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Joy KakkarSociology I Lecture Notes
Summer Semester (July 2023 – November 2023)
MO
DULE 1
What is Sociology?
ociologyisconsideredtobethescienceofhumansocietyorhumaninteractions.(Societyis
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a web of social relationships). So, if psychology is the study of the human mind and the
individuality(behavioralpatterns)ofaperson–sociologyisthestudyofhumansintherealm
of the ‘social.’
What is a Science?
sciencereferstothebodyofknowledgesystematicallyarranged.Itmaybeclassifiedinto
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physical sciences and social sciences.
What is the difference between physical sciences and social sciences?
ROUNDS
G HYSICAL SCIENCES
P OCIAL SCIENCES
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1. Subject-matter 1. They deal mostly with natural 1. They deal with the forms
inanimate objects. Example, physics, and contents of man’s
chemistry etc. interactions.
2. Exactness 2. They are regarded as more precise, 2. They are less exact,
exact and less dubious because of the complexity of
social data and the problems
of objectivity.
3. Universality 3. The data oftheresearchisphysical 3. Universal validity maynot
innatureandlawsofuniversalvalidity be there
and uniformity are more easily
applicable as the matter remains the
same under same circumstances.
4. Predictability 4. They conductexperimentstoverify 4. There is less predictability.
the facts, and these results are
predictable.
5. Cause-Effect 5. A cause and effect relationshipcan 5. Rather than cause-effect,
be easily established. we can find correlation.
● S cientific methods, with all their established procedures, cannot always be used in
socialinvestigationsbecausecontrolledlaboratoryconditionsaredifficulttoestablish
in the social field.
● Sincesocialscientistshavetodealwithmanwhoismorecomplexandeverchanging,
their studies become less precise though, not completely dubious.
ery pertinenttosociologyisMaxWeber’sideaofIndividualAction(forexample:praying
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alone) and Social Action (example: reading a book)
Development of Sociology – What was the need for a separate branch of knowledge?
‘ Sociology has a long past but a short history’ – Sociology can be said to be one of the
youngest as well as one of the oldest social sciences. A study of the subject matter of
sociology (i.e. human interactions) has been done fromthedawnofcivilization(thesemay
include religious, philosophical, or ethical perspectives). Yet, it is the youngest as it only
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r ecentlycametobeestablishedasadistinctbranchofknowledgewithitsowndistinctsetof
concepts and methods of inquiry.
ociologyhaditsoriginsinpoliticalphilosophy,thephilosophyofhistory,biologicaltheories
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of evolution and the movements for social and political reforms.
INFLUENCES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGICAL TH
EORY
A) Class Notes
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE PRE-MODERN & MODERN SO
CIETY
RE-MODERN
P O
M DERN
1. Monarchy and aristocracy 1. Liberal democracies (largely)
2. Faith in religion & church 2. Faith in reason
3. Self-sufficiency 3. Interdependence and technology
4. More homogeneity 4. More heterogeneity
odernism: Modernism started with a period of EnlightenmentandIndustrialRevolution.
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This was marked by:
(i) I deological Tumult: Capitalism became the dominant economic system, while
socialism came as a counterattack to that – andevenfeministperspectiveswere
emerging.
( ii) Political Changes:Monarchies and oligarchies gaveway to democratic ideas.
(iii) Intellectual Change:from faith in religion to faithin reason
(iv) Economic Development: From self-sufficiency to the rational organization of
economic production, new forms of companies, management, banks, credit
systems etc.
CONSEQUENCES OF IN
DUSTRIALIZATION & ‘MODERNISM’
Social Consequences:
( i) he rise of the middle classes
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(ii) The rise of secularism, in a society that was centred around religion.
(iii) Industrialization led to the rise of nuclear families
(iv) Increase in crime.
(v) Political changes – rise of democratic ideas & Enlightenment
(vi) Counter-enlightenment - Louis de Bonald, for example, argued for going back to
the premodern era (feudal society).
Economic Consequences:
a) U rbanization – which seems attractive as an idea, but it leads to overcrowding,
disease and other social problems.
b) Stratification and new kinds of inequalities with widened gaps between haves and
haves not. – Marx warned of class conflict.
here was no discipline which could analyze and understand the developments that were
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happening – and also serve universal and uniform solutions.
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here were thus several developments that were happening in Europe relating to the
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development of sociology and these inquiries were to go on in American universities.
Influences on the Development of Sociology
here were some changes going on in physical sciences – the prominence of empirical
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studies that produced uniform and universalresults.Thosewhowerestudyingsociety,they
attemptedtoextrapolatethesemethodsforstudyingsocialproblems.Theyattemptedtofind
(final) solutions to these problems.
B) Notes from Ritzer & Shankar
ccording to IA
A N ROBERTSON, there are three factors that hastened the process of
establishment of sociology as a separate science:
( i) I ndustrial Revolution and Industrialization
(ii) Inspiration from the Growth of Natural Sciences
(iii) Inspirationprovidedbytheradicallydiversesocietiesandculturesofthecolonial
empires.
I. SOCIAL FORCES AND THE RISE OF SOCIOLOGICAL TH
EORY
(a) Political Revolutions
i. ong series of revolutions ushered in by the French Revolution in 1789
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ii. Thereweresomenegativechangesaschaosanddisorderbecamethenorm–andthe
early theorists were united in their desire to restrore order in society.
iii. Someextremethinkerswantedareturntothepeace&orderoftheMiddleAgesbut
the more sophisticated thinkers recognized the impossibility of this.
iv. ParticularlytheinterestofclassicalsociologicaltheoristslikeComte,Durkheim,and
Parsons.
(b) The Industrial Revolution & the Rise of Capitalism
i. heIndustrialRevolutionwasnotasingleeventbutmanyinterrelateddevelopments
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thatculminatedinthetransformationoftheWesternworldfromalargelyagricultural
to an overwhelmingly industrial system.
ii. Urbanization
iii. The rise of the class divide, and labour movements against capitalism
iv. Theorists like Karl Marx and Emile Durkheim enquired into these questions.
(c) The Rise of Socialism
i. ocialism as an idea developed as a critique against the excesses of capitalist
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exploitation of the labour or the proletariat – led primarily by Karl Marx, who
believed in a communist revolution.
ii. However, Marx was an atypical in the early years of sociologicaltheory,andmany
theorists actually feared socialism more than capitalism. In fact, they advocatedfor
social reform within capitalism.
(d) Feminism
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hiswasthetimewhenfeministactivitiesandperspectivesreachedtheirhighpoints:afirst
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flurry in the 1780s and 1790s (with the debates surrounding the American & French
revolutions),andafarmoreorganized,focusedeffortinthe1850saspartofthemobilization
againstslaveryandforpoliticalrightsforthemiddleclass;andthemassivemobilizationfor
women’s suffrage and for industrial and civic reform legislation in the early twentieth
century, especially the Progressive Era in the United States.
eministconcernswerelargelyaninconsequentialtopicfortheoristslikeSpencer,Weber&
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Durkheim who made conservative responses to feminist arguments, despite the facts that
women were writing a significant body of sociological theory: notablythecontributionsof
HARRIET MARTINEAU (often seen as the first femalesociologist).
(e) Urbanization
i. assivemigrationofpeopleintocitiesledtoproblemslikeovercrowding,pollution,
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noise, traffic and so on.
ii. This attracted the enquiry of Durkheim, Max Weber & George Simmel.
