Book 6 Module 6

CATEGORY B1 B2 B3
ELECTRICAL CABLES
CONTROL CABLES
REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEMS

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Licence By Post © Copyright B EASA 66 6.10 6.11 ISSUE 05 0811

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AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority
(the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures,
recording, report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the
regulations/guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your
company, national safety authorities and national governments.
CONTENTS

Page

Aircraft electrical cables 1

Cable types 6
Identification 7
Cable specifications 14
Crimping 18
Tools 19
Plugs & sockets 26
Mechanical flexible remote control systems 30
Control cables 30
System components 37
Specialised remote control systems 46
Teleflex controls 47
Bowden controls 51
Flexball controls 55
Syllabus 56
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

The B1 and B3 person should study the whole book – which is written to level
2. The B2 person should also study the whole book to the same level except for
control cables which should be studied to level 1.

As far as electrical cables and aircraft wiring is concerned you would be

expected to be able to carry out a cable change knowing the details of the types
of cables available, how to go about making up the cable and how it is
installed in the aircraft. You would also be expected to be able to carry out the
appropriate tests afterwards.

There should be no need to commit to memory the details of any specific

electrical cable specifications quoted but you should read through the
specifications and understand them.

There is some overlap between modules 6 and 7 in the subject of cables

(electrical and mechanical). For example, the terms ‘crimping’ appears in both
syllabuses as does ‘control cables’. So this means that there is some overlap in
the contents of these subjects in the module 6 and 7 study books.

You will need to be able to describe aircraft control cables and the components
in the system.
AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL CABLES
In the early days the cables used in aircraft were manufactured to a similar
standard to those used in the automobile industry. It was soon learnt that
these cables didn’t stand up to the severe climatic and environmental
conditions encountered during aircraft operations and therefore had to be
designed specifically for aircraft use. A variety of cable types have been
developed, the choice of cable for a particular function will be governed by its
purpose and location.

Requirements

These are laid down in BCAR’s section D, K and G (old system), now EASA
CS25 (large aeroplanes), CS27 and CS29 (helicopters) etc.

Reliability is of prime consideration for aircraft cables since the performance

and safety of an aircraft and its occupants is usually dependant on electrically
operated systems. Care, therefore, must be exercised during the manufacture
of cable looms and circuits and these must be thoroughly tested on
completion.
Listed below are a number of qualities which an aircraft cable should possess.

Minimum Weight and Dimensions. A large aircraft may require many miles of
electrical wiring and even small reductions in the size and mass of a cable will
result in a considerable weight saving, therefore allowing an increased
payload.

Resistant to Fluids. The likelihood of an aircraft cable encountering a variety of

aircraft fluids is high. It is therefore important that aircraft cables are able to
withstand the effects of: water, engine oils, hydraulic oils, fuels, solvents, etc.

Non-inflammability. Wiring is necessary in high fire risk areas such as engine

nacelles, and APU bays. Such wiring should not cause any fire to spread and
for this reason the protective covering should be of self extinguishing material.
There has been doubt about Capton wiring in this respect – although it is still
in use.

During flight many cables will experience a large temperature range and must
remain flexible within this range with the insulation remaining in tact.

Resistance to Abrasion. An aircraft cable must possess a number of ‘physical’

qualities and in particular must have high resistance to abrasion (induced by
aircraft vibration). Cables should also be physically strong and easily
workable.

-1-
Electrical Requirements. The conducting element must have a low resistivity
co-efficient with a low volts drop per unit length and the insulation must have
a sufficiently high resistance value to cope with the maximum applied voltage.
Current Rating

The normal current rating of a cable can be defined as: “The amount of current
it will carry without sustaining a temperature rise sufficient to cause the value
of the insulation resistance to deteriorate to an unacceptable level or without
exceeding a specified voltage drop per unit length”. Earlier cables either had
the current rating stamped on the outer sheath or had a colour identification
related to the current rating.

However, because a cable’s current carrying capacity is influenced by a

number of factors other than electrical load current, it is nowadays the
practice of cable manufacturers to use a classification based on the American
Wire Gauge (AWG).

Modern aircraft cables have a wire gauge number stamped on the outside. The
electrical systems designer will take into account the factors listed below
before choosing a cable for a particular job:

* The electrical loading of the cable.

* The amount of heat generated by neighbouring cables (cables in a
bundle or loom for example).
* The number of cables in the loom.
* The ambient temperature of the surrounding air (its location on
the aircraft – near an engine for example).
* Whether the cable is enclosed or in free air.
* The thermal conductivity of the cable.

Deterioration

Aircraft cables are designed to provide the best possible combination of

resistance to deterioration caused by extremes of temperature, mechanical
damage and contamination by fluids, and in general, are suitable for
installation without additional mechanical protection.

Working conditions and environment, however, may necessitate the provision

of extra protection (additional support, conduits etc) in those places where the
cables are exposed to the possibilities of local damage or conditions which
could cause deterioration.

-2-
Receipt Storage and Handling of Cables

Prior to delivery, cable ends are sealed to prevent ingress of moisture. The
cables are supplied on drums suitably labelled and protected to prevent
damage during transit and storage.
Smaller sizes of cable may sometimes by supplied in wrapped coils. Visual
examination of cables on receipt, by nature of the packing, is often restricted
to the outer turns. Such an examination is of little value in checking for faults
in the cable, therefore, if the condition of the packing, as received, gives rise to
doubt regarding the soundness of the cable, it should be returned to the
manufacturer.

Note. Check the cable part number/batch number and confirm its
identification against its documentation/stores release certificate (EASA form
1).

Cables should be stored in a clean, well-ventilated store. They should not be

stored near chemicals, solvents or oils and, if necessary, protection should be
provided against accidental damage. Loose coils, whether wrapped or not,
must not be stored so that a heavy weight is imposed on them, since this may
cause unacceptable distortion of the insulation or damage to the protective
coverings.

The ends of cables in store should be sealed against the ingress of moisture by
the use of waterproof tape or sealing compound.

It is important that cables are handled carefully at all times.

When taking long lengths of cable from a drum or reel, the cable should not be
allowed to come in contact with rough or dirty surfaces. Preferably the drum or
reel should be mounted so that it can rotate freely.

Care should be taken to remove the twist out of each turn of cable drawn from
loose coils, otherwise kinking, with consequent damage to the cable, may
occur.

Before being made up the cable length should be inspected for any signs of
damage or deterioration and given a continuity and insulation check.

-3-
Made-up Cabling

Cable looms and cable runs made-up on the bench should be inspected before
installation in the aircraft to check the following:

(a) That all cables, fittings, etc, are of the correct type, have been
obtained from an approved source, have been satisfactorily tested
 before making up and have not deteriorated in storage or been
damaged in handling.
(b) That all connectors and cable looms conform to the relevant AMM,
Wiring Diagram Manual or Modification Drawing in respect of
terminations, length, angle of outlets and orientation of contact
assemblies, identification, and protection of connections.
(c) That all crimped joints and soldered joints have been made in
accordance with the relevant AMM, Wiring Diagram Manual or
Modification Drawing, are clean and sound, and that insulating
materials have not been damaged in any way.
(d) That cable loom binding and strapping is secure.
(e) Carry out continuity, resistance and insulation tests.
(f) Cables should be identified using the correct aircraft wiring code
iaw the wiring diagram. Identification marking may be carried out
by printing on sleeves and attaching sleeves at the end of each
cable run or the cable may be printed on at regular intervals along
its length. If direct cable marking uses a heat marking system
then the cable must be inspected to check that the insulation has
not been damaged and an insulation check carried out. Many
looming shops have special machines that will automatically mark
the cable along its length at regular intervals with the
identification – at the same time carrying out insulation tests etc.

Installation of Cabling in Aircraft

Guidance on the factors requiring special attention during the installation is

given in the following paragraphs – but always check the AMM.

Contamination. To prevent moisture from running along the cables and

seeping into the associated equipment, the cables should be so routed as to
run downwards away from the equipment. Where this is not possible, the cable
should incorporate a descending loop immediately before the connection to the
equipment.

Where conduits, tubes or ducts are used, they should be installed in such a
way that any moisture accumulating in them will be able to drain safely away.
Cables which are routed through such fittings should be capable of
withstanding any such moisture.

-4-
Interference. Interfering magnetic fields may be set up by electrical equipment,
electrical currents in the cabling, or the aircraft structure, and also by
magnetic materials. Cables are required, therefore, to be installed so as to
reduce electrical interference to a minimum and to avoid interaction between
the different electrical services.

