans connaître l’abîme où je me jetais.
Je me sauvai de chez lui, n’emportant que ce que j’avais sur moi.
J’allai dans un hôtel, espérant qu’il reviendrait me chercher; il
m’envoya mes effets et cinquante francs pour faire mon voyage. Sa
mère était venue le chercher et l’obligeait à partir; il ne savait quand
il pourrait me revoir et m’engageait à retourner à Paris, où il
m’enverrait de l’argent dès qu’il le pourrait. J’attendis huit jours dans
cet hôtel, huit jours qui me parurent huit siècles.
J’envoyai chez lui, il ne rentrait plus; je passai plusieurs fois pendant
la nuit sous les fenêtres de notre petit logement; mes fleurs étaient
toujours sur l’appui de la croisée, mais on ne les avait pas arrosées,
elles retombaient flétries sur les bords de la caisse; jusqu’à mon
oiseau qu’on avait laissé mourir de faim dans sa cage; l’oiseau, les
fleurs, la femme et l’enfant, tout devait avoir le même sort.
Voyant qu’il n’y avait plus d’espérance à avoir, car j’appris qu’il allait
se marier avec la fille d’un négociant d’Elbeuf et qu’il comptait sur sa
dot pour payer son établissement, je revins à Paris, décidée à
travailler pour nourrir mon enfant; j’avais compté sans le chagrin qui
détruit les forces; j’avais trouvé un peu d’ouvrage, mais je suis
tombée malade. J’ai vingt-huit ans; une première grossesse à cet
âge vous fait horriblement souffrir; j’ai regretté d’être partie, j’aurais
dû rester auprès de lui comme un reproche vivant, mais je n’ai pas
eu la force de repartir, mes ressources se sont épuisées petit à petit,
je suis venue loger ici par économie, j’ai écrit à Rouen lettres sur
lettres, ne demandant rien pour moi, mais pour mon enfant, qui
devait souffrir des privations que je m’imposais, on ne m’a pas
répondu.
Pas un secours, pas une parole de consolation ne m’est venue de lui;
il est marié, heureux, il n’a pas le temps de se souvenir, et je te l’ai
dit, sans cette bonne fille tout serait fini, sans elle je n’aurais pas
pensé à toi, je n’ai plus la force de rien.
Elle laissa tomber sa tête en avant comme une chose inerte, j’eus
peur, mais elle rouvrit les yeux et me fit signe de lui donner à boire,
puis elle reprit:
—Puisque la destinée ou le hasard nous rapproche, je vais te dire à
toi ce que je ne puis dire à d’autres, parce qu’ils ne me
comprendraient pas.
Je l’engageai à se reposer, l’assurant que je ferais tout ce qui
dépendrait de moi pour elle et son enfant.
—Moi, reprit-elle en souriant, je n’ai plus besoin que d’un morceau
de toile et de quelques planches de sapin, et je ne veux pas que ni
toi ni une autre femme se charge de ma fille. Oh! je sais bien que tu
ne la pousserais pas à mal faire, mais on ne fait pas toujours ce
qu’on voudrait, et je retrouverais des forces pour l’écraser si j’étais
sûre qu’elle devînt ce que j’ai été. Je lui ai trouvé un asile où les
orphelines trouvent une famille, des soins constants, un bon
exemple, et où l’idée du mal ne peut arriver jusqu’à elles.
Ce mot d’enfant trouvé me faisait peur il y a huit jours, puis je m’y
suis habituée en interrogeant mes souvenirs.
Jamais je n’ai rencontré parmi les femmes perdues une jeune fille
qui ait été élevée aux Orphelines; et puis, je me rappelle les avoir
vues quelquefois, toutes habillées de même, passer en rang dans les
rues; elles étaient conduites par ces religieuses qui veillent sans
cesse sur ce troupeau abandonné des hommes.
Tous ces enfants avaient l’air heureux, la sérénité de leurs âmes était
transparente sur leurs visages résignés.
Pas une petite fille ne cherchait autour d’elle, elles se croyaient les
enfants de Dieu, j’en suis sûre, et cela vaut mieux que de connaître
sa mère quand on doit la mépriser.
Je cherchai à combattre sa résolution; l’hospice des Enfants-Trouvés,
que je n’avais jamais envisagé, il est vrai, sous ce point de vue, me
paraissait la plus triste et la plus désespérée de toutes les demeures,
mais je ne pouvais m’opposer aux dernières volontés d’une mère
mourante qui ne voyait que ce moyen de salut pour sa fille.
Je résolus pourtant de tenter une dernière épreuve auprès de son
père. Profitant d’un instant où Denise reposait, j’écrivis une longue
lettre à un de mes amis qui habitait Rouen, je lui dépeignis de mon
mieux la triste situation de cette pauvre abandonnée.
Le sujet et le lieu étaient bien faits pour m’inspirer des paroles
touchantes! je joignis à cette lettre quelques lignes pour M. Édouard;
ces quelques lignes contenaient des reproches, des plaintes et des
menaces. J’étais sûre d’avoir une réponse quelconque de mon ami,
mais arriverait-elle à temps?
 LII
DENISE