(f) Religious Change
i. he social changes brought on by the above factors also had a profoundimpacton
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religiosity.
ii. Many early sociologists like Durkheim came from religious backgrounds, and
morality played an important part in their works.
iii. The works of Talcott Parsons, Max Weber, and Karl Marx looked at important
analysis of religions.
(g) The Growth of Science
he 19th century was a period whenphysicalsciencesmadealotofprogress.Thistempted
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thesociologiststoemulatetheirmethods.SociologistslikeComte,Spencer,Durkheim,Weber
and others successfully demonstrated that these methods could be used in the social world.
II. INTELLECTUAL FORCES AND THE RISE OF SOCIOLOGICAL TH
EORY
(a) The Enlightenment
i. emarkable intellectual development and change in philosophical thought.
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ii. Rejecting beliefs in traditional authority – and the spirit of inquiry & orientation
towards change. Example: Karl Marx
iii. Thebeliefthatpeoplecouldcomprehendandcontroltheuniversebymeansofreason
and empirical research. The goal was the creation of a better and a more rational
world.
Two influences of Enlightenment thinkers was 17th century philosophy and science.:
a) 1 7th century philosophy associated with thinkers like Rene Descartes, Thomas
Hobbes, John Locke – emphasized on producing grand, general, and very abstract
systemsofideasthatmaderationalsense.Thelaterthinkerswantedtotesttheseideas
and integrate empiricism with rationality.
b) The model for thiswasscience,especiallyNewtonianphysics.Atthispoint,wesee
theemergenceoftheapplicationofthescientificmethodtosocialissues.Notonlydid
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nlightenment thinkers want their ideas to be, at leastinpart,derivedfromthereal
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world,theyalsowantedthemtobeusefultothesocialworld,especiallyinthecritical
analysis of that world.
(b) The Conservative Reaction to Enlightenment
Enlightenment was accompanied by a strong conservative anti-modernist sentiment.
he most extreme form of this was French Catholic counterrevolutionary philosophy.
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ThesemenwerereactingagainstnotonlytheEnlightenmentbutalsotheFrenchRevolution,
which they saw partly as a product of the kind of thinking characteristic of the
Enlightenment. LO
UIS DE BONALD, for example,wasdisturbedbytherevolutionarychanges
and yearned for a return to the peace and harmony of the Middle Ages.
I t was believed that because God had createdsociety,peopleshouldnottamperwithitand
should not try to change a holy creation. By extension, Bonald opposed anything that
underminedsuchtraditionalinstitutionsaspatriarchy,themonogamousfamily,themonarchy,
and the Catholic Church
he Notion of Social Order: they regarded such phenomena as tradition, imagination,
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emotionalism, and religion as useful and necessary components of social life. In that they
dislikedupheavalandsoughttoretaintheexistingorder,theydeploreddevelopmentssuchas
the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution, which they saw as disruptive forces.
The conservatives tended to emphasize social order, an emphasis that became one of the
central themes of the work of several sociological theorists.
( Also read thetenpropositionsthatemergedfromthisconservativereaction,thatultimately
provided the basis for the development of classical French sociological theory – given in
Ritzer)
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY
hescienceofsociologywastakingitsshapetoemergeasadistinctscienceinthe2n d halfof
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the19thh centuryandtheearlypartofthe20th century.AccordingtoT.B.BOTTOMORE,early
sociology had the following characteristics:
1 .EncyclopedicinNature:Theywantedtostudysocietyasawhole–takingsocietyasone
singleunit.Itwas“concernedwiththewholesociallifeofmanandwiththewholeofhuman
history.”
2 .EvolutionaryinNature:Justlikephysicalsciencestalkedabouttheevolutionofhumans,
the early sociologists attempted to understand the evolution of society. Sociology had the
influence of the philosophy of history and the biological theory of evolution.
3 .ModelledonBiology:HerbertSpencergavethetheoryofsocialevolution:justlikehow
living organisms grow from simple-homogenous to complex-heterogenous, so does society
grow and develop.
4 .TheScienceofaNewIndustrialSociety:Therewasatransformationfromagroup-based
feudalisticsocietytoanindividualisticcapitalist-industrialsociety.Sothebasicaimofthese
sociologists was to find out the solutions to the peculiar problems that were posed by this
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s ociety. So though, sociology claimed to be a general science – it dealt particularly with
social problems arising from the political and economic revolutions of the 18th century.
5 .IdeologicalaswellasScientificinCharacter:Ideologicalsignifythedifferenttheoretical
perspectives and ideologies – for example, the functionalist perspective and conflict theories.
a ) F unctionalist Perspective
b) Conflict Theories
Thus, these ideologies may be contrary in nature also
DEFINING SO
CIOLOGY
uguste Comte coined the term “social physics” – and thensociology.Itcomesfromtwo
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words socius (Latinterm)andlogos(Greekterm)–sociusmeanscompanionshipandlogos
means study – so sociology would mean the science or the systematic study of
companionship.
1 . K ingsley Davissays that sociology is the generalscience of society.
2. Emile Durkheimsays that it is the science of socialinstitutions.
3. Max Weber says thatitisasciencewhichattemptstheinterpretativeunderstanding
of social action in order thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and
effect.
4. Smallsaid that sociology is the science of socialrelations.
5. Auguste Comte said that sociology is the science of social phenomena “subject to
natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which is subject of investigation.”
6. Morris Ginsberg defines sociology as the study of human interactions and
inter-relations, their conditions and consequences.
WHAT IS THE NATURE OF THE SUBJECT?
Sociology has some unique characteristics which help us understand better its nature:
1. An Independent Social Science
ociology was developed as a separate branch whichisan“independentsocialscience”–
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firstly,itisasocialscience(andnotaphysicalscience)andsecondly,anindependentscience
at that (independent from other social sciences, that study one domain of the society
exclusively, while sociology studies society as a whole).
2. Sociology is a Positive (Empirical) Science & Not Normative
ociologypromotespositivismasitsstudiesarebasedonfactsandempiricism.Sociologyis
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necessarilysilentonquestionsofvalueandisethicallyneutralbetweenends.Thoughthereis
a normative aspect, positivism is the dominant trend.
3. A Pure Science & Not An Applied Science
I tisapurescienceandnotanappliedscience.Thisissobecausesociology’simmediateaim
is the acquisition of knowledge about human society, nottheutilizationofthatknowledge.
Sociologists do not determine questions of public policy – there are different more
specialized disciplines doing that.
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he knowledge acquired by a sociologist may be of great help to an administrator but
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sociologists themselves don’t apply these.
4. An Abstract and not a Concrete Science
I t is an abstract science, but not a concrete science – this means that sociology is not
interestedinconcretemanifestationsofhumanevents.Itismoreconcernedwiththeformof
human events and their patterns. For example, sociology is not concerned with particular
wars and revolutions but with war and revolution in general, as social phenomena.
5. A Generalizing & not a Particularizing Science
ociology tries to find out the general laws or principles about human interaction and
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association, about the nature, form, content and structure ofhumangroupsandsocieties.It
tries to make generalizations on the basis of study of some selected events.
6. Both a Rational & Empirical Science
1. E mpiricism means the approachthatemphasizesexperienceandthefactsthatresult
from observation and experimentation.
2. Rationalismstresses reason and the theories thatresult from logical inference.
WH
AT IS THE SUBJECT MA
TTER OF SO
CIOLOGY?
ociology as a branch of knowledge focuses on the individual placed in the society asits
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subject matter. Sociology strives to analyze the dynamics of society in terms of organized
patterns of social relations.
3 Questions that sociology seeks an answer to:
1 . W hy and how society emerges?