Note. Requirements for the avoidance of compass and radio interference are
given in Chapter J4-1 of British Civil Airworthiness Requirements.
(Now EASA CS23 – light aircraft, CS25 – large aeroplanes, CS27 & CS29 –
helicopters)

Protection of cabling. The cables are required to be protected from abrasion,

mechanical strain and excessive heat and against the deleterious effects of
fuel, oil and other aircraft fluids, water in either liquid or vapour form and the
weather. Where aircraft skin temperatures could be a problem (in hot climates)
cables should be routed away from the skin of the aircraft. The cables should
not be run near the hot parts of engines, APUs, exhausts, heat exchangers etc
unless a cooled-air space or heat barrier is provided.

Where cables are routed through metal fittings or bulkheads etc, the edges of
the holes through which they pass must be radiised and smoothed and fitted
with an insulated bush or sleeve. Cables which are drawn through holes or
tubes must be an easy fit requiring only a moderate, steady pull, care being
taken to keep the cables parallel to one another and to avoid the formation of
kinks (which may cause fracture).

Conduits, ducts and trunking used for carrying cables should have smooth
internal surfaces.

Cables being fitted through pressure bungs should be fitted into the correct
size holes for the size of cable, to ensure efficient sealing. Only the
recommended cable threading tool should be used for this purpose to avoid
damaging the bung.

Support of Cabling. The cabling must be adequately supported throughout its

length, and a sufficient number of cable clamps must be provided for each run
of cable to ensure that the unsupported lengths will not vibrate unduly.
Bends in cable groups should not be less than eight times the outside
diameter of the cable group. However, at terminal blocks, where the cable is
suitably supported at each end of the bend, a minimum radius of three times
the outside diameter of the cable, or cable bundle, is normally acceptable.

Cables must be fitted and clamped so that no tension will be applied in any
circumstances and so that loops or slackness will not occur in any position
where the cables might be caught and strained by normal movement of
persons or controls in the aircraft.

-5-
Where it is necessary for cables to flex, eg connections to retractable landing
gear, the amount and disposition of slack must be strictly controlled so that
the cable is not stressed in the extended position, and that the slack will not
be fouled, chafed, kinked or caught on any projection during movement in
either direction.

Cables should normally be supported independently of, and with maximum

practicable separation from, all fluid and gas carrying pipelines. To prevent
contamination or saturation of the cables in the event of leakage, cables
should be routed above rather than below liquid carrying pipelines.
CABLE TYPES

The pages at the back of this section give information on various types of
cables to be found on aircraft. You would not be required to remember the
details but you should understand the information that is given.
Cables and equipment should meet the requirements laid down in BCARs and
JARs to provide electric shock protection to personnel as well as heat
protection – if equipment gets hot during normal operation.

Airframe Cables. Used for runs throughout the airframe.

Interconnecting Cables. This is used for the interconnection of equipment

within racks, therefore their insulation is thinner than normal airframe
cabling. They are lighter and more flexible.

Equipment Wire. Sometimes known as ‘wire’ it is used within equipment and is

therefore flexible and suitable for soldering. It is not designed as
interconnecting wiring though some aircraft manufacturers do use it for this
in protected parts of the airframe.

Fire Resistant Cables. This type of cable is required to retain a defined level of
resistance in certain fire or overheat conditions. The cable is classed as Fire
Resistant if able to withstand 1100°C for 5 minutes, and Fire Proof if able to
withstand the same temperature for 15 minutes (EASA 25 & 1 – if close to the
outside of a firewall should not suffer damage if firewall heated to 1100°C for
15 minutes).

Fireproof Cables. These are required to operate for 15 minutes in a designated

zone defined in BCARs and JAR 1 and are used in designated fire zones.

-6-
Conducting elements on electrical cables are sometimes plated to improve
their ant-corrosive properties. The plating on copper conductors will normally
determine the maximum continuous working temperature, eg

135°C Tin plating

200°C Silver plating
260°C Nickel plating/cladding

Cable Maintenance
The requirements, laid down by the CAA for the installation of electrical cables,
are laid down in BCARs section J and EASA 23, 25, 27, 29.

Only the cables as specified in the AMM, or approved equivalents, should be

used. This will ensure that the cables will be capable of taking the
voltages (during operation and testing) and the maximum current in the most
adverse conditions, without damage to the cables. For more information on
maintenance see module 7 in this series.

CABLE IDENTIFICATION

Cables have two identifications, one is carried out by the manufacture of the
cable and the other is carried out by the aircraft manufacturer - to comply with
the wiring diagrams.

Cable Manufacturer’s Identification

Each manufacturer will stamp it’s identification code on the cable at regular
intervals along its length. This is done automatically either by an ink printing
process or a heated die process. It may include:

(a) The cable size.

(b) The manufacturers name.
(c) The manufacturers code, cable name etc.

For example: Minyvin GBx XX X 22

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

(1) Manufacturer’s name of the cable.

(2) Country of origin.
(3) Manufacturer’s cable code.
(4) Year of manufacture.
(5) Cable size.

-7-
These details should be checked against the stores release documents to
ensure they are the same.

Installation Identification

Besides the identification of the cable by the cable manufacturer there is a

requirement to identify the cable in the aircraft installation. During aircraft
manufacture a cable is installed (suitably routed, supported and connected -
crimped etc). Prior to assembly the cable is marked with a code that identifies
it and relates it to the aircraft wiring diagram.
The code - made up of a series of letters and numbers - may be printed on
sleeves which are placed on the cable ends prior to being made up - or more
likely - printed along the cable length itself.

The printing may be carried out by a small heated hand operated machine. It
is ribbon fed and prior to cable marking is set up with the correct numbers
and letters (cable code). These are found by reference to the appropriate
aircraft wiring diagram.

The cable may be marked by being put through an automatic identification

and testing machine – once set up this will pull the cable through and print
the code on the cable at the required intervals. It will test the cable for
continuity and insulation and any cable faults found will cause the machine to
stop and give an aural warning. It will stop automatically at the end of the
cable run.

At any rate it is important that the cable is coded at both ends and at any
point where it passes through bulkheads, seals, etc.

Always visually check the cable insulation for damage after heat identing as
the ident may have penetrated the insulation and exposed the conducting
core. (Fires have been caused by this, so it is important to check carefully and
reject the cable if found). This is why the automatic identing machines carry
out an insulation test at the same time as the identing procedure.

The code will identify such things as:

(a) Cable size.

(b) Circuit.
(c) Circuit function.
(d) Cable number.

The code may be devised by the aircraft manufacturer or may be based on the
ATA100 specification system. An example of this is shown below.

-8-
I EF G B 22 NMSV
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

1. Unit number, used where components have identical circuits.

2. Circuit function letter and circuit designation letter which indicate
circuit function and the associated system. In figure one there is
only one letter – the letter L indicating a lighting circuit.
3. Cable number, allocated to differentiate between cables which do
not have a common terminal in the same circuit. Generally,
contacts of switches, relays, etc, are not classified as common
terminals. Beginning with the number one, a different number is
given to each cable.
4. Cable segment letter, which identifies the segment of cable
between two terminals or connections, and differentiates between
 segments of the circuit when the same cable number is used
throughout. Segments are lettered in alphabetical sequence,
excluding the letter I and O. A different letter is used for each of
the cable segments having a common terminal or connection.
5. Cable Size.
6. Suffix data, used to indicate the type of cable and to identify its
connection function. For example code NMS V indicates Nyvin
Metsheath (a BICC cable) ungrounded cable in a single-phase
system.

The recommendation is that the cable is coded at regular intervals along it’s
length and it is most important that it corresponds to the appropriate aircraft
wiring diagram.

Figure 1 shows an actual aircraft example of a wiring diagram. It is two cables

(in a bundle) associated with ice formation spot-lights. The drawing shows the
cable code (which should be printed on the cable) to uniquely identify that
cable on the aircraft. Note the change of the third digit as the cable run
progresses towards the lamp.

When replacing a cable it is important to:

(a) Fit the correct replacement cable.

(b) Correctly route and support the cable.
(c) Ensure its correct identification along its length.
(d) Employ the correct terminations.
(e) After replacement carry out appropriate electrical tests followed
by a functional test.

-9-
 Fig. 1 SIMPLIFIED AIRCRAFT WIRING DIAGRAM – EXAMPLE

For certain electrical systems, cables are required to perform a more

specialised function than that of the cables already referred to. Some examples
of what are generally termed ‘special purpose cables’ are described below.

Ignition Cables (Ignition Harnesses)

These are used for the transmission of high tension voltages (high voltages) in
both piston and turbine engine ignition systems. They are usually of the
single-core stranded type with a high level of insulation, and screened by metal
braided sheathing to prevent interference.

The number of cables required for a system correspond to the number of spark
plugs or igniter plugs as appropriate, and they are generally made up into a
complete ignition cable harness. Depending on the type of engine installation,
the cables may be enclosed in a metal conduit, which also forms part of the
harness, or they may be routed without conduit.