J’envoyai chercher un médecin au point du jour; il déclara que la

malade ne pouvait être transportée chez moi, que son état était
désespéré, que cependant elle pouvait encore vivre quelques jours si
on lui faisait prendre les drogues qu’il ordonnait.
Je me fis amener la petite fille; elle était gentille et d’une propreté
éblouissante. Adèle lui avait acheté une jolie layette et allait voir
l’enfant deux fois par jour pour s’assurer qu’elle ne manquait de rien.
Adèle est une de ces natures qui ne se décrivent pas; il faut voir par
soi-même avec quelle simplicité, quel désintéressement elles font le
bien, pour y croire.
Je voulus lui exprimer ma reconnaissance de ce qu’elle avait fait
pour Denise; elle me répondit que si Denise mourait, elle garderait
son enfant, qu’elle n’était pas riche, mais qu’elle ferait de son mieux
en travaillant un peu plus.
Elle l’aurait fait comme elle le disait, et je suis bien sûre qu’elle aurait
continué avec tout ce qu’elle a de cœur ce qu’elle avait commencé.
Je revins voir Denise dans la même journée: elle se trouvait
beaucoup plus mal; le soir, on crut encore tout fini, on m’envoya
chercher à minuit. Adèle lui frottait les tempes avec du vinaigre.
—Elle vient d’avoir une crise terrible, me dit-elle à demi-voix, c’est
pour cette nuit.
Denise me fit signe qu’elle me voyait, mais elle ne put me parler et
je restai auprès de son lit sans oser dire une parole. Elle dormit
quelques heures, mais son sommeil était agité, elle se remuait,
marmottait des paroles inintelligibles.
Tantôt il sortait de sa gorge des sons rauques et lugubres, tantôt de
petits cris étranglés et plaintifs comme ceux d’un enfant. A cinq
heures, elle se souleva sur son séant, ses joues creuses et pâles se
ranimèrent un peu.
—Je viens de revivre, me dit-elle en souriant, j’ai rêvé.
Elle parla encore, mais ses paroles expirèrent entre ses dents, sa
poitrine s’agita. J’avais vu mourir la mère de ma filleule et je compris
que le moment suprême approchait. Je lui demandai si elle voulait
recevoir les sacrements, elle me fit signe que non.
—Sa fille n’est pas encore baptisée, me dit Adèle à voix basse.
Je priai le domestique de l’hôtel d’aller à Sainte-Élisabeth chercher
un prêtre et de m’envoyer de suite la nourrice de l’enfant.
Pour ne pas effrayer Denise, je lui annonçai que j’allais faire ondoyer
sa fille en attendant la cérémonie régulière du baptême.
A sept heures, le prêtre arrivait; nous le laissâmes seul avec la
malade. Il lui parla longtemps à voix basse, l’exhortant sans doute à
la prière et au courage. Denise retrouva la parole et des larmes.
Elle voulut sans doute s’agenouiller pour demander pardon à Dieu,
car nous entendîmes le prêtre lui dire:
—Vous n’êtes pas assez forte pour vous agenouiller; plus tard, mon
enfant, vous prierez le Seigneur comme il convient de le prier; en
attendant, c’est moi qui prierai pour vous.
Lorsque nous rentrâmes, elle était calme; sa figure avait pris une
expression pleine de sérénité qu’elle n’avait pas une heure
auparavant, et quand un tressaillement nerveux trahissait une de ses
souffrances, elle embrassait un petit crucifix que le prêtre avait placé
près d’elle afin de l’exhorter au courage.
L’enfant reçut l’onction première dans la chambre où sa mère venait
de recevoir l’extrême-onction. Denise regarda tout ce que l’on faisait
sans mot dire; une grosse larme roula sur sa joue et je crois qu’elle
pria mentalement. Le prêtre lui promit de revenir la voir.
A neuf heures, ma domestique que j’avais prévenue m’apporta une
lettre de Rouen; elle était de mon ami et voici à peu près ce qu’elle
contenait:

«Ma chère Céleste, je m’étais mis à votre disposition et vous avez

bien fait de vous adresser à moi. Je regrette que la mission dont
vous m’avez chargé ait été aussi facile à remplir et je veux au moins
avoir un mérite, celui de la promptitude.
»Je me suis rendu de suite chez M. Édouard M.... Ce fut sa mère qui
me reçut; elle m’avait fait attendre près d’une heure, elle vint à moi
en s’excusant de son mieux, mais son fils, me dit-elle, était
dangereusement malade, il y avait en ce moment deux médecins
près de lui et elle avait hâte de savoir le résultat de la consultation.
Son fils avait commis une imprudence lors de son installation dans
sa fabrique de rouennerie; les suites d’une sueur rentrée allaient
peut-être le conduire au tombeau.
»La pauvre femme se mit à fondre en larmes, et je fus obligé
d’attendre qu’elle fût un peu remise pour lui expliquer le motif de ma
visite. Le moment, du reste, était propice, et je ne trouvai rien de
mieux à faire que de lui lire votre lettre. Ses larmes redoublèrent,
cela ne m’étonna pas, j’avais moi-même pleuré en la lisant.
»J’ajoutai à ma lecture quelques appréciations personnelles:—M. M...
s’est mal conduit, lui dis-je; ce qu’il a fait là est l’action d’un homme
sans cœur.
»Cette malheureuse n’a pas de parents, de soutien, eh! bien, dès
aujourd’hui, elle a un ami, un protecteur en moi, et si votre fils ne
fait pas ce qu’un honnête homme doit faire en pareille circonstance,
donner du pain à un enfant qui ne lui demandait pas la vie, qu’il a
créé pour son plaisir avec la volonté de l’abandonner, je lui dirai à
lui-même ce que je pense et j’en supporterai toutes les
conséquences.
»—Ah! s’écria la bonne femme, qui au fond n’a pas l’air méchant;
vous oseriez provoquer mon fils pour une aventurière qu’il a trouvée
je ne sais où!
»—Si vous ne le savez pas, vous, il doit le savoir, lui, puisqu’il y est
allé; et puis, cette aventurière a porté son nom pendant sept ans,
elle est la mère de son enfant et il doit la respecter s’il se respecte
lui-même.
»S’il ne voulait pas l’épouser, il était libre, puisque sa conscience me
paraît pleine d’élasticité; mais il devait faire quelque chose pour cette
malheureuse en la quittant.
»Elle lui avait donné sept années de son amour, de sa jeunesse, on
ne fait pas pareil présent trois fois dans sa vie et cela doit se payer.
»Du reste, on vous dit qu’il est trop tard pour la sauver, il n’y a donc
rien à faire pour elle, mais il reste son enfant; le laisserez-vous aller
à l’hospice comme un chien?
»Tenez! si vous faites cela, Dieu vous punira! et qui sait s’il ne
commence pas en frappant votre fils.
»—Ah! monsieur, ne dites pas cela, s’écria la bonne femme en
joignant les mains, vous me rendriez folle. Mon pauvre Édouard n’est
pas méchant; il n’a même pas vu les dernières lettres de Louise,
c’est moi qui les ai reçues, et reconnaissant l’écriture, je les ai
brûlées sans les lire.
»Si j’avais su qu’elle fût aussi malheureuse, j’aurais été moi-même à
Paris.
»Pauvre petite fille! si j’allais perdre mon fils, c’est tout ce qui me
resterait de lui.
»Où demeure Louise? à Paris? je veux lui écrire, la supplier de me
donner son enfant, le mien.
»J’en aurai bien soin, je l’aimerai de tout mon cœur pour expier mes
torts envers sa mère.
»Tenez, vous aviez raison, le bon Dieu me punit et va peut-être me
rendre le mal que j’ai fait à une autre. Qu’elle ne vienne pas, elle,
vous entendez; mon Édouard est marié, mais qu’elle vous confie sa
fille. Ah! si je pouvais aller à Paris! mais je dois rester ici.
»Je suis trop vieille pour souffrir autant; le moindre choc me brise,
et si mon fils doit mourir demain, je voudrais mourir aujourd’hui.
»—Vous n’en avez plus le droit, lui dis-je, vous avez un autre enfant.
»Je rentrai chez moi pour vous écrire.
»Que voulez-vous faire?
»Puis-je vous être utile en quoi que ce soit? je suis tout à votre
disposition.»

Je lus plusieurs fois cette lettre à Denise.