2. Why and how society persists and develops?
3. Why and how society changes and ends?
Broad Topics under Discussion in Sociology
1 . Sociological Analysis: A sociologist looks at issues with sociological analysis – thus
making a contrast between historic, economic, political etc. analysis and sociological
analysis. We concentrate on individuals in groups.
2 . Study of Primary Units of Social Life: A sociologist studies the socialactsandsocial
relationships of society, those associated with: community, organizations, individuals as a
member of society etc.
3 . Development, Structure & Functions of Social Institutions: It is also concernedwith
thedevelopment,structureandfunctionsofthesocialinstitutions:family,religion,marriage
etc.
4 .FundamentalSocialProcessesAsociologistalsostudiesthedifferentfundamentalsocial
processes: accommodation, assimilation, socialization, stratification etc.
5 . Method of Research: A sociologist focuses on research, especially empirical research,
doing fieldwork, collecting data and making conclusions.
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6 .FormulationofConcepts,Propositions&Theories:Asociologistformulatesconcepts,
propositions and theories.
a) C onceptsareabstractedfromconcreteexperiencetorepresentaclassofphenomena.
Example: crime, poverty.
b) Propositions seek to reflect a relationship between different categories of data or
concepts.Forexample:betweencrimeandpoverty.Thismaybetrueorfalseandits
validity can be empirically established.
c) Theoriesrepresentsystematicallyrelatedpropositionsthatexplainsocialphenomena.
After this research is conducted, and upon verification, it may emerge as a theory.
7 .Specialization:Inmoderntimes,thetaskofasociologististoengageinthespecialization
– so for example, the sociology of management, of sports, of marriages etc. Different
branches of sociology are trying to ramify into specialized branches.
WHAT IS THE SC
OPE OF SOCIOLOGY?
hescopewouldmeanthebasicoutlinesordemarcationofthesubject.Thereare2schools
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of thought:formalisticandsynthetic/synthesis school.
I. FORMALISTIC SCHOOL
The formalistic schoolis led byGEORGE SIMMEL andMA
X WE BER.
I t talks about sociology as a pure and independent science – the study of sociology is not
connectedwithanyothersubject.Theformalisticschoolsaysthatweonlyneedtostudythe
‘form’ (the paradigm) andnot the content(not particularor individual units).
he idea is that sociology should study social relationships in abstraction (without the
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economic, historical, political, or moral particulars) and describe, classify and analyse them.
The criticism of the formalistic school:
1. I t is notpossibletostudyonlytheform–becauseformandcontentareinextricably
linked. Social form keeps changing with the change in the content.
2. Sociologyisnottheonlysciencethatstudiestheformsofsocialrelationshipsandthe
society – like political science, international law or economics, also do social
enquiries.
3. Puresociologyisimpractical–itmaycreateabsurdresults.Nosciencecanbestudied
in complete isolation from the other sciences.
4. Unreasonably narrowing the field of sociology.
II. SYNTHETIC SCHOOL
hesyntheticschoolconceivesofsociologyasasynthesisofthesocialsciences.Itwantsto
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make sociology a general social science and not a pure or special science.
he thinkers of the synthetic school say that not only the form but also the content is
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important, as with the change in the content, the form also changes. Since the primitive
society, as the individuals themselves changed, and the forms of social institutionsandthe
‘form’ of society has changed.
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hesyntheticschoolsaysthatsociologyisalsodependentonotherbranchesofknowledge.
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This is supported by the argument that ultimately, all parts of social life are intimately
interrelated.
yntheticViewsofEmileDurkheim:ThisissupportedbyEmileDurkheim.Accordingto
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him, we need to study different branches of knowledge like -
a) s ocial morphology – it studies the territorial basis of the life of people and the
problems like population volume and density etc.,
b) social physiology– the sociology of religion, law,morals, economics etc.
c) general sociology – the philosophical part of sociology, dealing with the general
character of social facts.
According to Durkheim, we need to study all of them.
The Views of Morris Ginsberg
Ginsberggave different kinds of aspects are to beconsidered including
a) s ocial process: study of different modes of interaction like cooperation,
accommodation, assimilation etc.
b) social control: the formal and informal means that act as regulating agencies of
society.
c) social morphology:to study population-related issues
d) social pathology:to study social maladjustment anddisturbances
hus, synthetic school thinkers are broadening the scope of the subject, while thoseofthe
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formalisticschoolarenarrowingit.Actually,itisneitherpossiblenoressentialtodelimitthe
scope of sociology, because it would be a brave attempt to confine an enormous mass of
slippery material into a relatively simple system of pigeonholes.
DIFFERENT APPROACHES/PERSPECTIVES TO SOCIOLOGY
What is the lens an individual uses to look at social interactions?
There are 3 major perspectives of sociology.
(1) Functionalism or Structural Functionalism:
hisisamacro-levelstudy,wherethesociologistslookatthefunctionsplayedbythebroad
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structures of society. The different parts play different roles. The basic proposition of
functionalism is that society is a like a living organism inwhicheachpartoftheorganism
contributes to its survival.
i. arly Developments: The initial development of sociology was characterized by
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functionalism.TheideasofEmileDurkheim(hiscontributionsonreligionandsocial
solidarity), and evenHerbert Spencer’s theory ofsocial evolution is relevant.
ii. BasicPropositionofHarmony,Balance&Order:Societyislikeastructure.Each
structure has a different part. These parts perform different functions that allow for
stability in society to be preserved. So it is an organized, stable, well-integrated
system where most members agree on its basic values.
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iii. ocial Change: If there is basic harmony insociety,thereisnoneedforanoutside
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revolutionary change, but a gradual change coming from the system itself that
maintains the system.
iv. Another name associated with the development offunctionalismisTalcottParsons
(an American sociologist at Harvard University) – he helped us understand how
differentpartsworkinfunctionalism.Hesawsocietyasanetworkofconnectedparts,
each of which contributes to the maintenance of the system as a whole.
v. Robert Merton’s Contributions to Functionalism:
a) He first made us understand the dysfunctional aspect of society – if some
functionlosesitsrelevance,thepartofsocietythatisdoingitisnotinherited
by the future generation.
b) He also talked about a “L atent Function”–whichdoesnotexplicitlycome
out, and a “M
anifest Function.” Example: Education’s manifest function is
the dissemination of knowledge, butitslatentfunctionisthedevelopmentof
personality, curbing deviance and encouraging conformity.
vi. Criticism: It is considered to be a conservative approach, as it rarely talks about
social change. Itisalsosaidthatthisperspectiveignorestheelementofconflictand
its role in the social system.
(2) Conflict Perspective
heconflictperspectivewasgivenbyKarlMarx(whowasnotasociologist,perse,buthis
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theoryhashadahighinfluenceonthedevelopmentofsociologicaltheory).Hehasbasically
talked about the struggle between social classes as the major facet of history (historical
dialectical materialism).
I ncontrasttofunctionalists’emphasisonstabilityandconsensus,conflictsociologistsseethe
world in continual struggle.
i. arl Marx has focused on two classes based on an economic analysis – the
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bourgeoise (those who control the means of production) and theproletariat(those
who have nothing but their own labour to sell).
ii. Marxist ideas tell us that there is constant conflict between these two classes is
always there in a latentform,butitbecomesmanifestafterapointoftime.So,he’s
not looking into social harmony but the constant conflict.
iii. Social Change: In Marxism, there is a radical, revolutionary change, which
vanishes the existing structures of hierarchy, and completely alters the present system.
iv. Conflict Perspective in American Sociology
a) TheconflictperspectivedominatedWesternEuropeansociologyandwaslargely
neglected by American sociology until the 50s.
b) C.WrightMillsandLewisCoser–focusedondifferentkindsofconflictsthat
exist in society, looking beyond economic classification. They talked about
conflict based on race, caste, gender etc. This happens because of scarcity of
resources.
c) AccordingtoCoser,conflictisfunctional,thusbridgingthetwoperspectivesand
striking a chord of harmony between these two approaches.
