Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

3 Seismic Data Analysis

Geophysical survey is used to gain information about the possible

locations of subsurface petroleum traps and accumulations from
physical measurements made at the Earth's surface.

The seismic method is the most powerful tool in defining the

structural features. Structural interpretation in particular is usually the
foremost objective method for detecting folds, faults, unconformities,
and other geological features (Abu El Ata et al., 1999).

During this component of study, we purport to examine the

structural elements affecting the Pliocene deposits (Kafr El Sheikh
Formations) in Denise field, in order to preform structural model,
which would be helpful to make the future development plans. This
goal is achieved through the interpretation of seismic data provided by
the PETROBEL company with the permission of Egypt General
Petroleum Corporation (EGPC).

Also, to describe the subsurface sand levels within Denise field, a

seismic data volume with Normal Polarity, i.e. a soft kick (e.g. gas
sand) is a positive number (peak) while a hard kick (e.g. seabed, gas
water contacts) is a negative number (trough) have been interpreted and
examined for different seismic attributes and DHI markers.

3.1 Seismic Data

Following the process of volume visualization and attribute
displays, manual interpretation of faults and horizon was performed in
the reservoir section. The seismic interpretation was set for
interpretation for both in lines and cross lines every 100 traces with the
intention to produce a dense spatial interpretation, for better horizon /

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

surface evaluation needed for modeling the reservoir surfaces. The

inputted seismic was zero-phased, with interpreted inline range from
(8450 to 8950) and cross lines ranged from (150 to 950) (Fig. 3.1).

Fig. 3.1: Overview of the Seismic Volume, Capturing the Inline and
Cross-line, in Addition to the Associated Boreholes Used
for Interpretation.

Typical reflectors that were considered for interpretation were top

KAFR ELSHEIKH Fm., (KFR) PRE U. DENIESE S.S., (PUD) U.
DENIESE S. S., (UDS) M. DENIESE S. S., (MDS) L. DENIESE S. S.
(LDS) and top Rosetta Fm. (RF). The top (KFR) and top (RF)
Formations were very clear so, they were also used as reference guides
in interpreting the other horizons.

Fault interpretation was manually done for all the interpreted lines
and stored on the fault interpretation folder for static modeling.

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

3.2 Well to Seismic Tie

According to Tearpock & Bischke (2003), once the well position is
annotated, the information from the well data, in the form of geologic
tops, must be located and marked on the time sections or loaded into
the computer and annotated on the profile.

The simplest method of tying well data to seismic is to use the

checkshot data to convert the tops from the log data from depth to time,
and post the equivalent horizons on the seismic section at the proper
times (Fig. 3.2). A checkshot measures the amount of time it takes for
the first arrival of a seismic wave to travel from a surface source near
the well to a receiver lowered down the wellbore.

In this study, eight wells with checkshot data were used to tie the
geologic tops to seismic data volume (Fig. 3.2), in addition to syntactic
seismogram in D-01 well (Fig. 3.3).

For example, in D-01 well, the top of the main channel sand facies
(UDS), has a very clear log response, and corresponds to the high
amplitude peak on seismic (Fig. 3.4), and it shows good match between
seismic and synthetic.

In general, the top reservoir is marked by a decrease in acoustic

impedance, due to the boundary between higher impedance top seal
shale, and low impedance, porous gas sand. The base gas reservoir is
usually marked by an increase in acoustic impedance, at the boundary
of low impedance, high porosity gas sands, and higher impedance water
sand or shale (Fig. 3.4).

Typical reflectors that were considered for interpretation was the top
Kafr El Sheikh Formation, PUD level, UDS level, MDS level, LDS
level and the top Rosetta Formation. The top Kafr El Sheikh Formation
and top Rosetta Formations were picked up on the selected seismic
sections which were also used as reference guides in interpreting the in-
between sand levels (Fig. 3.5).

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

Two Way Time (Sec)

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
0
200
y = 0.9508x + 86.512
Measured Depth (m)

400
R² = 0.9969
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800

Fig. 3.2: Time vs Depth Chart, Checkshot D-05

Fig. 3.3: Synthetic Seismogram Created for D-01 Well in Denise Field

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

Fig. 3.4: Top and Base Sands as Marked by Synthetic Seismogram

Response.

Fig. 3.5: Visualized Formation Tops Used as Controls for

Interpretation.