Cables are connected to the relevant system components by special end

fittings comprising either small springs or contact caps secured to the cable
conductor, insulation, and a threaded coupling assembly.

The harness is supported in P clips or similar with rubber packing to help

prevent vibration damage.

- 10 -
 Fig. 2 TYPICAL WIRING HARNESS – RR TRENT

Fig. 3 TYPICAL ‘P’ CLIP INSTALLATION

Thermocouple Cables

These cables are used for connection of cylinder head temperature indictors
and turbine engine exhaust gas temperature (egt) indicators to their respective
thermocouple sensing elements.

The conducting materials are normally the same as those in the thermocouple
sensing element, for example, iron and constantan or copper and constantan
for cylinder head thermocouples, and chromel (an alloy of chromium and
nickel) and alumel (an alloy of aluminium and nickel) for egt thermocouples.

- 11 -
 Fig. 4 EGT LEADS – GE90 ENGINE

In the case of cylinder head temperature indicating systems, only one

thermocouple sensing element is used and the cables between it and a firewall
connector are normally asbestos covered.

For egt measurement a number of thermocouples are required to be radially

disposed around the jet pipe in the gas stream. The cables are usually
arranged in the form of a harness tailored to suit a specific engine installation.

The insulating material of the harness cables is either silicone rubber or PTFE
impregnated fibreglass. The cables terminate at an engine or firewall junction
box from which cables extend to the flight deck indicator. The insulating
material of extension cables is normally of the polyvinyl type, since they are
subject to lower ambient temperatures than the engine harness.

In some applications extension cables are encased in silicone paste within a

metal-braided flexible conduit.

Co-axial Cables (Figures 5 and 6)

Co-axial (co-ax) cables contain two or more separate conducting elements –

one inner and one outer. The inner conductor may be solid or stranded copper
wire, and may be plain, tinned, silver-plated or even gold-plated in some
applications, depending on the degree of conductivity required.

The outer conductor is made in the form of a circle usually of fine wire braid
insulated from and surrounding the inner core. The insulation (dielectric)
between the two is usually polyethylene or Teflon.

- 12 -
 Fig. 5 CROSS-SECTION OF CO-AXIAL CABLE

Outer coverings or jackets serve to weatherproof the cables and protect them
from fluids, mechanical and electrical damage. The materials used for the
coverings are manufactured to suit operations under varying environmental
conditions.

Co-axial cables are used for the transmission of low power signals, with the
signal line (the inner conductor) protected from unwanted signals (noise) by
the outer wire braid. The outer braid provides a shielded against electrostatic
and magnetic fields.

Any electrostatic field does not extend passed the outer braid and the fields
due to current flow in the inner and outer conductors cancel each other. Also,
since co-axial cables do not radiate any fields, then likewise they will not pick
up any energy, or be influenced by other strong fields.

Co-axial cables are used on radio equipment, for the connection of antennae to
receivers/transmitters, and capacitance type fuel quantity indicating systems
for the interconnection of tank units to amplifiers.

Fig. 6 CO-AX CABLE END FITTINGS

- 13 -
The construction of a typical co-axial cable and end fittings are shown in
figures 5 and 6. For details of how end fittings are attached the reader is
referred to the appropriate book in module 7, but in general the outer wire
braid is cut back and folded onto the inner adapter and the inner conductor is
left protruding.

The sub-assembly is screwed to the adapter thereby clamping the outer

conductor firmly between the two components.

In some cases the outer conductor may also be soldered to the sub-assembly
through solder holes. Soldering a contact on to the inner conductor and
screwing the coupling ring on to the sub-assembly completes the assembly.

CABLE SPECIFICATIONS

The following pages give technical data on a selection of cables made by BICC.
You would not be required to remember the details but you should read and
understand the information.

You should note the performance rating of the cables, the properties and the
identification. You should note the current ratings and how they are affected
by being ‘bunched’ (bundled or fitted as part of a loom), and the reasons why.

The performance data table is given for one type of cable only – as an example.
Each cable will have its own data table.

blank

- 14 -
MINYVIN
Light weight flexible airframe wiring cable supplied in single or multicored versions screened or
sheathed to specification BS2G221.

Performance. Voltage rating 300V at 1600Hz rms (250V for size 24). Temperature range -75°C to
+105°C (-30°C for flexible installations).
Properties. Resistant to abrasion, fuels, hydraulic fluids, ester based oils, de-icing fluids, fire
extinguishants, cleaning solvents, fungus and mildew.
Resistant to flame and readily printable for ident purposes.
Identification. Supplied in reels labelled and packaged ready for transportation. Cable is printed with
cable code, country of origin, manufacturer, date code, size code and specification code. Colour white.
Sizes. Tinned copper conductor range 22 to 12. Silver plated copper conductor range 24 only.
Current Ratings. The current ratings given in table 1 are based on conductor temperature rise of 40°C in
an ambient temperature of 65°C. If the ambient temperature (t°C) is continuously above 65°C the rating
must be multiplied by a factor K where:

K = 105 – t
40

NYVIN

Similar to Minyvin above but has a voltage range up to 600V, a size range from 22 to 0000 and meets
the requirements of specification BSG177.

EFGLAS

Similar to Nyvin except that its temperature range is -70°C to +260°C. Has nickel plated copper
conductor and is flexible throughout temperature range. Meets specifications BSG222, AIR4524
(GROUP 250-280).

- 15 -
MAXIMUM RATINGS FOR MINYVIN CABLES BUNCHED IN FREE AIR
Rating conditions: A = Continuous B = 5 minute rating C = 1 minute rating
Uninyvinal = aluminium cored.

* = May apply to a smaller number of cables as specified.

Cable No Rating Max rating in amperes (cables in bundle)

Uninyvin Uninyvinal condition 1 3 7 12

22 - A 11 7 5 4
B 12 8 7 6
C 15 12 9 9
20 - A 14 9 7 5
B 16 12 9 8
C 22 19 15 15
18 - A 18 13 10 6
B 23 17 13 12
C 30 26 19 18
16 - A 21 15 11 7
B 25 19 14 13
C 33 28 26 25
14 - A 31 24 17 12
B 36 28 24 21
C 50 47 43 42
12 - A 43 30 22 15
B 50 38 32 30
C 72 67 62 60
10 8 A 61 47 36 25
B 71 56 48 45
C 110 107 104 101
8 6 A 87 65 49 36
B 105 89 82 80
C 173 165 159 153
6 4 A 115 87 65 -
B 152 122 115 -
C 250 236 230 -
4 2 A 160 120 92 -
B 225 185 175
C 390 378 360 -
2 0 A 200 155 120 -
B 305 265 250 -
C 545 530 520 -
1 00 A 220 165 130 -
B 330 300 290 -
C 620 600 590 -
0 000 A 240 185 165 -
B 370 350 340 -
C 705 690 680 -
00 0000 A 270 210* 190* -
B 420 410 405* -
C 820 810 800* -
000 - A 300 235* 210* -
B 470 460 455* -
C 965 955 940* -
0000 - A 350 270* 245* -
B 570 555 550* -
C 1255 1240 1225* -

- 16 -
TERSIL
Similar to Nyvin except that its normal temperature range is -55°C to +190°C with an ultimate life of 5
minutes at 1100°C for the operation of essential circuits. Colour orange and specifications meets
BSG189 interchangeable with MIL-W-8777.

FEPSIL

Similar to Tersil. Colour green and produced to specification BSG208 interchangeable with MIL-W-8777.

KP150

Similar to Fepsil with a service life of 50,000 hours at 150°C and a temperature range of -65°C to
+150°C. No smoke emission at up to 300°C. Single cable white. Multi cores have different colours.

THERMOCOUPLE CABLES

Temperature range -65°C to + 260°C. 10,000 hours life at the top temperature. Positive, nickel
chromium, with white insulation. Negative, nickel aluminium with green insulation. Sizes – 20 sheath
colour green and 22 sheath colour green with white stripes.

- 17 -
CRIMPING
A crimped connection is one in which a cable conductor is secured by
compression to a termination so that the metals of both are held together in
close contact. A typical crimp termination has two principal sections, crimping
barrel and tongue, together with, in some types, a pre-insulated copper sleeve
which mates with the crimping barrel at one end and is formed, during the
crimping process, so as to grip the cable insulation at the other in order to give
a measure of support.

The barrel is designed to fit closely around the cable conductor so that after
pressure has been applied a large number of points of contact are made. The
pressure is applied with a hand or hydraulically operated crimping tool fitted
with a die or dies, shaped to give a particular cross-sectional form to the
completed joint.

The precise form of the crimp is determined by such factors as the size and
construction of the conductor, the materials, and the dimensions of the
termination. It is, therefore, most important that only the correct type of die
and crimping tool, should be used, depending on the termination and that the
necessary calibration checks have been made to the tool.