Elle me serra la main avec le peu de force qui lui restait, puis elle
murmura:
—Il souffre... Cela me fait du bien de savoir qu’il n’avait pas reçu
mes lettres. Que Dieu lui pardonne comme je lui pardonne le mal
qu’il m’a fait! Il faut faire partir ma fille de suite. Je voudrais qu’il la
vît au moins une fois.
Je fis venir la nourrice, Denise donna un long et dernier baiser à sa
fille, ses lèvres restèrent entr’ouvertes, son regard fixe, elle était
morte! non pas en désespérée, comme elle serait morte si le hasard
ne m’eût pas amenée à son chevet, mais morte en croyante, le
sourire aux lèvres et de l’espérance plein le cœur.
La nourrice partit à midi ou une heure.
Lorsqu’elle vit l’enfant s’éloigner, Adèle pleura, elle le regardait déjà
comme étant à elle; il est si naturel d’avoir des affections chastes
quand on est femme et jetée sur la terre sans famille, comme un
pauvre esquif lancé en mer sans mâture, qu’on cherche toujours à
se créer une tendresse durable.
—Allons, me dit-elle en essuyant ses larmes, le bonheur m’échappe
encore une fois; il me semble que si j’avais eu une tâche à remplir,
je serais arrivée à faire quelque chose de bien.
Le prêtre qui avait assisté Denise revint dans la journée, comme il
l’avait promis, il pria longtemps près de la morte, et la garda
quelques heures, en disant à son chevet la prière des morts; je ne
doute pas qu’il ait obtenu sa grâce devant celui qui nous jugera
tous!
Quant à moi, il me semble que les exhortations du saint homme
m’avaient rendue meilleure.
Le surlendemain, je reçus une lettre de Rouen, qui me rassura tout à
fait sur le compte de l’enfant de ma pauvre amie.
Son arrivée avait été fêtée par la mère d’Édouard; elle lui trouvait
déjà une ressemblance avec son fils, mais la joie ne fut pas de
longue durée.
La fièvre, le délire, s’étaient emparés du malade; il ne reconnut ni sa
mère, ni sa femme, et il mourut entre leurs bras, vingt-quatre heures
après Denise.
La bonne femme va reporter toute sa tendresse sur l’enfant, elle
sera riche un jour; voilà une innocente qui ne portera pas les fautes
d’une mère coupable: cela est juste, mais assez rare.
La mort de Denise m’affecta beaucoup; mais au milieu de mes
tourments, de mes préoccupations, j’avais peu de place à donner
aux regrets, et puis, à force de voir naître et mourir autour de soi,
on s’habitue à la mort, et ce qui vous paraissait un événement au
début de la vie vous semble moins extraordinaire au milieu, naturel,
je crois, lorsqu’on arrive à la fin; d’ailleurs, il y a des êtres pour qui la
mort est une délivrance. Je trouvais Denise bien plus heureuse que
moi, et au lieu de m’apitoyer sur son sort, je l’enviais.
La misère dans laquelle je l’avais retrouvée venait encore justifier
mes craintes pour l’avenir.
Le jour de la première représentation de la revue arriva. J’avais à
chanter un très-grand rondeau. J’avais beaucoup travaillé, le rôle
était sérieux, je l’avais bien compris, et pour la première fois depuis
que je jouais la comédie, je me sentis à mon aise.
Le public me récompensa de mes efforts, je fus couverte
d’applaudissements; on me fit bisser et je fus rappelée deux fois.
Les bravos sont une bien douce musique.
Mais, hélas! la gloire est incertaine et les médailles ont des revers. A
la troisième représentation, je pris un demi-ton au-dessus de
l’orchestre et je chantai faux tout le temps, mais cela n’était qu’un
accident, j’avais étonné tout le monde le jour de la première
représentation, ma place était faite, j’avais attendu assez longtemps.
C’est à peu près à ce moment que je reçus les premières lettres que
Robert m’avait écrites en mer.
Elles me firent à la fois beaucoup de bien et beaucoup de mal.
J’étais heureuse de voir que mon souvenir grandissait dans sa
pensée à mesure qu’il s’éloignait de moi, mais ces plaintes si douces
qui me venaient de si loin me navraient le cœur.
J’avais éprouvé depuis quelques mois des émotions si poignantes et
si diverses, que mes forces physiques, malgré l’énergie de ma
constitution, ne purent y résister.
Il s’opéra en moi une réaction terrible. Je tombai malade, si malade
que je fus obligée d’interrompre mon service au théâtre.
Je quittai à la dix-huitième représentation.
M. D... vint me voir.
Il savait que je ne voulais plus reprendre mon rôle.
Il espérait me faire revenir sur cette détermination.
Il devint un de mes meilleurs amis et fut très-bon pour moi pendant
cette maladie.
L’affection que je lui ai témoignée a prouvé que je ne le confondais
pas avec d’autres.
Je me suis toujours très-effrayée des liaisons entre les auteurs et les
actrices.
Il y a dans la vie de théâtre beaucoup d’écrivains consciencieux qui
ne voient que les grands côtés de l’art, il y en a aussi
malheureusement quelques-uns qui abusent de leur intelligence pour
satisfaire les plus mauvais penchants.
Combien de jeunes gens, à l’esprit faux, se croient de grands
hommes parce qu’ils tiennent une plume, et envient jusqu’à la haine
ceux qu’ils ne peuvent atteindre! C’est un mélange de sentiments
faux et injustes, révoltants.
Quelques-uns ont des mots particuliers; on dirait qu’ils parlent une
langue à part.
Ainsi, pour exprimer qu’ils sont satisfaits d’eux-mêmes, ils disent:
«Suis-je assez à la prestance! hein? Enfonce-t-on les fils de famille!
Les hommes du monde sont des daims! Il n’y a que nous qui soyons
sur la ligne.»
Ils s’acharnent après les actrices, ils ne les quittent pas plus que leur
ombre.
Leur grand moyen de séduction consiste à dire aux femmes de
théâtre qu’elles seules sont les véritables grandes dames.
Ils vous font toutes sortes de misères. On les reçoit souvent parce
qu’on ne peut pas faire autrement.
Ils ne veulent pas de femmes dans une position modeste.
C’est indigne d’eux; il leur faut les plus élégantes, les plus prodigues.
Cela leur coûte si peu, et ils sont si complaisants; mais si l’actrice,
presque toujours courtisane, ne jette pas sous leurs pieds son
manteau doré de luxe et de honte, si elle ne quitte pas tout pour les
accompagner à l’estaminet, les regarder fumer leur pipe, ils méditent
une vengeance.
Ils s’emparent d’elle, attendent derrière un rideau que le grand
seigneur qu’elle trompe pour eux soit parti.
Ils prennent sa place, boivent dans son verre le vin qu’il a laissé et
payé.
Quand ils sont ivres, ils insultent l’amphitryon.
Cette vie dure quelques mois sans qu’il leur en coûte même une
bonne parole.
Ce n’est pas tout, il faut tirer parti de ce temps perdu à rire, à boire.
On écrit un pamphlet, une pièce de vers, un feuilleton, un drame où
l’on fait du puritanisme.
Pour connaître les femmes, il faut vivre avec elles, diront-ils. Cela est
un faux et mauvais prétexte.
Des hommes d’infiniment d’esprit les jugent et les condamnent sans
avoir vécu du produit de leur honteuse existence.
Quand le moraliste est un complice qui me frappe, sûr de l’impunité,
et qu’il n’a même pas pour excuse le semblant d’une conversion,
cela me révolte.
Je connais un de ces hommes qui vivait aux dépens de ces femmes
qu’il accable aujourd’hui; c’est le plus implacable.
Je me rends justice.
Je baisse le front jusqu’à terre devant une honnête femme; je ne
répondrais pas aux réprimandes d’un homme juste, quelque sévères
qu’elles fussent, je lui confesserais ma vie tout entière.
Je lui avouerais que j’ai fait le malheur de ceux qui m’entouraient,
que je suis une affreuse créature, que moi et mes pareilles, nous
devons être la terreur des honnêtes gens; mais quand un de ceux
qui aident si souvent à la première chute m’insultera pour recevoir le
soir chez une autre le prix de ce qu’il vient de dire de moi, je le
regarderai en face, je lui rirai au nez en lui disant:
—Je vous pardonne parce qu’il faut que vous viviez. Combien vous
a-t-on donné? Je comprends tous les marchés infâmes. Voyons:
soyez franc et ne me dites pas que vous voulez redresser un monde
que vous minez à sa base.
Ces types sont de rares exceptions, mais ils existent.
D... était un honnête homme plein de mépris pour cette littérature,
et ce n’est pas lui qui songera jamais à faire du théâtre un tréteau
pour une basse vengeance.
 LIII
PRESSENTIMENTS.