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

3.3 Volume Attributes

The concept of attribute is to provide a dynamic or static
quantitative characteristic of a seismic volume to characterize
subsurface reservoirs or zones of the seismic volume of interest.
Critical parameter for attribute analysis could be structure related
(Horizon depth, reservoir thickness, faults etc.), petrophysical
properties, internal architecture (measure of heterogeneity) and
hydrocarbon properties (Cosentino, 2001).

The application of an attribute function to the seismic volume

provides the basis of creating a volume attribute. The sensitivity of the
attribute to observe geologic features and horizon reflectors with
sharper boundaries of facies and/or fluid changes in addition to defining
sharper fault planes is the intended goal of applying attribute function
to the Denise seismic volume. The purpose of its application is to find
out how much it could help to shed light on the seismic sections for
proper geologic interpretations and model construction.

In the Denise field data with reference inline 8550 (Fig. 3.6) and
reference time slice at -1530 ms (Fig. 3.7); different attributes functions
were applied. The process of applying these techniques starts by first
creating physical copies or realizing the seismic reference line; this
provides the opportunity to compare and contrast the impact of the
attribute application to the seismic line.

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

Fig. 3.6: Reference Seismic Inline 8550

Fig. 3.7: Reference Time Slice at -1530 ms

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

3.3.1 Structural Smoothing

This attribute was applied in the smoothing of local features or
which improves the lateral continuity of seismic horizons by smoothing
the input signal (Randen et al, 2003). It works by isolating local
structures with principal component dip and azimuth computations
before running a Gaussian smoothing function. Apart from the fact that
it delivers better horizon interpretation and continuity, it helps to isolate
flat events like flat spot if it is properly guided with appropriate Dip
guiding.

The impact of this attribute which is a classic example of

geometric/horizon based attribute function cannot be denied, it has
deliver a much robust overview of reflectors, especially the top Rosetta
evaporates, fault surfaces within the reservoir section (Fig. 3.8). It also
shows horst and graben like features within parts of the reservoir
sections. The advantage of this attribute is that it could be snapped into
the main interpretation window which could aid in delivering a much
better interpretation of these features in terms of horizons and faults.

3.3.2 Sweetness Attribute

This attribute is combined the instantaneous frequency and envelop
which are examples of complex attributes. Its application is in the
identification of features within areas of stronger energy changes in the
seismic volume. And so, it’s helpful in delineating subtle
discontinuities such as pinch-outs and channels in stratigraphic traps. It
can also be useful for distinguishing shales from sands. This was
applied to the Denise data in understanding major energy reflectors
with a given package that may lead to discriminating between shale and
sand bodies (Fig. 3.9).

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

Fig. 3.8: Smoothed Version with Flatten Horizons Well Defined, Fault
Surface Clearly Defined within the Reservoir Section, Top
Rosetta Evaporates Clearly Seen at Base.

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

Fig. 3.9: Sweetness Attribute Used to Understand Major Energy

Changes within the Volume.

3.3.3 Cosine of Phase Attribute

This attribute finds its application in delineating structural events or
to enhance their interpretations. It is also called Normalized Amplitude
because it helps to guide interpretations in areas of poorly defined
amplitudes. In applying it to the Denise volume (Fig. 3.10) you could
resolve the fault structures and capture the continuity of horizons for
better interpretation.

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

Fig. 3.10: Cosine of Phase Attribute Section Illuminating Structural

Features.

3.3.4 Variance (Edge method) Attribute

The Variance attribute tends to measure the lack of organization in
dips and azimuth estimations; it helps to understand the level of chaotic
texture you could attribute to seismic volume. It is practically used as
main input volume in carrying out ant track process as was adopted in
the Denise field with automatic fault extraction (Fig. 3.11).

Variance attributes demonstrate a similar overall fault pattern, only

the fault continuity is far less which creates a significantly poorer
outcome (Fig. 3.12).

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

Fig. 3.11: Variance Attribute Seismic Volume Used in Ant-tracking

for Automatic Fault Extraction.

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis Seismic Data Analysis

Fig. 3.12: Variance and Anttracking Time Slices (-1530 ms) Showing the Low Number of Clearly Delineated
Faults.

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

3.3.5 Discussion on the Attribute Application to Denise Field

The use of attribute function to the Denise seismic data has achieved
amongst other things better illumination of structures in picking out
horizons in the seismic interpretation window, with lateral continuity
and well defined edges using the structural smoothing and sweetness
attribute. Fault patches and fault interpretation were delivered with
manual interpretation and automatic fault extraction with the Variance
and Ant-tracking attribute function.