Fig. 7 TYPICAL CRIMP TERMINATION

There is a considerable range of terminations (and crimping tools) available,

many of which are colour coded and suitable for use only with specific types of
aircraft cable/crimp ends. It is, therefore, important that the appropriate
manufacturer’s instructions regarding the use of cables and terminations are
followed.

Only aluminium or bimetal (AlCu) terminations should be used to terminate

aluminium cables and the cable should be stripped immediately prior to
making the joint.
- 18 -
The barrel of some aluminium terminations may contain a quantity of
inhibiting compound, others not so filled require that inhibiting compound be
applied before crimping takes place. Some specifications also require
additional sealing after crimping. The compound will also minimise later
oxidation of the completed connection by excluding moisture and air.

TOOLS

These include: wire cutters, side cutters, cable strippers and crimping
pliers/crimping tools. They all come in a variety of shapes and sizes and what
follows is a general description of the AMP crimping method.

The special tool used for crimping AMP terminals has several features to
ensure a good crimped joint. These include:

1. Crimp ratchet.
2. Locator.
3. Insulation adjusting pins.
4. Colour and dot coding.

The crimp ratchet is common to most crimping tools. It ensures the bottoming
of the die jaws before the jaws can be opened again. This means that once the
crimp has been started it must be fully completed (the handles closed to their
fullest extent) before the tool will release and be removed from the
cable/crimp.

This means that a crimp cannot be half completed.

The locator holds the terminal in the correct position in the die jaws and
allows the conductor strands to protrude 0.8 mm from the terminal barrel
when the wire is fully inserted. Most tools have some form of location device.

The insulation adjusting pins allow for small variations in wire size and
ensures optimum mechanical strength of the joint by crimping both the
insulation and the conductor. The die head has three levels of adjustment:

1. Tight.
2. Medium.
3. Loose.

Colour and Dot coding. The “dot” coding system is needed to identify the
terminals which have been crimped in the correct AMP hand tool. If a red
terminal is crimped in a red handled tool, a single dot impression will be left
on the insulation at the barrel end.

- 19 -
 Fig. 8 AMP CRIMPING TOOL

Cable Strippers

Used to cut the insulation away from the conductor and come in a variety of
sizes and designs. These may have separate locations on the same tool for
different sizes of cable or there may be one cutting part that is adjustable for a
particular size of cable.

It is most important that the strippers are set-up first by using them on a
spare piece of cable, adjusting the cut/technique so as to make a clean cut of
the insulation without doing any damage to the conductor. This spare piece of
cable (the same size and type as the actual cable to be worked on) can also be
used for the practice crimp. After the practice crimp is completed the joint is
inspected to check for security of attachment with no damage or splitting. If all
is well then the settings/technique can be employed on the actual cable to be
crimped. Before carrying out crimping of a termination, check for:

(a) Correct size and type of wire for the job (AMM).
(b) Correct size and type of terminal with suitable size crimp barrel to
accommodate wires and if necessary, the insulation.
(c) Correct crimping tool and associated dies, selected to be
compatible with type of terminal and wire size.
(d) Correct tool being used. Note that the ratchet and pawl hand type
tools will only release on completion of crimping cycle.
(e) Correct ant-oxidant – if required.

- 20 -
Preparation of Wire
 1. Using approved stripping tool, remove specific length of insulation.
2. Inspect stripped end for severed or damaged conductor strands. If
any found damaged or severed cut cable back and start again.
3. Insert all conductor strands into barrel.
4. Ensure that no insulating materials enter.

Conductor strands must be laying together to allow for 100% insertion. If the
lay of the strands is disturbed they should be re-imposed with a light twisting
action of the fingers. Excessive twisting should be avoided as this increases the
conductor diameter.

Preparation of Tool

1. Insert insulation adjustment pins into the No 3 position.

2. Locate terminal in crimping jaws.
3. Insert conductor into barrel and insulation into the insulation grip
portion of the terminal.
4. Close handles until crimp ratchet releases.
5. Remove terminal and check insulation support as follows. Bend
the wire back and forth once, terminal sleeve should retain grip on
wire insulation.
6. If wire pulls out set insulation adjustment pins in next tighter
position (No 2).
7. Repeat Items 3 to 5.

Crimping AMP Terminals - Example

1. Select the appropriate terminal for the size of wire being

terminated and to suit the stud size of the terminal fitting.
2. Select a tool by reference to the colour of the terminal. Check wire
size range stamped on tool face.
3. Inspect the tool for serviceability and adjust the insulation
crimping adjustment pins.
4. Insert the terminal into the jaws so that the barrel rests against
the locator.
5. Squeeze handles until terminal is lightly gripped by the jaws.
6. Insert prepared wire end into terminal barrel ensuring that all
conductor strands enter. When fully inserted the conductor
should extend beyond the barrel by approximately 0.8 mm.
7. Hold wire in position and crimp by squeezing handles until ratchet
releases.
8. Remove completed crimped joint and inspect for dot code
impression.

- 21 -
On completion of crimp check:

(i) Correctness of form and location of crimp.

(ii) Adequate insertion of conductor strands in barrel.
 (iii) If insulation support is provided, check correctness of form and
location of insular crimp.
(iv) Check any codification by crimp dies is correct in detail and
position.
(v) Check joint for freedom from fracture, rough or sharp edges and
‘flash’.
(vi) Carry out a millivolt drop test.

Fig. 9 TYPICAL CRIMP TERMINATIONS

Crimping In-line or Butt Splices

1. Select the correct Butt Splice and a tool of the same colour coding.
2. Adjust the insulation crimping adjustment pins as detailed above.
3. Insert butt splice into crimping jaws until properly located.
4. Squeeze handles until butt splice is lightly gripped.
5. Insert prepared wire into terminal barrel. When inserted the
conductors should be visible in the inspection window.
6. Hold wire in position and complete crimping operation.
7. Inspect for correct formation of completed crimp.
8. Insert other end of butt splice into jaws until properly located.
9. Complete crimping operation by repeating Items 4, 5, 6 and 7.
10. Carry out a millivolt drop test.

Each barrel of a connector must carry only one cable unless specifically
permitted by the air worthiness authority.

- 22 -
In-line crimps must be fitted either horizontal or positioned so that any ingress
of fluid is impossible. Protective sleeves, additional to the crimp insulation, will
not be provided to prevent ingress of fluid – particularly important in exposed
positions such as wheel wells.
Care must be exercised to ensure that in-line crimps are only used in positions
where the operating temperatures do not exceed the specified limits. Specific
approval must be obtained from the airworthiness authority before
incorporating in-line crimps in the following:

(1) Screened cable.

(2) Coaxial cable.
(3) Multicore cable.
(4) Cables in excess of size 10 (35 amp).
(5) Thermocouple cables.
(6) High voltage cables (above 250V rms eg igniter ht leads).
(7) Cables used in fire-resistant circuits (fire detector and
extinguisher circuits within the protective zone).
(8) Types of cable, totally enclosed in conduits or ducts, which cannot
readily be visually inspected.

Fig. 10 MILLIVOLT DROP TEST ON CRIMPED TERMINATIONS

Repair schemes are restricted to the following:

(a) The minimum distance between joints in any one cable must be 2ft.
(b) Not more than two joints are to be made in any 10ft length of cable.
(c) Multiplicity of joints in cables must be avoided, if possible, and in no
case must the number exceed the following:

(i) Runs up to 20ft - 3 joints.

(ii) Runs up to 200ft - 5 joints.
(iii) Runs over 200ft - 8 joints.

- 23 -
On installation, wherever possible, observe the following:

(a) All joints must be accessible for visual inspection.

(b) Joints must be positioned so that they do not touch one another or
touch duct cable-retaining straps and other fixtures which may set
up ‘tracking’ paths.
 (c) Joints must, if possible, be positioned on the outside of the looms
unless special fixing attachments are preferable; all fixing
attachments, such as corrugated wrapping strip, must be approved.
(d) If it is impracticable to accommodate a stagger of joints along a cable
run, positive separation, eg using insulation or cable clips, must be
carried out.

Erma Hand-operated Hydraulic Crimping Machine - Example

For large size cables various hydraulic crimping machines are available,
described here is the Erma Crimping Machine.

This machine is supplied as a kit containing eight sets of dies for cable size
from AWG 6 to AWG 0000, and an Allen key used for fitting the dies to the
machine. The crimp formed is a regular hexagon shape and has two code
letters impressed on it by the dies during crimping. These code letters are HG,
HH - HN (for cable sizes AWG 6, 4 - 0000) and are the same as those marked
on the cable lugs by the manufacturer.