Ma maladie m’avait rendu toutes mes tristesses, tous mes

découragements, toutes mes amertumes.
Les jours succédaient aux jours, et je ne recevais plus de nouvelles
de Robert.
Je commençais à concevoir de sérieuses inquiétudes, lorsque je
reçus à la fois plusieurs lettres qui, tout en me donnant des détails
tristes, me rassuraient au moins sur sa vie.

«18 août 1852.

»Je ne sais, ma chère Céleste, si nous nous reverrons jamais!
»Telle est la vie; elle est pleine de courtes joies et de longues
douleurs, de liaisons commencées et rompues.
»Par une étrange fatalité, ces liaisons ne sont jamais faites à l’heure
où elles pourraient être durables.
»On découvre le cœur que l’on cherchait la veille du jour où ce cœur
va cesser de battre.
»Mille choses, mille accidents séparent les âmes qui s’aiment
pendant la vie; puis vient cette séparation de la mort qui renverse
tous nos projets...
»Allons, mon cœur, cesse de te plaindre et ne te laisse pas abattre
par les douleurs du souvenir, par les espérances trompées.
»Si tes douleurs sont aussi grandes que ton amour, que ton courage
aussi soit à la hauteur de tes douleurs.
»Tu es à l’autre bout du monde, et tes cris n’arriveront jamais pour
déchirer le cœur qui te fait tant souffrir.
»Et quand même ils y arriveraient, que rencontreraient-ils comme
écho?
»Peut-être des cris de joie et de fête.
»Souffre donc sans te plaindre et que tes seules paroles soient des
paroles de pardon et de tendresse.
»Cet amour n’est-il pas plus beau, plus pur dans ce pays, loin de ces
joies, de ces rires, de ces orgies qui pouvaient le souiller et l’humilier
par leur contact, loin de ce Paris, loin de ce monde où le
dévouement est une sottise, la tendresse une folie, la fidélité un
ridicule.»

«19 août 1852.

»Je suis si souffrant, que le découragement s’empare de mon âme.
»Le bateau qui a dû partir d’Angleterre quinze jours après nous
n’arrive pas.
»Je ne puis partir pour les mines dans l’état où je suis, et d’un autre
côté, je voudrais voir arriver ce bâtiment par lequel j’espère recevoir
quelques nouvelles de France.
»J’ai écrit à mes parents la position dans laquelle je me trouve, et
puis j’attends aussi M. L..., ce jeune homme dont je vous ai parlé
dans mes premières lettres.
»Mes nuits sont atroces, toujours des rêves, des cauchemars, où
votre image est mêlée.
»On dirait qu’elle s’assied à mon chevet, et qu’elle prend plaisir à me
déchirer le cœur.
»Je me lève, et quoique bien faible, je reprends la plume pour vous
écrire.
»Les mots me manquent pour rendre ma pensée, et pourtant mon
cœur aurait tant de choses à vous dire, je voudrais tant vous voir,
causer longtemps avec vous.
»Je sais que mes plaintes vous importunent et qu’elles ne
réveilleront pas un amour éteint dans votre cœur; mais j’aime à me
nourrir de mes angoisses.
»Je voudrais pouvoir vous en exprimer toute la violence.
»Oh! si j’étais aimé! je trouverais, pour vous parler, un langage digne
du ciel.
»Les mots me manquent parce que votre âme ne peut comprendre
mon âme.
»Je n’en puis plus.
»La souffrance physique brise mon moral; je suis si seul, je n’ose
pas même demander un médecin, je ne pourrais pas le payer.
»Et ce vaisseau qui doit amener L..., et les lettres qui n’arrivent pas!
»Il est si doux, quand on souffre, d’avoir un ami.
»Il m’a témoigné de l’affection, sa présence serait pour moi une
grande consolation.
»Pourvu que vous soyez heureuse!»

«26 août 1852.

»Point de nouvelles! point de navire!
»Je croyais vous annoncer par cette lettre mon départ pour les
mines, mais je ne puis quitter Sidney sans avoir reçu quelques
nouvelles de France.
»Céleste, Céleste, je mérite au moins un souvenir de vous, et si mon
nom vient quelquefois se mêler à vos joies et à vos plaisirs, tâchez
au moins de conserver pour lui un respect que vous lui devez.
»J’attendrai encore quelques jours, jusqu’à la fin de la semaine, et si
ce navire que j’attends n’arrive pas, je me mettrai en route pour les
mines.»