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v. riticism: By focussing sonarrowlyonissuesofcompetitionandchange,itfailsto
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cometogripswiththemoreorderly,stableandlesspoliticallycontroversialaspectsof
social reality.
(3) Interactionist
oth functionalism and conflict perspectives analyse society at a macro level. The
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interactionistperspectivelooksatamicro-levelperspectivebyfocusingonsocialinteractions
atthemicro-levelsmallgroups.Thisperspectivegeneralizesfundamentaleverydayformsof
social interaction.
ociety is ultimately created, maintained and changed by the social interaction of its
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members.Theinteractionistperspectiveinsociologyfocusesonsocialbehaviourineveryday
life asittriestounderstandhowpeoplecreateandinterpretthesituationstheyexperience–
and how these countless instances of social interaction produce the larger structure of society.
he germs of interactionism can be found in Max Weber’s enquiry who focused on
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individuals.ThisperspectivewasfurtherdevelopedAmericanuniversities–theearlyleaders
in the Chicago School of Sociology like George Herbert Mead.
The interactionist perspective has a number of loosely linked approaches:
1. G . H. Mead & Blumer – Chicago School in the US laid down the symbolic
interactionism approach. Symbolic interactionism is the interaction that takesplace
between people through symbols – such as signs, gestures, shared rules and most
importantly, written and spoken language. Example: traffic signals, reading a book
etc.
2. Erving Goffman – thedramaturgicalapproachtosocialinteraction–thesocietyis
inastateofdramawherethereisafrontstageandabackstage.Peopleplaydifferent
roles and stage-manage their lives.
3. George Homans – who gave the theory of exchange – the behaviour ofhumansis
motivated by what humans will get in return – his theory stresses the way people
control one another’s behaviour by exchanging various forms of rewards and
punishments for approved or disapproved behaviour.
4. Harold Garfinkel has adopted what he calls as ethno-methodological approach –
whichisanattempttofindouthowpeopleunderstandtheroutinesofdailylife.This
approach looks at the distinct and shared meanings underlying everyday social life
and routines.
Criticism: It neglects larger institutions and societalprocesses.
CONCLUSION
ll of these three perspectives are partial and they are overlapping. When trying to
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understand social structures, we need to incorporate all three perspectives, because all of
them have unique insights to offer.
xample: if we take education, we can lookatitfromthreeperspectives.Elaborateonthe
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same.
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SOCIOLOGICAL ME THODS
hat are the methods that are used by a sociologisttoinvestigateandanalyseanykindof
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social event or issue? Different methods are used. To analyse even oneissue,therecanbe
multiple methods employed.
We’ll discuss 6 important methods:
1) Comparative Method
I tmeansthatasocialscientisttoinvestigateanissue,willeithercomparetwosocietiesortwo
groups within a society and he will try to find out the similaritiesanddifferencesbetween
these two. Based on his analysis, he comes to different conclusions.
his method is highly used by the sociologists. Starting fromAU
T GUSTE CO
MTE,thismethod
has been used.
I t has been used by EM
ILE DURKHEIM also. By comparing the different societies and legal
systems,hecametotheconclusionthat“law[thelegalinstitutionsandcodes]istheindexof
socialsolidarity”,andhehasfocusedonthedivisionoflabourandthetypeofthesolidarity
present in the society. He said that,there can betwo different levels of society
a) Primitive Society–
● thereislessdivisionoflabourandlessspecialization–herethereislessemphasison
the individual but more on the group.
● Thereshouldthusbenobreakdownofanyofthegroup’scodes,whichcanundermine
the group’s solidarity. There is ‘mechanical solidarity.’
● There are thus, “repressive laws” (criminal laws) that repress the urges of
individuality.
b) Modern/Industrial Society–
● T hereismoredivisionoflabour.Whilemaintenanceofsocialgroupisimportant,but
since there is more specialization, the focus is more on the individual.
● Restitutive laws (civil laws) exist, as what istakenfromtheindividualneedstobe
returned back.
● There is a give-and-take relationship between individuals. This is a ‘o rganic
solidarity.’
imilarly, Durkheim has also used this methodinhisstudycalled‘SUICIDE’(acomparative
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study of suicide’s incidence in different groups and societies) –hetheorizedthatsuicideis
inverselyrelatedtothetypeofsocialsolidarityofagroup(ifsolidarityismore,therewould
be less suicidal rates and vice versa), and the degree of social cohesion.
2) Historical Method
he historical method refers to a study of events, processes and institutions of past
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civilizationsforthepurposeoffindingtheoriginsorantecedentsofcontemporarysociallife
and thus, understanding its nature and working.
e are probing into history, understanding the development indifferentphases,andseeing
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why some events happened. This has been highly used by Karl Marx and Max Weber.
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ARL MARX said that history is the history of class conflict. He has tried to analyse the
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different kinds of societies from primitive societies (without private property) to modern
capitalistic societies (with privateproperty).Hesaidthatwethenreachafinalstage,which
has evolved from the precedent stages.
imilarly, MAX WEBER usesbothahistoricalmethodandacomparativemethod:hetriesto
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understandwhetheranon-economicvariable-canbecorrelatedtoaneconomicvariable.He
analysed if protestant ethics have fostered capitalism (and are thus correlated) – heisthus
using a historical lens, butalsoacomparativemethod–wherehecompares6religionsand
countries. But he came to the conclusionthatprotestantethicsprofessworkasavirtueand
encourages the taking of loan also, they consider less holidays etc.
hiswasthusadeparturefromwhatKarlMarxhadsaid:theeconomywasnotalwaysatthe
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centre of the society, and even non-economic variables could affect economic variables.
3) Quantitative/Statistical Method
I t involves numerical data collection. Social scientists often change data into numerical
variablesandexpressthemasequations.Thishasbeencalledassocialstatisticswhichisthe
method used to measure social problems mathematically.
he statistical method allows ustoarriveatgeneralizationanddrawarelationshipbetween
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the different aspects of social phenomena.
ociologists like Comte, Professor Giddings have emphasized on the importance of this
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method in sociological research.
4) Case-Study Method
ocialmicroscope–asaminutein-depthstudyistakenofanissuetoanalyseitinaholistic
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manner. This is a qualitative method: interview or questionnaire methods maybeused,for
example.Theideaisthatanycasebeingstudiedisrepresentativeofmanysimilarcasesand
hence will make generalization possible.
hesemaybesensitiveissuesoften.Example:Astudyondrug-abuse,bytakingthecaseof
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one drug-addict, and gaining the in-depth knowledge of it.
ssumption:Theonecaseisamicrocosmofthelargerpicture–oneunitisrepresentativeof
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the society at large. From the study of this, we may extrapolate and come to certain
conclusions.
5) Functional Method
I tisusedbyfunctionalisttheorists(societyhasinterrelatedpartsandeachparthasafunction
to play) – they study the roles and the functions performed by different socialinstitutions.