Preparation of Machine

The machine operating handles should be screwed into position and the code
letters stamped on the dies checked for size. If the dies are to be changed carry
out the following procedure:

(a) Select the two matched dies bearing the correct code letters for the
size of cable in use. Check that the lugs to be used have the same
code letters marked on the terminal palm.
(b) Remove the upper die adapter by sliding it from the dovetailed
head of the tool. This leaves the slotted head of the tool open to
allow the lower die to be fitted to the ram. Insert the spigot on the
upper die into the hole in the die adapter until it is held in position
by a spring-loaded steel ball.
(c) Close the hydraulic valve by turning the knob clockwise. Pump the
handles a few times to move the ram forwards and show the
hexagon socket screws which hold the lower die. Slacken these
screws using the Allen key provided. Fit the lower die into the ram
so that the screws fit into the recesses on either side of the die.

- 24 -
Tighten the screws to hold the die, ensuring that they are below
the surface of the ram body. Open the hydraulic valve to retract
the ram.
(d) Slide the upper die adapter, complete with die, into the dovetailed
grooves until it is located centrally by a spring-loaded steel ball.
 Fig. 11 ERMA HYDRAULIC CRIMPING MACHINE

Operation

Check that the two-letter code on the cable lugs and on both dies is correct for
the size of the cable to be terminated.

(a) Close the hydraulic valve. Place the lug centrally between the dies
and pump the handles until the lug is lightly gripped.
(b) Strip the cable insulation so that when it is inserted in the lug the
insulation lies flush against the end of the barrel and the
conductor projects slightly from the other end.
(c) Insert the conductor into the barrel of the lug and pump the
machine handle until the dies are fully closed. Operate the handle
until the safety valve operates with an audible click and pressure
on the pump handle reduces.
(d) Open the hydraulic valve to allow the ram to retract. The crimped
termination can then be removed from the machine and inspected.

- 25 -
PLUGS & SOCKETS

Most wires are terminated in a pin or contact which is fitted into a plug
/socket along with many other pins/contacts. On older aircraft wires/cables
were soldered into small ‘cups’ at the end of each pin/contact. In most modern
systems the method of connection is by crimping. After the pin/contact is
crimped onto its wire it is inserted into the correct hole within the plug/socket.
To prevent damage and the entry of debris protective caps should be fitted to
plugs/sockets at all times when disconnect from the aircraft and no work is
being carried out on them.

Care should be taken when handling and connecting miniature and sub-
miniature connectors. Both plugs and sockets should be checked for any
signs of dirt, bent pins or physical damage to the shells before attempting to
connect. If connectors will not mate, check for the reason, and rectify or
renew. On no account should force by used to effect mating. Bent pins should
be removed and new ones crimped in position.

Fig. 12 TYPICAL PLUG & SOCKET

Lubrication

Some plugs and sockets require the engaging threads to be lubricated with a
suitable lubricant to ensure that they can readily be disconnected.

Fitment/Removal of Wired Pins/Contacts

Each pin/contact is crimped to its respective wire then fitted into the
plug/socket. To ensure that the wire is connected to the correct pin/contact
and the pin/contact is fitted into the correct hole in the plug socket the
following location procedure is followed:

- 26 -
1. Each wire is identified by a unique aircraft wiring diagram
number.
2. When fitting the crimped pin/socket it is located into a numbered
hole in accordance with the wiring diagram.
3. When the plug is screwed into the socket there is a locator
lug/groove so it can only be orientated one way.
 Fig. 13 PIN/SOCKET LOCATION IDENTIFICATION

There are two basic types of pin/contact retention used in plug and socket
connectors in aircraft, one where the contacts are released for removal from
the rear and one were removal is from the front. The correct insertion/removal
tool is used in each case.

Front release. The contact is removed by pushing from the front of

the connector and removing the contact from the rear.

Rear release. The extraction tool enters the connector from the rear
of the connector and the contact is also removed from
the rear.

Multiway connectors, terminal junctions, inline single wire connectors,

switches, motors, indicators, instruments and other electrical components
may now be terminated by a rear release system.

Contacts crimped with a standard crimping tool are inserted and removed
using a single fail-safe plastic tool for each size of contact.

Fig. 14 REMOVAL & INSERTION TOOL

- 27 -
The Hellermann Deutsch 460/450 Series Connectors, terminal junction
modules and custom-made component termination modules can be used.
All terminations are inserted and removed by a single expendable plastic tool
which is fail-safe in that mis-handling will result in damage to the tool rather
than to the connector or termination modules.

In figure 15 the spring clips snap in behind the shoulder of the contact. The
removal tool displaces the clips sufficiently to allow the contact to be
withdrawn.
 Fig. 15 PIN RETENTION – FRONT RELEASE

Fig. 16 PIN RETENTION – REAR RELEASE

Contact Insertion – Typical Procedure

1. Remove the backshell or other accessory from the rear of the

connector and thread on to the cable loom.
2. Snap the coloured end of the appropriate insertion/removal tool on
to the wire. When inserting the wire into the tool, use the thumb
and not the thumb nail as this could damage the insulation.
Position the tool on the contact shoulder, except in the case of size
22 contacts, in which case the tool should be positioned on the
back of the crimp bucket.
3. Holding the connector with the rear insert facing you, slowly push
the contact straight into the connector. A positive stop will be felt
when the contact is locked in by the retention clip.

- 28 -
 Fig. 17 INSERTION OF PIN INTO SOCKET

Contact Removal

1. The removal procedure is virtually the reverse of the insertion

procedure.
2. Holding the connector with the rear insert facing you, snap the
white end of the appropriate insertion/removal tool over the wire
to be removed.
3. Slowly slide the tool along the wire into the connector, until a
positive stop is felt. The retention clip will now be unlocked.
4. Press the wire against the serrations of the central section of the
tool and withdraw both wire and tool together.

As you can see, to release the contact, you must put the extraction tool over
the front of the contact and down between the contact and clip to release the
clip from behind the front shoulder.

- 29 -
This method has wide usage. Some of the connectors you are likely to use with
this feature are Amphenol 246 and 48 series, Bendix PT-SE, Cannon FRF,
KPSE, Flight FH, FC Hellermann Deutsch SLPT, DS, Cinch C0909, Pyle
National RPL/FPK, ZZ and the AMP/AM series of rack and panel connectors.

In the case of the rear release, the extraction tool enters from the rear of the
connector between the contact and the clip to release the contact. The contact
is then pulled out through the rear whilst still in the tool.

MECHANICAL FLEXIBLE REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEMS

CONTROL CABLES

Usually fabricated from high tensile carbon steel or corrosion-resistant steel

wire and may be of either a flexible or non-flexible type construction.

Cables are used in tension only and used for the control of primary and
secondary flying control systems, engine controls and the operation of certain
valves and equipment.

Fig. 18 TYPICAL AIRCRAFT CABLE CONTROL RUN – BAe 146

- 30 -
Where a single cable is used the ‘return’ of the system would be by the use of a
spring at the output end of the cable system. Where control is required in both
directions – as in flying control systems for example – the cable is formed into
a complete loop with pulleys or quadrants or something similar at both ends.

The cable itself will almost certainly not be continuous, but be connected in
various lengths by turnbuckles, cable connectors, quadrants etc.

Figure 18 shows a control cable run to operate the servo tabs of the BAe 146
ailerons. It is typical in that the system uses cable tension regulators (to keep
correct tensions), pulleys (to allow a change in cable direction) and seals
(where the cable passes through the pressure hull).

Legal Requirements for Flying Control Cables

Cables used on aileron, elevator and rudder must not be smaller than 0.125”
(3.17mm) diameter. Tensions must be kept reasonably constant.

Pulleys must be fitted with guards to prevent cable displacement or fouling.

A cable must not change direction more than 3° after passing through a
fairlead. Specified parts of the cable system must have access for inspection.

Advantages of Cable Systems

The advantages of a cable system over a rod system include a weight reduction
and a cost saving. Though, of course, the cable system is heavier than an
electronic/light data transmission system such as fly-by-wire.

The structure will change its length as the temperature changes and since the
coefficient of Al alloy (α ≈ 23 x 10-6) is nearly twice that of steel (α ≈15 x 10-6)
the cable tensions will vary considerably.

QUESTION What would happen to the tension of a steel cable system within
an aluminium alloy structure when the aircraft increases altitude,
assuming there are no automatic cable tension adjusters fitted?
(5 mins)

ANSWER As the aircraft climbs the ambient temperature drops (down to

-56°C at 36,000ft) so the structure will get shorter. The steel
cables will also shorten (assuming they experience the same
temperature drop, which is probably not likely) but will not
shorten by the same amount – so the cable tensions will decrease.