«Sidney, lundi, 20 septembre 1852.

»Je monte à cheval dans une heure.
»J’ai employé mes dernières ressources; après avoir vendu tout ce
que j’avais pour acheter un cheval, je pars pour les mines.
»Je vais dans l’intérieur des terres, à deux cents lieues d’ici.
»Il me faut de onze à quinze jours pour arriver.
»J’ai un pressentiment que je n’en reviendrai pas.
»Outre la fatigue du voyage, c’est un métier si dur, que je ne crois
pas pouvoir y résister, et si j’y résistais, il y a trop de chances contre
moi pour y réussir.
»Je ne veux pas me mettre en route, Céleste, sans t’adresser mes
derniers adieux, toi qui as été le seul amour de ma vie et dont le
souvenir et la pensée ne me quitteront qu’avec la vie.
»On dirait que mon amour pour toi s’est augmenté en raison du mal
que tu m’as fait.
»Je t’aime aujourd’hui comme je t’ai toujours aimée.
»Plains-moi, car je souffre bien, et respecte un souvenir qui est le
seul beau que tu puisses conserver.
»Je devrais te haïr et je t’adore.
»Adieu, idole de ma vie! Je t’envoie ce dernier souvenir comme si je
ne devais jamais te revoir. Pourquoi le désirer?
»Qu’aurais-tu à me donner maintenant?
»Quand j’avais tout ce qui aurait pu te rendre fière de mon amour,
tu l’as dédaigné.
»Aujourd’hui je suis ruiné, mes cheveux blanchissent, mon cœur est
brisé, l’avenir est donc fini.
»Adieu, adieu, je t’aime! adieu, je te pardonne.
»Je jette cette lettre à la poste, en m’en allant à Sidney.
»Adieu, n’oublie pas qu’à l’extrémité du monde, il y a un cœur qui ne
bat que pour toi. Adieu!
»ROBERT.»

J’écrivais souvent à Robert, mais combien mes lettres étaient loin

d’égaler la brûlante éloquence des siennes.
Elles ne ressemblaient en rien à celles que je lui avais adressées
autrefois dans le Berry; les premières étaient ardentes, passionnées,
les secondes étaient froides et décolorées.
Etait-ce une marque d’indifférence? tout le monde l’aurait cru, lui-
même peut-être m’en accusait; mais le cœur des femmes est une
énigme, et tout le monde se serait trompé.
Seulement mon âme était trop troublée, trop profondément malade
pour se répandre au dehors.
Robert en face de sa douleur et des magnificences de la nature, les
yeux fixés sur l’Océan, m’écrivait des lettres admirables de poésie et
de tendresse! et moi, perdue au milieu de mille tracasseries, livrée à
mille impressions qui torturaient ma vie, je me repliais sur moi-
même, et je n’avais de force que pour une muette douleur.
D’ailleurs, je ne savais pas où était Robert.
Je me demandais si mes lettres pourraient jamais lui parvenir.
C’est sans doute une infirmité de ma nature, mais cette incertitude
glaçait ma pensée.
Le temps, qui est le maître de tout, avait dissipé mon mal mieux que
l’art des médecins.
Comme toujours aussi, ma convalescence physique avait amené une
sorte de convalescence morale.
Je reprenais un peu de confiance et de courage.
Les blessures que Robert m’avait faites se cicatrisaient peu à peu.
S’il n’eût pas été si malheureux, cela eût été plus long, peut-être
cela aurait-il duré toute ma vie, mais il devait tant souffrir que,
lorsqu’une des mauvaises pensées qui m’avaient rendue pendant
deux ans complice de sa ruine venait traverser mon esprit, je la
chassais, et malgré moi, je sentais revenir pour lui une tendresse
que la vengeance avait mal étouffée.
Les femmes qui, comme moi, ont violé les lois de la pudeur, sont
forcées de rougir de leurs pensées comme de leurs actions.
L’image de Robert n’était pas la seule qui vînt s’offrir à mon esprit.
J’avais écrit plusieurs lettres à Richard, et ces lettres étaient restées
sans réponses.
J’étais bien sûre pourtant qu’il ne m’oubliait pas; mais il était dans la
nature de cette âme douce et tendre de se nourrir de sa mélancolie
dans la solitude.
Pendant son voyage en Californie, il était resté deux ans sans
m’écrire.
Je n’avais pas le droit d’imposer mon souvenir à cette âme
souffrante.
Il vivait dans mon cœur, tombe bien indigne de lui. Pauvre Richard!
Si je ne lui ai pas donné tout l’amour qu’il méritait, s’il doit
désormais rester étranger à ma vie, je lui garderai une grande place
dans ma reconnaissance.
Je n’ai jamais souffert par lui.
J’ai souvent maudit l’amour que j’avais pour Robert, amour qui nous
perdait tous deux, car, à force de me faire souffrir des inégalités de
son caractère, il avait tué, étouffé ma passion, ma confiance, mon
cœur s’était flétri, endurci, à force d’humiliations; me croyant sans
cesse attaquée, j’étais toujours en révolte.
J’aimais Richard comme un frère, j’aurais voulu pouvoir lui rendre
service au prix de mon sang.
Enfin, son souvenir était le parfum de ma vie, comme la nuit passée
chez Robert avec une rivale en avait été l’enfer.
Il continuait de s’opérer en moi une grande transformation, mais rien
n’était plus variable que mon humeur.
Parfois il me prenait des envies d’aller vivre dans un coin, seule,
comme une bête sauvage.
Pauvre folle! n’avais-je pas ma chaîne à porter?
Il me fallait simuler la gaieté quand je mourais d’envie de pleurer,
vendre les sourires que je n’avais plus.
Il me fallait répondre à toutes ces femmes qui me demandaient:
—Eh bien! où en sont vos procès?
—Ils vont à merveille, je suis sûre de les gagner tous.
Quand, au fond de l’âme, j’étais dévorée d’inquiétude, obligée de
subir des amis importuns qui pouvaient me protéger ou me
conseiller, entendre des déclarations absurdes.
Lorsqu’une femme est passable, on s’impose à elle, on ne lui donne
rien, on ne lui laisse que la latitude de tomber un peu plus bas.
Il faut alors être rusée et devenir un profond diplomate, pour résister
à toutes ces prétentions sans heurter ceux qui les ont.
Le plus acharné de mes ennemis était un amoureux éconduit.
Parfois, je formais le projet d’aller à l’étranger.
Ne pouvant m’échapper à moi-même, je voulais au moins échapper
au pays où j’avais gaspillé mon existence.
Je retrouve la trace de ces préoccupations dans une de mes lettres à
Robert.
Je trouve aussi la trace des mouvements de colère que le souvenir
du passé me donnait quelquefois contre lui.