Thismethodisbasedontheassumptionthatthetotalsocialsystemismadeupofpartswhich
are interrelated and interdependent.
hismethodwasusedbydifferentthinkers,likeEmileDurkheim,TalcottParsons,Merton
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etc. Malinowski who was an anthropologist studying tribals also used this. Many other
anthropologists have studied the various functions of the family as well.
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mileDurkheimhasusedthismethodanalysingeducationasaninstitution,andwhatisits
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role in society.
6) Scientific Method
ociologistsusedtousesimilarmethodologiesasscientistsofphysicalsciencesinsociology.
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But there are some issues that maybetherewhenweusesuchmethodsbecausetheresults
may be indeterminate and futile.
Its steps include:
a ) bservations of the different data in the ‘Universe’
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b) Formulation of a Problem
c) Framing of a Tentative Solution – a Hypothesis
d) Collection of facts/data and sieving out the irrelevant information
e) Analysisoffacts–findingsimilarities,differences&Synthesis–theclassificationof
Data
f) Coming up with generalizations
g ) Formulation of Theory: When a scientist succeeds in describing and explaining the
relation between various facts, he has formulated a theory.
LIMITATIONS OF THE SCIENTIFIC ME THODS:
1. Difficulty in the use: The difficulty to establishlaboratory conditions in social situations.
2 . Interdependence of the Cause-Effect: It is difficult to establish cause andeffect–and
only correlation may be found
3. Intangibility of the Social Phenomena:They cannotbe directly identified by our senses.
4 . Complexity of the Social Data: The nature of human beings is very complex. Things
change from one person to another and even for one person, things may change over time.
5 .Unpredictability:Socialbehaviourisirregularandunpredictable.Differentcausesmaybe
thereforthesameevent,theremaybeahighdegreeofpossibilityforsomethingbutthereis
no certainty.
6 . Objectivity: Research should not be influenced by one’s own biases and opinions, but
after a point, such views may influence the results.
Is sociology a science?
3 parameters for a discipline to be a science –
( i) Reliability of the Body of Knowledge – whether the data on which the research is
conductedisreliableornot.Insociology’scase,thedataandthesubjectmatterofsociology
is reliable to a certain extent.
( ii)Predictability&Control–canwepredictinthesamemannerinsociologyasascience?
Yes to some extent, we can
I fweareconductingastudyonmen,wemayforexampleconsiderwomenasahomogenous
group. We are thus keeping some variables constant, and studying the interplay of the
variables under study in controlled conditions.
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( iii) Organization of Knowledge: Whether the organization of knowledge is possible and
find out cause and effect relationship? – Yes, we can.
IN
TERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIOLOGY & OTHER DISCIPLINES
ociologyofKnowledge,ofLaw,ofReligion,ofIndustrialSociology,EconomicSociology,
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Medical Sociology, Management Sociology etc. With the merging of the twodisciplines,a
new branch of knowledge may develop.
Historical Sociology:
● H istorical sociology may be described as the study of social groups, their
composition, their interrelationships and the social conditions that support or
undermine them – from a historical lens.
● Robert Bellah, Sigmund Diamond, Jacob Burkhardt are some notable social
historians.
Sociology of Knowledge:
This branch presupposes the idea that our knowledge is in some measure a social product.
● K arl Marx: Whatever knowledge we haveisthemonopolyofthosewhocontrolthe
means of production used as a tool for maintaining the hegemony.
● Karl Manheim: He looked at the problem at sociology of knowledge in his works.
● EmileDurkheimarguedthatoruperceptionandexperiencearederivedfromandform
a part of our social structure.
Sociology of law
● T hislooksatlawandlegalsystemsasapartofsocietyandalsoassocialinstitutions
related to other institutions and changing withthem.Itregardslawasonemeansof
social control.
● Jurisprudence is more legal theory, but sociology studies in the framework of the
society
● The Austrian scholar E. Ehrlich has published some outstanding works in this field.
● Durkheim and Weber have also worked in this area.
● How does law act as a medium of social control and social change. Law changes
society and similarly the society also changes law.
● Certain categories of social practices are recognized by the law but some are not.
Social Ecology
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● hey study how communities may be studied from an ecological approach.
● ChicagoSchoolinAmericaisaveryimportantname–whichhasresearchedonhow
the environment influences criminal tendencies
Political Sociology
● H ow the political scientists and sociologists study – looking atthedifferentaspects
and the interrelationship between society and polity, between social structures and
political institutions.
● How the State influences the individual and groups’ lives.
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● Aristotle, Pareto, Karl Marx, Weber etc.
Sociology of Religion
● T ries to make us understand how religion controls our behaviour and works as a
social inst.
● Taylor, Spencer, Durkheim, Malinowski, Max Weber
● Emile Durkheim has talked about the influence of religion on an individual’s life
● Max Weber’s study on the Protestant Ethic
What is the relationship of sociology with other branches of knowledge?
Sociology with Psychology
Sociology with Economics
Sociology with History
Sociology with Political Science
Sociology with Anthropology
ociology has a wider scope compared to different disciplines. These special branches of
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knowledge have a specific focus – economics for example is looking at the
ociology is an abstract science but notaconcretesubject–unlikeforexample,history
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which has concrete facts.
FROM SOCIAL THOUGHT TO SOCIAL THEORY
There was a transition.
Social philosophy:The normative approach adoptedby different thinkers.
Social thought: They have entered into the verificationprocess.
Social theory: More and more theoretical explanations,and arguments were given
ociology: Different conceptsandtheoriesweretestedandthustheywereinvolvedintothe
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subject matter of sociology.
NOTABLE SO
CIOLOGISTS
CLAUDE HENRI SA
INT-SIMON
uguste Comte was the secretary and disciple of Saint-Simon. There is astrongsimilarity
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between their ideas and yet a stark contrast – that led to an eventual split.
Key Ideas of Saint Simon:
1. C onservativism: He wanted to preserve society as it was, but did not go as far as
seeking a return to life as it had been in the Middle Ages (contrast with Bonald).
2. Positivist: He believed that the study of social phenomenashouldemploythesame
scientific techniques that were used in the natural sciences.
3. Socialist:Hesawtheneedforsocialistreforms–andencouragedcentralplanningof
the economy (though he did not go as far as Marx did).
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AUGUSTE COMTE (1798TO 1857) –FATHER OF SO
CIOLOGY
Important Works:Positive PhilosophyandPositivePolity
Social Physics & the Etymology of Sociology
ewantedtousetheterm“s ocialphysics”becauseoftheemphasisonscientificenquiry,but
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later as he saw that it was already used by other scholars, he referred to this discipline as
Sociology–derivedfromtheLatinwordSociusmeaningcompanionshipandtheGreekword
logosmeaning study or science: thus meaning the scienceof companionship or society.
Influences of Comte: Claude Henri St. Simon
omte was the secretary of a famous philosopher – Claude Henri St. Simon. He was a
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conservative and yet aradical.Conservativebecausehedidnotwantrevolutionarychanges
but to maintain the statusquoatlarge,butaradicalinthesensethathewantedtointegrate
positivism and social sciences. They also worked together but later did not because of
differences.
Positivist
omte was a follower of positivism – thescientificmethodologybasedonobservationand
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empiricism. This positive philosophy, in his view, came as a counter to the negative and
destructive philosophy of the Enlightenment.
Comte’s Conservativism
omtewasinfluencedalsobytheFrenchcounterrevolutionaryCatholicslikeBonald–who
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criticized the changes that had pervaded the French society after the Enlightenment & the
French Revolution.
owever,hisworkisdifferentfromtheirs,ashedidnotthinkitwaspossibletoreturntothe
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Middle Ages and he developed a much more sophisticated theoretical system than his
predecessors.
MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS OF CO
MTE:
. LA
A W OF TH
REE ST AGES: Comte was concerned about the society’s state in the
post-Revolution era in France. He attempted to find what was the ‘social order’ in French
society.
is Law of Three Stages proposesthattherearethreeintellectualstagesthroughwhichthe
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world has gone throughout its history. According to Comte, not only does the world go
throughthisprocess,butgroups,societies,sciences,individuals,andevenmindsgothrough
the same three stages
1 . Theological Stage (before 1300s) – Thisstageisthefirstanditcharacterizedtheworld
prior to 1300 (14th century).
● D uring this period, the major idea system emphasized the belief that supernatural
powersandreligiousfigures,modelledafterhumankind(asinpolytheism),areatthe
root of everything.
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● I nparticular,thesocialandphysicalworldisseenasproducedbyGod.Humanminds
are not capable of reason but they have blind faith in religion.
● This is very true with the evolution of the military society
2 .MetaphysicalStage(1300-1800)–Nowtherewasanorderinthenaturethatwashighly
rational. There was a movement towards a rational-legal society that was based on
nation-states. Divine rights are substituted for natural rights.
ccordingtoComte,thiserawascharacterizedbythebeliefthatabstractforceslike“nature”
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rather than personalized gods, explain virtually everything,
3 . Positive Stage (Post-1800s): In the positivistic stage, characterized by beliefinscience,
peopletendedtogiveupthesearchforabsolutecauses(likeGodornature)andconcentrate
on observation of the social and physical world in the searchforthelawsgoverningthem.
This is characteristic of the industrial society.
elevanceoftheLawofThreeStages:Comte’sargumentisthatintellectualdisorderisthe
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cause of social disorder. The disorder stemmed from earlier idea systems (theological and
metaphysical)thatcontinuedtoexistinthepositivistic(scientific)age.Onlywhenpositivism
gained total control would social upheavals cease.
radualism, Positivism&Sociology:Becausethiswasanevolutionaryprocess,therewas
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no need to fomentsocialupheavalandrevolution(therewasalreadyenoughdisorderinthe
world). Positivism would come, although perhaps not as quickly as some would like.
According to Comte, sociologywasachannelofintellectualchangethatcouldexpeditethe
advent of positivism.
H
T REE ST AGES HEOLOGICAL
T E TAPHYSICAL
M OSITIVE
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Nature of Society Military Society Legal Society Industrial Society
Unit of Society Family Nation Entire Humanity
Basic Domestic Collective Universal
Principle/Type of Order/Love f or Order/Mutual Order/Universality
Order Family Coexistence
Prevailing Affection r
o Mutual Respect & indness
K &
Sentiment Attachment Veneration Benevolence
CLASSIFICATION OF SC
IENCES
hereisaprincipleonwhichtheclassificationmaybedone.Comte’sclassificationisbased
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on:
( i) The order ofincreasingcomplexity
or simplicity of sciences.
omte viewed sociology as the most
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complexscience,associalphenomena
are multi-dimensional andlinkedwith
many observable and unobservable
dynamics.
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sciencelikemathematicswasthesimplestormoreappropriately,mostgeneralasithada
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lot of applications and was more definite.
If we are to put different disciplines on a scale arranging them from general to complex
Mathematics → Astronomy → Physics → Chemistry → Biology → Sociology
(ii)Based on dependence of sciences on one another.
omte believed that some sciences were more dependent on others, andsociologywasthe
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most dependent science as to explain humanbehaviour,weneededtodependonbiological
dynamics, which in turn depended on other sciences.
On a scale of least dependent to most dependent:
Mathematics → Astronomy → Physics → Chemistry → Biology → Sociology
(iii)Further classification was done on the basisoforganic & inorganic
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● to C – Inorganic Sciences
● B and S – Organic Sciences – concerns organisms
SOCIAL STATIC & SOCIAL DY
NAMIC
Comte proposed that sociology to be studied in two main parts:
( 1)SocialStaticsisconcernedwiththepresentstructureofthesociety.Itstudiesthecurrent
laws, rules and present condition of the society. In social statics, it is observed how the
present social laws are affecting the society.
This would focus on themain institutions in societyand their interrelationships as they exist.
( 2) Social Dynamics is how the processes ofsocialchangesaretakingplace.Itfocuseson
wholesocietiesastheunitofanalysisandrevealshowtheydevelopedandchangedthrough
time.
Though both are important, according to Comte, social dynamics is more important.
CONCLUSION
omte’sinsistenceonthepositiveapproach,objectivityandscientificattitudecontributedto
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the progress of social sciences in general. He argued that sociology was not just a pure
science but anapplied sciencethat was to help solvethe problems of the society.
EM
ILE DURKHEIM IN FR
ANCE (1858 – 1917)
urkheim was a follower of structural-functionalism. Durkheim proposed that sociology
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shouldbestudiedasaseparatebranchofknowledge(formalisticschool)–andsimilartothe
other sciences, sociology should be able to analyse the facts from a sociological lens.
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urkheiminheritedtheEnlightenmenttraditionofemphasisonscienceandsocialreformism
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andalsoinheritedtheconservativetraditionlikeComte–withhisemphasisonsocialorder.
Unlike Comte, who stayed out of academia, Durkheim legitimizedsociologyinFranceand
his work became the dominant force in the development of sociology in general and
sociological theory in particular.
A. SOCIAL FA
CTS
I n Durkheim’s theory, the ultimate social reality isthegroup,nottheindividual.Sociallife
has to be analysed in termsof‘socialfacts’,accordingtohim.Socialfacts,arenothingbut
“collective ways of thinking, feeling and acting”, which though come from the individual,
“are external” to him and exert an “external constraint” or pressure on him.
he currents that we observe in society cannot be reduced to individual facts (which are
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psychological – theyemergeinthemindoftheindividualandthenmanifestexternally)but
social facts emerge from the collective.
hese social facts are the subject matter of sociology. Each social fact is related to a
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particular social milieu, to a definite type of society.
For example, customs that operate in society are socialfacts.
2 Characteristics of a Social Fact
(a)It is external to an individual.(Charvaka Philosophy)
ollectiveconsciousnessissuigeneris.Itemergesoutofindividualconsciousnesses–outof
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the totality of the individuals. It is external to us. For example, religion and customary
practices are external to us. These norms are the collective unification of theindividuals–
and these individuals’ identities merge into this collective.
He gives 4 arguments to support this:
i. HeterogeneityofanIndividual&CollectiveStateofMind:Thoughindividualsare
h eterogeneous, we become a part of the collective consciousness
ii. ThedifferenceintheIndividualAttitudeandBehaviourresultingfromaGroup
Situation:Collectivefactsthatareexternaltoyouaffecthowyouconductyourselfin
a group.
iii. Uniformity of the Social Data: Continuously, there is continuityinsocialdata,for
example: family, suicide, groups etc. – thissuggeststhatthereissomecontinuityin
them, and uniformity because of the existence of collective facts.
iv. Theory of Emergence: From different individual identities, a collective
consciousnessarises–thisnewconsciousnesscamefromtheindividualitself.Thisis
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s imilartotheCharvakaphilosophywhichespousesthatthereisnotransmigrationof
soul but life rebegins from the collection of the body parts itself.
(b)It is controlling & compelling
Fashion, Education, and Customs have a compelling force.
aterial & Non-Material: Social facts may be material or non-material. Material, for
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example,maybelaw(becauseitissubjecttothecategoricalperceptionandtangibleinstatute
books) or bureaucracy. And religion, culture and social institutions may be non-material.