In this workflow, other attribute functions were tested such as the

Dominant frequency, Envelope, Instantaneous phase, Reflection
Intensity, Local Flatness, etc. The results of these other attribute had
little value to the intended purpose of delivering better seismic
interpretation, illuminating features and geologic structures. The
purpose of use of an attribute must be clearly defined, even when an
attribute is not sensitive to geometric properties it could have better
value in other properties of intent. In this work, I have combined the
cosine of phase attribute and structural smoothing to deliver horizon
interpretation of the top Kafr El Sheikh Formation, PUD level, UDS
level, MDS level, LDS level and the top Rosetta Formation. Likewise,
in the reservoir section, fault planes were manually read and using the
variance as well as Ant-tracking attributes automatic fault patches was
interpreted.

3.4 Seismic Interpretation

Seismic interpretation implies detection of the subsurface structural
configuration. To understand the geology and subsurface structure of
the area under investigation, it is important to throw light on the
subsurface geological and structural setting through the interpretation
of several seismic sections.

Detailed 3D seismic interpretation of key seismic horizons was

undertaken in Schlumberger petrel™ following well-to-seismic tie to

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

ground-truth (tie) the seismic horizons to geological markers at the

wells.

Selected seismic sections were interpreted to confirm the geological

model created for Denise filed, the selected sections were examined for
stratigraphic, structural and seismic features affected the study area.

3.4.1 N-S Trending Seismic Sections

A number of N-S seismic sections in Denise area (Fig. 3.13 & 3.14)
were selected to show the subsurface geologic setting, the selected
section disturbed by the tectonics, shows the series of East-West growth
faults (F1, F2, F3, F4, F5 and F6) which relate to the hinge zone that step
north ward and related to the Jurassic crustal break-up. In addition to
rollover anticline related to Denise wells with clear direct hydrocarbon
indicator i.e. flat spot.

3.4.2 E-W Trending Seismic Sections

These selected seismic sections are oriented E-W in Denise area
(Fig. 3.15 & 3.16); the selected section shows number of small normal
faults takes NNE-SSW direction throwing to the northwest and related
to Rosetta oblique-slip faults in addition to, extremely clear gas
chimneys affected the Plio-Pleistocene section, which acted as
migration path from deep levels to Plio-Pleistocene succession in
Denise area.

3.4.3 Mapping
The generated horizon tops are converted to map sections and grid
surfaces; the surfaces were inputted with a file format. The inputted
surfaces were mapped using the input boundary as limits. Smoothing
factor was applied to the each of the map surfaces and the
corresponding surface attribute were retained in the mapping sections.

The interpretations of the maps give a 2 dimensional picture of the

structural relief closures with related Horst structure and Graben fills,
this maps are used to provide checks and quality control on the surface
and they also form parts of the grid properties in the Horizon make

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

process. These processes are part of the required steps or data inputs
needed as a major input in the creating the static models.

The Depth maps (Fig. 3.17) of the interpreted surfaces (LDS, UDS
and PUD) (Seismic Data Appendix), showed that; the Denise area is
affected by two major fault systems. The first is stratigraphic load
related Normal Faults (F1, F2, F3, F4, F5, F6 and F7) which extended E-
W (Neogene hinge line) with down throwing to the North with the
associated rollover anticlines and drag folds. These gravity-induced,
“down-to-basin” displacements occur along listric fault planes. Since
most of these faults die out with depth, it is believed that, they are
genetically related to sedimentary processes rather than tectonic events.

The second fault system is the NNE-SSW (Rosetta) trend (F8, F9,
F10 and F11) which controlled by transpressional movement along the
Qattara-Eratosthenes trend with down throwing to the West and the
East sides.

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis Seismic Data Analysis

Fig. 3.13: N-S Seismic Section, Shows Intensive Growth Faults Affected Denise Field and Associated Gas
Bearing Turbidities, Rollover Anticlines and DHI Supported (High Amplitude Shut-off - in Denise
Wells).

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis Seismic Data Analysis

Fig. 3.14: N-S Seismic Section Shows the Gas Discovery in Denise Area, Denise-4 well within Middle Pliocene
Reservoirs “UDS” and “LDS” with the Associated DHI Supported (Flat spot)..

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

Fig. 3.15: E-W Seismic Section Shows Gas Chimneys and Associated
Pockmark in Denise Area.

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

Fig. 3.16: E-W Seismic Section Shows the NNE-SSW Fault Trends,
the Two Gas Discoveries in Denise Area, Denise-South 01
and Denise-South 03 Wells within Middle Pliocene
Reservoirs “UDS” and “LDS”.