«Il est neuf heures du soir.

»Je suis près du feu, dans ce cabinet de toilette où cette femme
était le jour où j’ai tant pleuré, sur ce lit qui aujourd’hui me fait
l’effet d’une tombe.
»Depuis ce jour-là, je t’ai revu à mes pieds, tu l’as quittée pour moi;
mais, depuis, je n’ai jamais été heureuse, le souvenir de quelques
heures a tué toute ma vie avec toi.
»Et quand je pense à ta faiblesse pour cette femme, à la manière
dont tu me laissas partir, mon cœur bat, ma tête brûle.
»Je ris et je suis heureuse de ta misère.
»Ah! j’ai tant souffert! et cette cicatrice qui vous a fait rire tous deux
de moi me fait si souvent mal!
»Je n’ai pourtant pas le cœur haineux, mais je déteste cette créature
à qui j’ai demandé miséricorde et à qui le bruit de cette scène a fait
une auréole.
»Je ne vivrai probablement pas assez pour voir leur misère, à ces
belles railleuses; mais si je survis à toutes mes peines, l’avenir qui
les attend me vengera.
»Dès que mes procès seront terminés, je vais faire un grand voyage,
je quitterai ce pays, j’irai à l’étranger.
»Je n’ai pas voulu faire d’engagement pour ici, ni pour Londres.
»Londres, c’est trop près.
»Une fois tout terminé, je partirai.
»Aller près de toi, c’est impossible, ce serait rejoindre nos misères.
»Tu ne feras rien dans ce pays que des années d’exil.
»Je ne serai plus là quand tu reviendras; morte ou partie, mon âme
sera près de toi pour te dire:
»—Courage; tu dois espérer, tu es jeune encore, tu as des frères et
des sœurs millionnaires; ils ne peuvent t’abandonner, ils ont voulu te
faire subir une épreuve; ils ne la croyaient pas si rude; ils ont des
cœurs pleins de noblesse, ils t’ouvriront les bras.
»Pour toi, il y a encore une étoile à l’horizon, ne la quitte plus des
yeux; ton âme était pleine de piété, fais remonter tes pensées à
Dieu.
»Pour moi, tout est nuit; j’ai le pressentiment que tu ne m’aimes
plus, que la misère a arraché de ton cœur un amour qui n’était pas
fait pour moi; une autre m’a peut-être remplacée; si elle te rend
heureux, tant mieux.»

Mes lettres, du reste, n’étaient pas toujours amères.

Il y en avait de bonnes et tendres, je lui disais:
«Si tous ces maudits procès étaient finis, je quitterais un monde qui
me dégoûte, que je méprise, parce que c’est le pire de tous les
mondes.
»Il s’enorgueillit de ses ridicules, c’est le vice sans besoin, sans
passion, sans excuse.
»L’impudence, la dépravation président à tout ce qu’il appelle ses
fêtes, ses plaisirs.
»On rougit de soi-même, quand le besoin vous rive à ses côtés.
»Si vous m’en trouviez encore digne, j’irais vous rejoindre aux
antipodes.
»Vous serez vieux, dites-vous; eh bien, tant mieux, je ne vous en
aimerai pas moins.
»Vous serez tout à moi; nous irons nous enfermer dans un coin du
monde.
»Personne ne se souviendra de notre jeunesse, nous l’oublierons
nous-mêmes.
»Je viens d’être bien malade, j’ai eu peur de mourir, uniquement à
cause de vous; je craignais de ne plus vous revoir.
»A vous ma vie! Puisse-t-elle être assez longue pour racheter le
passé.»