- 31 -
To overcome this problem either very high tensions are used on the ground
when setting-up (as is the case with older aircraft) or use is made of automatic
cable tension regulators. Most aircraft now use Cable Tension Regulators
which provide a nearly constant tension at all times at all altitudes. This
means lower rigged tensions on the ground with a saving in weight and wear.

Components in the system would include:

* Push/pull rods.
* Pulleys.
* Automatic cable tensioning devices.
* Fairleads.
* Seals – for pressure cabins.
* Cable adjusters – turnbuckles.
* Cable connectors.
* Chains and sprockets.
* Torque tubes.
* Bellcrank levers.

As well as input levers/mechanisms and output devices to include levers,

valves, powered flying control units etc.

Fig. 19 TYPICAL CABLE CONFIGURATIONS

Fig. 20 CABLE MAKE-UP

- 32 -
Terms used in aircraft control cables (see figures 19 and 20):

Wire. A high tensile steel small diameter (about 1mm or less) wire.
King wire. The centre wire in a strand around which all the other wires are
laid.

Strand. A group of wires twisted together helically forms a strand. Several

strands are laid together to make up a complete cable.

Core strand. The central strand of a cable around which the remaining strands
are helically wound.

Preformed cable. A cable in which the wires and strands are shaped prior to
wound onto the complete cable. These tend to unravel less than un-preformed
cable when cut. Un-preformed cable will unravel quickly when cut (using bolt
cutters) so the cable is bound with cord either side of the cut prior to cutting.

Cable diameter. The diameter of the cable measured across its greatest
thickness.

Lay or Twist. The helical form taken by the wires and strands in the cable. A
cable is said to have a right-hand lay if the wires and strands twist in the same
direction as on a right-handed screw thread (most screw threads). If twisted
the other way it is said to have a left-handed lay.

Pitch. The axial distance a strand or wire travels in one complete twist about
the axis of the cable or strand respectively. Similar to pitch on a screw thread.

Cable Specifications

Cable sizes and strength data are given in tables with sizes ranging from
1/32nd of an inch (0.031in) (0.79mm) to ½ an inch (0.5in) (12.7mm) diameter.
Tables 1, 2 and 3 give some examples. Most cables used on British built
aircraft conform to British Standards BS W9, W11, W12, and W13 or
American specification MIL-W-83420.

blank

- 33 -
Non preformed cables are used, but on systems that are not so important.
Preformed cables have the following advantages:

* More flexible.
* Easier to hand splice.
 * Resistant to kinking.
* Does not unravel when cut – for splicing etc.
* Strands, when broken, tend to lie flat and not stick up – this may
cause jamming of the controls when passing through fairleads and
around pulleys and is also a hazard to personnel.

The construction of the cable is determined by the number of wires which go to

make up each strand and the number of strands that go to make up the cable.
For example, a cable designated 7 x 19 is made up of 7 strands each having 19
wires. For the more common types of cable (those at the bottom of figure 19)
each wire is laid around a king wire in layers and the strands are laid around
a core strand.

1 x 7 and 1 x 19 7 x 7, 7 x 19 and 6 x 19 (1WRC)

Non-flexible, Corrosion Flexible, Flexible, corrosion
carbon resisting Carbon resisting
MIL – W - 6940 MIL – C – 5693 MIL – W – 1511 MIL – C - 5424
Dia Weight Breaking Weight Breaking Weight Breaking Weight Breaking
(inch) lbs strength lbs strength lbs Strength lbs Strength
per lbs per lbs per Lbs per Lbs
100 ft 100 ft 100 ft 100 ft

1/8 3.50 2,100 3.50 2,100 2.90 2,000 2.90 1,760

¼ 10.20 6,300 10.20 6,300 8.60 5,600 8.60 5,000

Note 100 ft = 30.49m 1lb force = 4.448N 1 inch = 25.4mm

TABLE 1 MIL SPEC CABLE DATA – A SELECTION

Pre-formed cable is usually made of galvanised carbon steel (BS W9, W12 and
MIL-W-83420 composition A), or corrosion resistant steel (BS W11, W13 and
MIL-W-83420 composition B) and is impregnated with lubricant during
manufacture (reduces internal friction and wear). MIL specifications also exist
that provide for a series of nylon covered cables.

Check the Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM) and the Illustrated Parts
Catalogue (IPC) for your aircraft for the actual cable used for any particular
system.

- 34 -

Minimum breaking Construction Diameter (in)

Load (cwt force) BS W9 BS W11
3 4x7 0.065 0.065
5 7x7 0.08 0.08
10 7 x 14 0.12 0.12
 15 7 x 19 0.15 0.15
20 7 x 19 0.16 0.16
25 7 x 19 0.18 0.18
35 7 x 19 0.21 -
55 7 x 19 - 0.27
Note 1 cwt force = 498.176N

TABLE 2 BS CABLE DATA – A SELECTION

Nominal Construction Minimum breaking load

Diameter
Carbon steel CR steel
MIL-W-83420 (A) MIL-W-84320 (B) BS 13
in mm BS W12 lbs kN
lbs
1/16 1.6 7x7 480 480 2.15
3/32 2.4 7x7 920 920 4.1
1/8 3.2 7 x 19 2000 1760 7.85
3/16 4.8 7 x 19 4200 3700 16.5
¼ 6.4 7 x 19 7000 6400 28.4

TABLE 3 CABLE CLASSIFICATION BY DIAMETER

- A SELECTION

On some aircraft, control cables are enclosed in an aluminium tube or

cladding and are called Lockclad cables. Used for straight runs and supplied
as a complete assembly from the manufacturer.

Cable End Fittings

To allow the cable to be attached to a component the end of the cable

terminates in either a spliced end fitting, a sleeved crimped end fitting, or a
swaged end fitting.

A spliced end fitting normally takes the form of the cable being placed around
a thimble or similar fitting and the individual strands of the cable woven or
spliced back through the cable (see module 7 for more details).

- 35 -
 Fig. 21 CABLE END FITTINGS

As the individual strands are spliced back through the cable the number of full
tucks are reduced after the third and forth row of tucks to gradually reduce
the diameter of the splice. The total number of tucks is 5.

Splicing is a very difficult task and should only be undertaken by properly

trained and skilled personnel. This is not allowed to be carried out at user unit
level for some aircraft systems and the person qualified to carry out the control
cable splicing should submit test pieces for destructive testing at regular
intervals.

With a crimped joint, a sleeve or ferrule is put on the cable and the cable is
placed around a thimble and back into the sleeve. A special crimping or
swaging tool is used to crimp (compress) the sleeve to hold the two parts of the
cable securely. The sleeve has to be a special size (as does the thimble) to
match the cable and the finished crimp is checked with a GO/NOT GO gauge.

Is a requirement that this joining method is not used on certain control

systems on aircraft.

Swaging is carried out by placing the cable in the end fitting and the end
fitting squeezed (swaged) in a special tool using special dies. It is similar to
electrical cable crimping but it may take several swaging operations to
complete the job with the finished swage being checked with a GO/NOT GO
gauge.

- 36 -
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Control Stops

Usually adjustable by the engineer to obtain the correct range of movement

and may be fitted to both ends of the control system run. Secondary control
stops are fitted at the cockpit or flight-deck end of the system while primary
control stops are fitted at the output end – the flying control surface for a
flying control system.

Fig. 22 CONTROL STOPS

On some aircraft the range of movement of the system is changed

automatically during flight (some flying control systems for example – as the
aircraft’s speed changes so the range changes – fitted to the BAe 146 for
example to reduce the range of movement of the control surface as the aircraft
speed increases).

Fig. 23 CHAIN & SPROCKET DETAIL

- 37 -
Stops will be fitted so as to control the range of movement of a component
such as a bell crank lever - and hence the range of movement of the whole
system. They will have provision for locking once adjustment is completed.
Locking can be by locknut, locking wire, locking plate, split pin/cotter pin etc.

Chains and Sprockets

Cables may go around a pulley or be connected to pulley end fittings. The

cable may terminate at a chain – usually swaged into a turnbuckle type end
fitting and the chain passed around a sprocket. This provides a positive drive
to the sprocket.

Chains may be of the ‘non-reversible type’, which means that they are so
designed that they cannot be put on the sprocket the wrong way round.

Cable Support

Cables can be supported by pulleys and special quadrants where they can
change angular direction. Where little or no change in direction is required
various types of fairleads are used.

Fig. 24 FAIRLEADS

Fairleads (figure 24)

Usually made of composite material and are not lubricated – unless the AMM
says otherwise. They may be split which aids replacement without
disconnecting the cable. The split fairlead shown in the bottom right hand
corner is fitted in two halves and moved forward into its support clip. The
supporting clip is held in place by a bracket attached to the structure.