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

Fig. 3.17: 2D Map View of Interpreting Top UDS Surface.

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

3.5 Surface Attributes

Generated surfaces are not just static products from seismic horizon
interpretation; the application of surface attribute is a simple method of
extracting the different seismic properties to the corresponding
surfaces. This application uses the realized seismic Seg-Y as inputs,
which relates the seismic parameters to the chosen surface. Also, in
calculating this attribute specific horizon are used or intervals of
interest as key inputs in the Window specification template to
discriminate the different horizons on which the selected attribute
function is applied.

There are different types of applied surface attributes, whose

properties ranges from component parameters of the seismic to the
surfaces, such as frequency, amplitude, thickness, energy and
distribution etc. This helps to highlight specific properties to the given
horizons which could be stratigraphic, structural, fluid etc. This was
applied to the interpreted promising reservoir levels surfaces using
different attribute on each surfaces.

3.5.1 RMS Amplitude

This attribute is a measure of the sum of the squared amplitudes
divided by the number of applied samples in the given seismic volume.
It is suggested that this amplitude has better capabilities to define
geologic features and shed light to DHI (direct hydrocarbon indicators)
from the surfaces. The probably reason for this effect is that if you sum
the squares of the amplitude, you are simply "gaining –up" (increasing
the amplitude) which reduces the background noises and/or amplitudes
which are irrelevant to the main amplitudes. This attribute was applied
to three promising sand levels (LDS, DUS and PUD) surfaces (Seismic
Data Appendix), with typical structural trends of higher amplitudes
within parts of the structures indicated with hot colors (yellow to red) in
(Fig. 3.18) which could be as a result of fluid or stratigraphic changes,
i.e. gas accumulations and/or facies change from shale to sand.

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

Fig. 3.18: RMS Surface Amplitude as Applied to the Interpreted UDS

Sand Level.

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

3.5.2 Application of Surface Attribute Functions.

The extensive list of different surface attributes means that the user
must be aware of the specific advantages and purposes of each of these
attributes to avoid abuse. In the application of this technique to the
Denise seismic generated horizon surfaces, it provides a forward look
into the properties (stratigraphic, fluid, structural, etc.) of each of the
top surfaces which provides a clue to other interpretations that would be
done in the modeling. Furthermore, given that the frequencies and
amplitudes are known for the reservoir sections, it would aid the
evaluation of these parameters as to how they highlight specific events
in the chosen horizon surface. It also provides the flexibility to test out
user defined set parameters as to how they affect surfaces. Finally, as
applied in each generated horizon surfaces in the figure above (3.18)
the Root Mean Square amplitude RMS, appears to provide a much
robust interpretation of actual variability in amplitudes to facies change.

The process of generating surfaces is not static; the making of the

reservoir static models means that these attribute surfaces as better
inputs to the modeling workflow. In a virgin exploration target where
less data is available for control of data interpretation, using techniques
like this could provide the needed leverage to test properties of your
seismic and relate them geological realization of the subsurface.

3.6 Seismic Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators (DHI’s)

Generally speaking, seismic DHI’s consist in lateral changes of the
reflection shape (amplitude, phase and frequency anomalies) and/or of
the reflection geometry (distortion of reflections, time sag, occurrence
of horizontal events, shadowing) that can be observed along the
reflectors and that can be explained with acoustic/elastic changes
occurring within sediments at the limits of a fluid contact (Technical
internal report Eni, 2007).

According to regional Nile Delta experience the DHI’s (DHI floor)

working perfectly until 2 seconds, below this limit the DHI’s are not,

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

any more, hydrocarbon indicator; is precisely just a facies indication

(Fig. 3.19), in Denise filed the Pliocene-Pleistocene targets are less than
2 minutes.

Fig. 3.19: Direct Hydrocarbon Indicator Variations Through the

Stratigraphic Succession in the Nile Delta Basin
(Technical internal report Eni, 2007).

3.6.1 Direct Hydrocarbon Indicator Types

The types of DHI features are not randomly distributed, but they
depend on the petro-acoustic reservoir-sealing couple characteristics.
Moreover, some of them may also depend on the geometry and
thickness of the porous lithology.

In this section only the types of Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators in

the study areas will be present.