En attendant, la route théâtrale que je suivais était si aride, que

j’avais souvent envie de m’arrêter.
Je crois que, sans Page, j’aurais abandonné le théâtre.
Malheureusement, elle tomba subitement malade et quitta les
Variétés.
Ma seule amie partie, l’ennui me prit plus fort que jamais.
Je cherchais une distraction dans mes ennuis mêmes; à force de
répondre aux attaques dirigées contre moi par mes adversaires, de
faire des notes sur ma vie, notes indispensables à mes procès, je
finis par prendre goût à ce griffonnage.
Je me défendais mieux en écrivant qu’en parlant. J’apportais, en
présence des injustices dont j’étais victime, une ardeur fébrile qui
gagnait ceux qui s’intéressaient à moi.
Un moment pourtant, je crus encore une fois tout perdu; la ruse, le
croirait-on, était du côté des hommes; rien ne les arrêtait, et je
cherchais souvent dans ma pensée s’il n’y avait pas une cause
mystérieuse à cette guerre acharnée, déloyale.
La haine semblait égarer la raison de ceux qui me poursuivaient.
J’ai dit qu’en mon absence, on était entré chez moi, qu’on avait
ouvert mes meubles, compulsé mes papiers, mes lettres les plus
intimes et pris tout ce qui semblait devoir être des armes contre moi.
Je déposai de nouvelles plaintes au parquet, mais la justice a
tellement à faire qu’un instant je crus qu’elle s’arrêterait à moi.
J’étais sur le point de renoncer à tout, lorsque des attaques
injurieuses dirigées contre Robert me rendirent toute mon énergie.
Il ne s’agissait que de mon argent; pour lui, il s’agissait de l’honneur.
On l’accusait d’avoir fait des actes frauduleux.
On disait que, prévoyant sa ruine, il m’avait prise pour son prête-
nom.
Les procès recommencèrent, pendant trois mois les journaux ne
s’occupèrent que de cette affaire et soudèrent ainsi publiquement au
mien un nom honorable, et qui ne pouvait être déclassé parce qu’il
s’était ruiné, et puis Robert était exilé et si malheureux qu’il avait
déjà expié une partie de ses torts.
Je ne pouvais l’entendre insulter et je tâchais de me faire éloquente
pour le défendre.
Je dois dire que si un ami, un parent l’avait secouru de quelque mille
francs à cette époque, tout cela se serait arrangé sans mon
intervention, et mon nom ne se serait pas trouvé à chaque instant
uni au sien pour le flétrir.
Quelques lettres écrites par moi à Robert et saisies chez moi, avec
des papiers qu’il m’avait laissés en partant, figurèrent aux procès;
elles furent imprimées dans le Droit, et on me les contesta.
Elles étaient trop jolies, disait-on, pour émaner de mon cerveau; on
me les avait dictées, faites, que sais-je?
J’éprouvai de la peine à me voir discuter jusqu’à mes pensées; mais
au lieu d’affaiblir mon courage, cela me rendit plus ardente, plus
réfléchie.
Je commençai à comprendre que la vie laborieuse vous aidait à tout
supporter; les tourments même deviennent un intérêt de tous les
instants.
Je ne dormais plus, je mangeais à peine, mais j’avais un but:
prouver que ce je possédais était à moi, que Robert avait pu être
léger, mais qu’il était incapable d’une fourberie, d’avoir eu même la
pensée des odieux calculs dont on l’accusait, et enfin défendre une
petite fortune qui devait assurer mon avenir et me donner les
moyens d’élever honorablement l’enfant que Dieu semblait m’avoir
envoyé.
J’ai dit que, dans toutes les phases heureuses ou malheureuses de
mon existence, j’avais l’habitude d’écrire mes impressions.
Un ami m’avait engagé à reprendre toute ma vie passée, à faire une
confession qui pourrait éclairer mes juges.
J’écrivis donc ma vie entière, espérant rendre ma défense plus facile.
Quelques années plus tôt, je n’aurais pas compris ce que l’on me
demandait; quelques années plus tard, il n’aurait plus été temps.
Mais au moment de cette fermentation de mon esprit, je mesurai du
regard les difficultés sans pâlir.
Etudier le jour, écrire la nuit, rien ne m’arrêtait.
Je me suis mise à ce travail et j’y ai trouvé un intérêt qui m’a
surprise et enchantée.
En repassant ma vie, j’étais étonnée de voir les amertumes s’en
adoucir.
Je découvrais en moi deux ressources dont je ne m’étais pas doutée,
et je compris qu’il pouvait y avoir, en dehors des mouvements d’une
existence agitée, de la joie et du bonheur.
J’avais comme un pressentiment que le dénoûment de ma vie se
préparait.
Non-seulement mes souvenirs me rappelaient le passé, mais un
hasard heureux semblait évoquer autour de moi les personnes pour
qui j’avais gardé de l’affection.
Un jour, ma femme de chambre m’annonça qu’il y avait dans le salon
un militaire qui voulait me parler.
—Je lui ai demandé son nom, me dit-elle.
Mais il m’a répondu:
—Votre maîtresse doit l’avoir oublié.
Piquée par la curiosité, j’allai au-devant du mystérieux visiteur.
Jugez de ma surprise; c’était Deligny! Deligny qu’on m’avait dit mort!
Deligny bien portant et en costume d’officier! Je fis trois fois le tour
de sa personne avant de lui dire un mot.
—Ah çà! dit-il, est-ce que vous ne me reconnaissez pas? Faut-il que
je vous donne ma carte?
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