(Intangible).Durkheimwasespeciallyconcernedwithnon-materialsocialfacts,asisevident
from his study in his work “The Division of Labour inSociety.”–Notablythisdistinction
was brought out in his major work “The Rules of Sociological Method.”
Criticism:Individual identity is being merged intothe group identity
B. DIVISION OF LA
BOUR
3 meanings of Division of Labour
a ) T echnical Sense– where it is related to the productionin the industries
b) Sexual– the division of labour between a man anda woman (Gender Based)
c) Social in n
ature – Differentiationinsocietyasawhole.Assignmenttoeach
unit and group or group a specific share of common tasks.
Two questions before us:
i. ow could a large number of individuals make up a society?
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ii. How can these individuals reach a consensus – which is the basic necessity for
society?
I n his first book, DIVISION OF LABOUR IN SOCIETY, Durkheim demonstrated his method of
analysistoexplaintheevolutionofsocietyfromtheprimitivetothemodern.Heclassifieda
societybythenatureofsocialsolidaritywhichexistedinthatsociety.Hearguedthatwhilea
primitive society was organised according to ‘mechanical’ solidarity, modern society was
based on ‘organic’ solidarity.
2 Types of Social Solidarity:
-Mechanical Solidarity:
i. omogeneity of the individual & behaviour
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ii. Loyalty for tradition & kinship
iii. Simple division of labour
iv. Strict social constraints (repressive laws would develop here – to maintain consensus)
v. Simple division of labour
vi. Very few roles
vii. Solidarity of resemblance
-Organic Solidarity(Modern Industrial Society)
i. ore specialization
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ii. Interdependence of a large number of people
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iii. ivil & restitutive laws
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iv. More heterogeneity & individuality in society
echanical Solidarity
M rganic Solidarity
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here
W 1. Primitive society 1. Modern society
Degree of 2. Based onhomogeneityorthe 2. It is based on the heterogeneity
Similarity similarity of its individual of its members.
members
Population 3. It is found in societies with .Itisfoundinsocietieswithlarge
3
small populations. populations, where most social
relationshipsnecessarilyhavetobe
impersonal.
egree of
D 4 . It typically involves a 4. Interdependence is the essence
interdependence collection of different of organic solidarity. It celebrates
self-sufficient groups where individuals and allows for their
each person within a particular need to be different from each
group is engaged in similar other,andrecognisestheirmultiple
activities or functions. roles and organic ties.
cceptance of
A y contrast, in primitive
B . The laws of modernsocietyare
5
Deviance societies the law sought to ‘restitutive’ in nature rather than
punish wrong doers and ‘repressive’. This means that in
enforced a sort of collective modern societies, the law aims to
revenge for their acts. repair or correct the wrong that is
In other words, mechanical done by a criminal act.
solidarity-based societies have
repressive laws designed to
prevent deviation from
community norms. This was
because the individual and the
community were so tightly
integratedthatitwasfearedthat
any violation of codes of
conduct could result in the
disintegration of the community.
egree of
D 6. The individual was totally . The individual is given some
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Individual submerged in the collectivity. autonomy
Autonomy
urkheim’sconcernfornonmaterialsocialfactswasalreadyclearinhisearliestmajorwork,
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TH
E DIVISION OF LABOR IN SO
CIETY.
isfocustherewasacomparativeanalysisofwhatheldsocietytogetherintheprimitiveand
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modern cases. He concluded that earlier societies were held together primarily by
non-materialsocialfacts,specifically,astronglyheldcommonmorality,orwhathecalled
a strong collective conscience (under mechanical solidarity). However, because of the
complexities of modern society, there had been a decline in the strength of the collective
conscience. The primary bond in the modern world was an intricate division of labour,
which tied people to others in dependency relationships(Organic Solidarity).
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roblems with Modern Division of Labour: However, Durkheim felt that the modern
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divisionoflabourbroughtwithitseveral“pathologies”;itwas,inotherwords,aninadequate
method of holding society together.
urkheim’s Recommendation: Given his conservative sociology, Durkheim did not feel
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thatrevolutionwasneededtosolvetheseproblems.Rather,hesuggestedavarietyofreforms
that could “patch up” the modern system and keep it functioning. Although he recognized
thattherewasnogoingbacktotheagewhenapowerfulcollectiveconsciencepredominated,
he did feel that the common morality could be strengthened in modern society and that
people thereby could cope better with the pathologies that they were experiencing.
C. SUICIDE & ANOMIE
mileDurkheimfocusedonsocialintegrationandtheimportanceofgroupsolidarity.Butif
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this integration breaksdownorthereistoomuchintegration,itmayleadtonormlessness–
the individuals may become confused as to which norm is to be followed.
here is thus a clash between one’s own values and societal values (because the societal
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values are not formed properly). In such circumstances, an individual may commit Suicide.
e gave his theory in his book Suicide. He wanted to integrate conceptual framework,
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empirical research and investigation. Durkheim reasoned that he could link an individual
behavior like suicide to social causes (social facts). Durkheim was not examining why
individualAorBcommittedsuicide,ratherhewasinterestedinthecausesofdifferencesin
suicide rates among groups, regions, countries and different categories of people (for
example: married or single).
is basic argument is that it was the nature of and changes in social facts that led to
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differences in suicide rates. This claim was supported by his observation that there is a
different suicide rate in different groups. For example:
i. rotestants (Low) v. Catholics (High)
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ii. Persons living alone (High) v. Persons living in families (Low)
iii. Urban society (High) v. Rural Society (Low)
Social integration is the main reason why suicide varies from one group to another.
his came in the background of a time when single-factor theories were being given to
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explain why suicides took place: Durkheim was trying to repudiate the biological,genetic,
and psychologicalexplanationsforsuicide,whichproposedthattherewasasingularreason
for suicide.
A Linear Way to Understand Suicide:
goisticSuicide:Whenthereisacompletebreakdowninsocialintegration-Itiscommitted
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by individuals who are social outcasts and see themselves as being alone or an outsider.
These individuals areunabletofindtheirownplaceinsocietyandhaveproblemsadjusting
to groups
ltruistic Suicide: When integration is at a high extreme – and the individual’s identity
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completely assimilates into the group, thus sacrificing himself for the group. Example: In
Japan, they have a system of harakiri, Buddhist practice of taking samadhi etc.
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nomic Suicide: Stateofnormlessness–whentherearesuddenchangesinthesocietyand
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the individual is unable is not able to cope with these changes.
HERBERT SPENCER IN ENGLAND (1820 – 1903)
arwin’sTheoryofEvolution(thoughcontroversial)hasinfluencedHerbertSpencer’stheory
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of social evolution. Evolution means to open or to unfold. So how this evolution happens
with an organism has influenced how this takes place in society. – Spencer was a Social
Darwinist.
SPENCER’S TH
EORY OF SOCIAL EV
OLUTION:
I t explains how simple, indefinite, incoherent – becomes complex, definite and coherent.
From unicellular to multicellular. From homogenous to heterogeneous.
1 . I n simple societies, there were certain families.
2. In compound societies, these simple families became clans.
3. The doubly-compound societies, these clans became tribes.
4. The triply-compound societies, these tribes became nation-states.
So, from military society, we move to the industrial society.
ILITARY SOCIETY
M I N
DUSTRIAL SOCIETY
1. There was compulsory cooperation. 1. Cooperation is voluntary
(There is a single authority and you either
cooperate willingly or you are coercedinto
it).