3.6.1.1 Lateral Changes of the Reflection Shape/Amplitude:

i. Bright spot.
A bright spot is a high amplitude anomaly of limited extension
whose relief over the background can be considered regionally
anomalous. Due to its very high brightness it is usually directly

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

recognized on seismic sections, but it can also be evidenced on seismic

amplitude maps (Fig. 3.20).

i. Amplitude Shut-off
Amplitude shut-off is a sudden switch-off of amplitude values
occurring along a seismic reflector at a constant depth/time. The high
relief portion falls within the raised area of the structure. The amplitude
shut-off contour marks the depth where filling fluid change occurs, and
it may indicate a GOC, a GWC or an OWC. When the relief of the high
amplitude zone is regionally anomalous, it also corresponds to a bright
spot (Fig. 3.21).

Even if it can be recognized on seismic sections, amplitude shut-off

is defined on seismic amplitude maps, where the structural consistency
can be checked (Fig. 3.18).

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis Seismic Data Analysis

Fig. 3.20: Examples of Pliocene Direct Hydrocarbon Indicator “Bright Spot” in Denise Filed.

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

Fig. 3.21: Examples of Pliocene Direct Hydrocarbon Indicator

“Amplitude Shut-off” in Denise Filed, Regarding a Single
Layer (A & B) and Multiple Layers (C). Example (B) is
Also Bright Spots.

3.6.1.2 Lateral Change of the Reflection Geometry:

i. Flat spot:
The flat spot is the geophysical seismic evidence of the existence of
the fluid/fluid contact; it may correspond to a GOC, a GWC or an
OWC. When the flat spot is properly detected and when associated to a
good amplitude anomaly, the flat spot is the clearest and safest direct
hydrocarbon indicator.

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

Flat spot may or may not be associated with other lateral changes of
the reflection shape like Polarity Reversal, Bright Spot or Frequency
Decay.

Given the fluid/fluid acoustic and elastic properties couple, the main
factors affecting the flat spot signature are porosity, reservoir thickness
and reservoir geometry. The higher the porosity and thickness of the
reservoir, the better the flat spot imaging.

This type of DHI’s is common in Denise filed (Fig. 3.22).

ii. Gas Chimney

The gas chimney is a vertical shadow overlying the reservoirs that
appears on seismic sections like an area of poor data quality and/or
push-downs, caused by leakage of gas through the sealing.

The gas chimney feature is caused by the effect induced by

hydrocarbons on compressive waves (Fig. 3.23).

iii. Pockmarks
Pockmarks are crater-like depressions affecting the sea bed and
related to fluid flow towards the surface through low permeability fine-
grained sediments (Fig. 3.23) (ENI technical internal report, 2007).

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis Seismic Data Analysis

Fig. 3.22: Examples of Pliocene Direct Hydrocarbon Indicator “Flat Spot” Occurrence in Denise Filed. Cases A
and B are Examples of Continuous Flat Reflections; the other Ones (C & D) Show Examples of
Non-Horizontal Flat Spot Features Due to Velocity Anomalies.

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

Fig. 3.23: Examples of Pliocene Direct Hydrocarbon Indicator Shows

Gas Chimneys in Denise Filed and the Associated
Pockmark, at Time Slice of 250 ms.

3.7 Discussion
The subsurface geological setting, in terms of determining the
stratigraphic and structural setting, is gained through the seismic
sections, and the constructed depth structure contour maps.

The stratigraphic succession penetrated by the wells drilled in

Denise area ranges from Mit Ghamr Formation (Pleistocene) to Rostta
Formation (Miocene).

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Chapter III Seismic Data Analysis

The seismic sections, and structure contour maps showed that, the
Denise field area is affected by sets of listric normal faults with two
main trends (hinge zone trend “E-W” and Rosetta oblique-slip faults
“NNE-SSW”) with related rollover anticline and drag fold structures.

Application of different seismic attributes functions (geometric,

structural, complex attribute etc.) Alongside the visualization templates
has made for a fuller sense of shedding light on the seismic volumes,
providing structural clarity with smoothing of the seismic reflectors,
structural events and views. This has actually conveyed a fuller sense in
reading the response of the seismic volumes to the different seismic
derivative functions as to highlighting geologic events. The UDS and
the other reservoir sand levels, alongside the main structural elements
were positively illuminated for seismic interpretation after the
applications of different attribute functions.

The DHI’s play an important role in exploration in the Nile Delta

basin, with high rates of success, but with some restrictions that low
saturated reservoirs also showing DHI’s.

Most of the studied wells, which are a good producing wells, are
involved with the UDS level, and not affected by faulting where the
fault influence is just moving the placement of sand body i.e. above or
below the main GWC, while the main trapping element is facies change
(Shale to Sand).

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