- 38 -
Pulleys (figure 25)
Made from composite, plastic or metal and are used to support the cable and
also to give a change of direction to the cable run. Guard pins are fitted to
retain the cable on the pulley should tensions become too low (accidentally)
and some pulleys have debris guards to keep out unwanted small items which
might foul the pulley/cable.

Quadrants

Not too unlike pulleys in that they support the cable in groves, however the
cable run usually terminates at a quadrant. Can be used to support a cable
run and join one cable to another (figure 26 left-hand picture) or to transfer
cable movement to push/pull rod movement (figure 26 right-hand picture).

Turnbuckles

These vary in design (figures 27, 28 and 29), but in general may be of the
Barrel type or the Tension Rod type. They all have a left-hand thread at one
end and a right hand thread at the other to allow tension adjustment.

When the centre part is rotated – holding the two cable ends to prevent them
rotating – both threads will screw in or out depending on which way the centre
part is rotated. The cable tension will then either increase or decrease. It is
important that, after adjustment and prior to wire locking, that the threads are
in safely (enough are engaged to ensure that they are strong enough to take
the tension loads).

Fig. 25 PULLEYS

- 39 -
For the barrel type turnbuckle safety means that all the threads must be
buried in the barrel.
 Fig. 26 CABLE QUADRANTS

For the tension rod type the threads must be screwed deep enough into the
fork ends so that a piece of locking wire will not pass through the inspection
hole. The wire should be the same size as the inspection hole and should not
come out the other side.

Fig. 27 BARREL TYPE TURNBUCKLE

To fit the locking clips to the locking clip barrel type turnbuckle first ensure
that the threads are in safety and align the indicator notch with the barrel
grove. Each clip is then fed into its locking groove with the other end snapped
into place in the centre hole in the barrel. To remove the clip it is first cut
using a pair of wire cutters.

Remember to discard the old clips safely in the metal recycle bin.

- 40 -
 Fig. 28 BARREL TYPE TURNBUCKLE – LOCKING CLIP TYPE

Fig. 29 TENSION ROD TYPE TURNBUCKLE

Cable Connectors

These are fitted to some cable systems at positions where the cables need to be
disconnected frequently for maintenance purposes.

Each half of the connector may be keyed in such a way that it can only be
fitted back to its mating half (Murphy proof) and is used where several cables
run close together and all with connectors at the same airframe location. Each
keyed pair are unique at that location.

The connectors allow for quick cable disconnect and re-connect without the
possibility of connecting two wrong cables together. They usually do not
provide for any cable tension adjustment – but some do.

The two halves may be locked together using a circlip like device with a lock
pin pushed through and secured with locking wire. On other systems the two-
keyed halves are held together using a sleeve, which is placed onto the cable
before the two-keyed ends are joined then slid into place. It is held in place by
locking clips.

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Fig. 30 NON-KEYED CABLE CONNECTOR

Fig. 31 KEYED CABLE CONNECTORS

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Cable Tension Regulators

The majority of modern aircraft use cable-operated systems for their flying
controls. This is due, in a large part, to the development of efficient Cable
Tension Regulators.

Fig. 32 QUADRANT TYPE CABLE

TENSION REGULATOR

Cable tension regulators are mechanical devices and can be made in many
configurations, for example, quadrants, bell crank levers, pulleys etc. Some
systems simply have a spring loaded pulley to maintain tension, but for
descriptive purposes we will consider the quadrant type cable tension
regulator.

The unit consists of a pair of spring-loaded quadrants with a pointer scale for
recording the cable tensions. The swaged ends of the cable are inserted
through slots in the recessed ends of the V grooved quadrants and the cable
ends are secured at the cable anchorages.

When the cables are tightened equally (as with the fuselage getting longer as
the aircraft descends) the quadrants rotate about the centre shaft and the
links pull the cross-head freely along the locking shaft, compressing the
springs and, in effect tensioning the cables.

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 Fig. 33 CABLE TENSION REGULATOR – OPERATION

The springs react against the cross-head and when the cables slacken (with an
increase in altitude), push the cross-head back along the shaft, thus
tightening the cables and maintaining them at the correct tension.

When a control load is applied by the pilot only one quadrant will tend to move
(the one on the tension side). The link will tend to move, tilting the cross-head
on its locking shaft (by a very small amount) and locking it to the shaft,
preventing movement of one quadrant relative to the other with the whole
system now acts as a pulley.

Both quadrants are, therefore, locked together and operate as a solid pulley
until the control load is released.

Each tension regulator incorporates a scale and pointer, which provides a

visual tension indication of the cable tension. When rigging a regulated cable
system therefore, a tensiometer is not required, the cables being tensioned
until the correct reading is obtained on the regulator scale. The correct reading
depends on the ambient temperature and must be obtained from a special
graph provided for each regulator in the aircraft.

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Pressure Bulkheads
On pressurised aircraft where cable control runs pass through the pressure
bulkhead special seals are provided to help minimise pressure loss. They must
allow freedom of cable movement, be self-aligning, require little or no
maintenance and provide a good air seal.

Several types are available – 2 are shown here.

Fig. 34 BELLOWS TYPE SEAL

Figure 34 shows a self-aligning seal. Made of an elastomeric material, part of

which moves with the control cable. This arrangement is used with control
systems using twin cables (one up and one down). As the cabin pressure
acting on the bellows causes a load on the control cable, which must be
balanced by an equal and opposite load – on the other cable. Tends to increase
the static friction in the system, but is self-aligning and provides a complete
seal.

Fig. 35 GLAND TYPE SEAL

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Alternative methods of sealing include friction type seals. Several types are
available with some relying on packing rings of silicon rubber composite or
similar to provide the airtight joint. Others use an elastomeric material such
as that shown in figure 35. Remember, they should be kept clean and not
lubricated. This is a more popular type of seal, though they do allow some air
seepage and wear is a problem. Also they are not self-aligning.

SPECIALISED MECHANICAL REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEMS

These employ a push/pull or pull only cable type system, which is housed
within a conduit (sleeve), which may be rigid or flexible. The ‘cable’ is of a
special design. The controls are usually manually operated to allow flight
crew/pilot to operate such remote services as:

* Trim tabs.
* Fuel cocks.
* Brake control valves.
* Engine controls.
* Cabin air dump valves.
* Flying control trim systems.
* Selector valves for hydraulic, pneumatic and emergency services.

They can be used by ground crew for the operation of remote valves such as
toilet drain valves etc, which are operated from outside the aircraft.

They may also be used to give an indication of the position of the landing gear
(back up system on some aircraft) and the position of flaps – though usually
on older/smaller aircraft.

CABLE SYSTEMS

TENSION ONLY TENSION & COMPRESSION

STRAIGHT CURVED STRAIGHT OR CURVED

WITHOUT CONDUIT WITH CONDUIT RIGID/SEMI RIGID CONDUIT

Example – flying control Usually a flexible Will take both a push
systems. If direction conduit with a single and pull input. For the
change is required a cable and return operation of such things
pulley, quadrant, or being achieved by the as control valves etc
similar is used. Two use of a return spring. no spring return is
cables are used to give Example parking provided.
pull in both directions. brake lever.

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The above shows the general categorisation of flexible control systems, but
there may be variations that do not fit exactly into the general scheme as
shown.
The amount of load the system is designed to take will determine what type of
system is used. Trim tabs usually use a light weight high tensile steel cable
and pulley system with chains and sprockets, push/pull rods, torque tubes
etc. Flying control systems have similar cables and components though they
are normally designed to take heavier loads.

Fuel cocks, brake and engine controls may use Teleflex and Bowden type
controls. Cabin pressure dump valves may use a system not too unlike the
trim tab system. Teleflex and Bowden systems are of the cable/conduit type
where the cable moves back and forth within a tube-like structure called a
conduit. The cables are usually of high tensile steel while the conduit may be
made of aluminium alloy, steel, copper alloy or even a polymer material.

The cable is fitted at both ends to suitable end fittings and comparatively light
loads can be transmitted by the cable – enough to operate selector valves for
example. The conduit is also attached at both ends to prevent it from moving
and to allow for the correct operation of the system.

THE TELEFLEX CONTROL SYSTEM

This uses a lightly loaded cable system moving inside a fixed rigid conduit that
will transmit both a tensile (pull) load and a compressive (push) load. This
means, for example, that a lever in the flight deck can be used to input a load
in either direction to operate a remote device such as a hydraulic selector
valve, engine throttle etc.

There is no spring return as in the case of Bowden Controls for example.

The system uses wheel units where the helix winding of the cable engages with
a toothed wheel and as the cable moves back and forth so the wheel is rotated.
Rotation is limited by the amount of linear travel of the cable, which is up to
about 4 inches (102mm).

Sliding end fittings (with a swivel joint) may be used in place of a wheel unit
where a linear movement is required.

The conduit must be supported at regular intervals and may have quick
release break units fitted for ease of dismantling.

Figure 36 shows a system set up with as many components as possible as a

demonstration of what the system can so.

- 47 -
The control cable starts at the single entry unit and is continuous to the 180°
unit where it will move in and out of the spent travel tube. Each of the wheel
units (single entry, straight lead, junction box, 90° double entry and 180° unit)
house a toothed wheel which engages with the helix winding of the cable. From
the junction box a second cable engages with the toothed wheel to transmit the
movement to the sliding end fitting.

Fig. 36 GENERAL LAYOUT OF TELEFLEX CONTROL

SYSTEM & COMPONENTS

Cable

These may be of various designs but shown in figure 37 is a number 2 and a

number 380 type cable. (See manufacturer’s literature for further types). They
have helix windings of opposite hand, are not interchangeable, each having
their own fittings.

Fig. 37 TYPES OF CABLE

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The cable will take reasonably light tensile and compressive loads with the core
cable taking the tensile load and the compression windings taking the
compressive load (the type 2 suitable for higher compressive loads). The helix
winding is designed to be threaded into an end fitting.
Conduit

Made of aluminium alloy, steel or tungum (a copper alloy). The conduit should
be supported every 3ft (0.9m) but clamp supports should not be fitted where
the conduit curves.

Clamp Blocks

Fitted on straight sections to support the conduit.

Connectors

Used to connect one section of conduit to another. There are several types:

* Nipple type – similar to flare-end hydraulic pipe-line connections

but without the olive.
* Clamp type – this clamps the two conduits together as a butt joint.
* Quick break type – these allow for the disconnection of the system
for component removal etc and the re-assembly of the joint
without having to set-up the system again. The cable joining
fittings consist of machined rods with interlocking slotted ends
attached to the end of each cable.

Wheel Units

These consist of a housing in which a ‘threaded’ wheel engages with the helix
winding of the cable. They allow for conversion of linear movement to rotary
movement and vice-versa.

There are several types including the:

* Single entry type.

* Straight lead type.
* Junction box type.
* 90° and 180° types.

- 49 -
The cable enters/leaves the unit via a conduit connector and in the case of the
single entry unit the cable must have a minimum engagement (at its extreme
end of travel) as laid down by the equipment manufacturer/AMM.
 Fig. 38 SINGLE ENTRY WHEEL UNIT

Sliding End Fittings

These are used where the linear movement of the cable is not converted to
rotary movement. A sliding end fitting is attached after a swivel joint and the
assembly is used to move levers etc.

End Fittings

Fitted to the end of the push/pull rod, which is connected to the lever arm of a
sliding end fitting or to an arm fitted to the rotating shaft of a control unit.
Some push/pull rods will have an end fitting at both ends. They are adjustable
for length and have ball-end or ball and socket connections.

Fig. 39 END FITTINGS

When adjustment is required it is important that the correct range of

movement is achieved and that the fitting is in safety (checked by not being
able to pass a piece of wire the same diameter as the hole through the
inspection hole). The unit should be locked after final adjustment either using
the lock-nut, or a tab washer, or locking wire (as per the AMM of course).

- 50 -
Figure 40 shows how the cable is screwed into a screwed-end fitting, which is
also screwed into the outer sleeve locking the slider tube, cable and complete
end fitting together. When the cable is caused to move it will move slider tube
and end-fitting together. Note - the slider tube is passed through the outer
sleeve and over the conduit first with the belled end resting inside the taper of
the outer sleeve.
 Fig. 40 CONNECTION OF CABLE TO END FITTING

Split Collet Type End Fitting

These are fitted direct to the cable for the operation of sliding end fittings.

THE BOWDEN CABLE CONTROL SYSTEM

The system is used for lightly loaded controls (selector valve operation, parking
brake operating cable etc) and relies on the cable working in tension only, with
return being by a spring usually fitted at the component end.

The flexible conduit is fixed at both ends, which means that the cable system
can be routed around bends (so long as they are not too sharp).

Cable

Made of non-corrodible high tensile steel wire not too unlike cables fitted to
flying control systems – though much smaller.

- 51 -
Conduit

The conduit consists of a close coiled wire designed to keep the cable system
stiff and takes mainly compressive loads. This is covered with cotton braiding
followed by a waterproof polymer coating. To give support at the ends and to
prevent fraying, metal end-caps are fitted. On some installations rigid metal
conduit is used on straight runs.
 Fig. 41 BOWDEN CABLE – GENERAL ARRANGEMENT

Fig. 42 BOWDEN CABLE – END DETAIL

End Fittings

These may be various types of soldered nipples or swaged end fittings. The
swaged end fittings may be threaded, eye end or any design suitable for the
component to which it is to be attached.

Nipples are made of brass and soldered onto the cable end. To fit them the
conduit and cable is made up to the correct length (the cable end is tinned to
prevent unravelling) and the metal end-caps are fitted over the cable and onto
the conduit.

The nipple recess is tinned, the cable is then passed through the nipple so that
the end shows level with the top surface of the recessed end of the nipple. The
strands of the cable are then unravelled as far as possible within the recess
and the recess filled with molten solder. When the solder hardens the nipple is
firmly attached to the cable.

- 52 -
 Fig. 43 NIPPLES

In some cases the cable may be swaged into the nipple using a special nipple
and swaging machine.

End Fittings

These are usually levers and handles. They may be fitted with adjustable stops
so that the range of movement can be set to those specified in the AMM. To fit
the cable to an end fitting the AMM must be consulted, but in general terms
the following applies to systems that employ nipple type connections to both
ends:

* Adjust both end fittings to give the greatest range of movement to

each.
* On those conduits that are adjustable for length, adjust them to
their shortest length. (Some conduits have a turnbuckle type
adjuster part way down their length, which will adjust the length
of the conduit but not the cable. The cable passes straight through
the adjuster). This means that there is more slack in the system in
this condition than would otherwise be the case. It will allow
easier fitting of the nipples.
* Align the cable so that the nipple will pass into the fitting hole and
the cable will pass through the cable slot (cable rotated to 90° to
its normal position).
* Move the control cable through 90° so that the control cable is
now laying in its correct orientation with the metal end fitting of
the conduit resting on the fixed part of the end fitting.
* Carry out the same procedure at the other end of the system. This
may require a higher level of motor skills because there is less
slack in the cable system because the other end has taken up
some of the free play between the cable and the conduit.

- 53 -
* Adjust the conduit length adjuster to take up the slack in the
conduit, which means increasing its length. Make sure the
adjuster is in safety and correctly locked.
* Ensure that both conduit metal end-caps are firmly in place at
their respective ends – input end and component end.
* Check for correct sense of movement, eg if it is a throttle system,
pushing the throttle forward increases engine power.
* Adjust the stops at the input end and the component end to give
the correct range of movement (check the AMM). It is usual to
adjust the stops at the input end so that they control the range of
movement – but check the AMM.
 * Check for free movement.
* Check the lay of the cable assembly.
* Ensure all adjusters are in safety and correctly locked.
* Carry out a full functional check.
* Record all the work done and sign.

Figure 44 shows a typical use of a Bowden control. The nipple is firmly located
in its recess in the brake handle and the conduit is firmly located in the
adjustable end fitting. When the brake lever is pulled it will pivot and pull on
the Bowden control cable. This will give a pull output at the other end to
operate a brake lever on the brake control valve. When the lever is released a
return spring at the brake control valve end will pull the cable to release the
brakes and return the hand brake lever to the upright position.

Fig. 44 BOWDEN CABLE CONNECTION TO PARKING BRAKE LEVER

- 54 -
FLEXBALL CONTROLS

A flexible control system fitted to some aircraft to provide control to take light
tensile and compressive loads. Example - the tail rotor control system of the
Eurocopter EC135 were it is used to transmit the control inputs from the
pilot’s yaw pedals to the yaw actuator at the tail rotor.

The system is made up of two outer stainless steel rails and stainless steel
balls located either side of a stainless steel centre rail. The balls are spaced at
intervals and located within a stainless steel cage (can be PTFE). The centre
rail slides back and forth between the balls to transmit both tensile and
compressive loads.
 Fig. 45 CROSS SECTION OF FLEXBALL SYSTEM

Fig. 46 FLESBALL SYSTEM

The assembly is housed in a semi flexible steel casing weather proofed by an

outer PVC protective cover.

Lengths supplied up to 65ft (19.8m) long and in 5 different sizes.

Moving end fittings are directly attached to the centre rail whilst the outer case
is attached to the non-moving part of the component.

’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’

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SYLLABUS PAGE 1

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SYLLABUS PAGE 2

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SYLLABUS PAGE 3

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SYLLABUS PAGE 4
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SYLLABUS DIFFICULTY LEVELS

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