2. Political Aspect: There is a centralized 2. There is a decentralized structure at place.
government.
3. EconomicAspect:Thereareautonomous . There is no longer self-sufficiency, as
3
and self-sufficient units there is interdependence between different
groups, regions and states
4. There was a domination of the State in 4.TherewaslessdominationoftheStatein
the social aspect. the social aspect.
Herbert Spencer’s studies were largely hinged on biological ideas.
RGANIC ANALOGY: Where Spencer is drawing a link between social structure, society and
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living organisms. We are here looking at both the similarities and the differences.
Similarities:
i. isible growth: Just like living organisms’ growth is visible, so is the case forthe
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social structure.
ii. Increase in complexity: From unicellular to multicellular, likewise, with simple
society to compound society.
iii. Differentiation of thestructures,anddifferentiationofthefunctions:Justlikein
due course of evolution, there are different changes in the body, the functions also
change.Asthestructuresbecomemoreandmoredeveloped,thereisahigherdegree
ofspecialization.Anexampleishowthechild’searlysocializationandeducationwas
earlier done by the family, but now it is through primary education institutions.
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iv. here is harmony between thestructuresandtheirfunctioning:Thoughthereis
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differentiation, there is an essential harmony between them.
v. If there is a loss of one organ, it does not necessarily mean the end of the
organism.Similarly,thelossofoneassociation/organization,maynotneedtheendof
the society.
e has drawn several examples of how body parts are analogous to social structures.
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Examples:
a . A limentary system of humans is equivalent to the production system of society.
b. Circulatory system is equivalent to transportation.
c. Different parts of the brain are similar to certain regulatory mechanisms in society.
Differences
i. rgans of the human body do not have any independent existence, unlike the
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different institutions of the social structure like the family, religion, marriage etc.
ii. A living organism has a definite form, but social structure often does not have a
definite form.
iii. Differentiation in the case of a social structure, leads to differentiation of the
function, whereas this is not true in the case of a living organism. The eye, for
example,willfunctionthesamewayfromasimpletoacomplexorganism.Samefor
the heart or the brain. But with change in the structure of the family from a joint
family (which has educative and financial support roles) toanuclearfamily(which
has an affective function), the functions also change.
SOCIAL DARWINISM: There are 2 aspects:
i. atural Selection in Society: The principle of Darwin’s theory is being used in
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society–theconceptofnaturalselectionandthesurvivalofthefittest–thestruggle
forexistence.Inthecaseofsociety,thiswouldmean,thatinthesociety,ifunimpeded
by external intervention, people who were “fit” would survive and proliferate,
whereas the “unfit” would eventually die out.
ii. Principleofnon-interference:Hewasveryinfluencedbytheindividualisttheories–
sohebelievedthattheStateshouldinterfereverylessinthelivesofindividuals.His
acceptance ofthelaissez-fairedoctrineisbasedontheideathatsociallifeshouldbe
allowedtoevolvefreeofexternalcontrolandoutsideinterferencecouldonlyworsen
the situation.
riticism:Whenwearedrawingsuchananalogy,wehavetorecognizethatlivingorganisms
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and society are very different for extrapolation to this extent. And the ideals of social
Darwinism don’t fit in with our modern understanding of affirmative action and stratification.
KARL MA
RX
e was not a sociologist but whatever contribution he has made in the development of
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sociological theory is very pertinent. He gave us a counter to the functionalist theories by
talking about the conflict theories (class conflict).
hemajorityoftheearlysociologiststhoughtthathisworkwasanegativeforce,something
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againstwhichtoshapetheirsociology–thebasicreasonforthiswasideological.Marxsaw
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s alvation inrevolution,buttotheclassicalsociologists,suchideasrepresenteddisruptionof
the social order that they sought to preserve and reformgradually.
he philosophical roots of Marx were also different: because conservative theorists were
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heavily influenced by the philosophy of Immanuel Kant and tended to think in linear,
cause-and-effect terms. That is, they tended to arguethatachangeinA(say,thechangein
ideas during the Enlightenment) leads to a change in B (say, the political changes of the
French Revolution). In contrast, Marx was most heavily influenced, as we have seen, by
Hegel,whothoughtindialecticalratherthancause-and-effectterms.Amongotherthings,the
dialectic attunes us to the ongoing reciprocal effects of social forces.
He hasusedthehistoricalmethodforstudyingsociology.Hiscontributionsare“HISTORICAL
DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM.”
HEGEL: IDEALISTIC & DIALECTICAL ID
EAS
isphilosophywasheavilyinfluencedbyHegelbuthehasrefusedthewayinwhichHegel
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talks.
.W.F.HegelwasanIDEALISTIC PHILOSOPHER –andhethoughtthateverythingintheuniverse
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is the extension of an idea (thus even the materialistic conditions). According to him, any
dominantconceptisthethesis,andananti-thesiscomestobreakthisnotionandthroughtheir
combination and fusion – comes synthesis. This is called as aDIALECTICAL METHOD.
otably, Ludwig Feuerbach criticized the idealistic ideas of Hegel, emphasizing on a
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materialist philosophy.
MARXIST PE RSPECTIVE ON DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM &THE BA
SE-SUPERSTRUCTURE TH
EORY
arl Marx said that everything is not an extension of an idea, but the extension of
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matter/materialconditions–theeconomicconditionsofanysocietyorculture,whereweare
discussingtheproductionprocess,arecentraltothedevelopment.Marxthusselectivelytook
dialecticism from Hegel, leaving out idealism, and he integrated it with Feuerbach’s
materialism and did a historical enquiry.
heeconomyofasocietyistheinfrastructureonwhichthesuperstructure(law,policy,state
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etc.) is built. Whoever has control overtheproductionprocessgovernstheotheraspectsof
society.
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B SE-SUPERSTRUCTURE TH
EORY:Marxsaidthatthemodeofproduction(atermthatdescribes
the economic system, like primitive communism, feudalism,capitalismetc.)alongwiththe
productive forces (the means of production) and the productive relations (the economic
relations) form the base (the infrastructure) on which stands the superstructure of the
political, cultural and social institutions.
arxarguedthatpeople’sideasandbeliefsoriginatedfromtheeconomicsystemofwhich
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they were part. Howhumanbeingsearnedtheirlivelihooddeterminedhowtheythought—
material life shaped ideas, ideasdidnotshapemateriallife.Thisargumentwentagainstthe
dominantwaysofthinkinginMarx’stime,whenitwascommontoarguethathumanbeings
were free to think whatever they wanted and that ideas shaped the world.
5 STAGES OF MO
DE OF PRODUCTION
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In every stage of society, class conflict arises. He has talked about 5 stages:
a )PrimitiveSociety/PrimitiveCommunism:Therewasnoconceptofprivatepropertyand
there was no concept of classes. These were the times of hunters & gatherers, where the
factors of production were collectively owned, as community property.
b )AncientModeofProduction:Intheeraofslavery–andtherewere2classes–themaster
andtheslave(andthussocialstratificationexistedinsociety).ThiswastypicalofGreekand
Roman city-states.
c ) Feudal Society: A merchant class developed during thisperiod,thoughserfs,whowere
tied to a piece of property through servitude, were essentially enslaved as they had no
incomes and no ability for upward mobility. Social stratification in the form of the Estate
System was prevalent.
d ) Capitalist Society: In thiseconomicsystem,thesocietyisorganizedaroundtheconcept
of capital where there is a dividebetweenthoseowningthemeansofproductionandthose
who only own their labour.
e ) Communist Society: Where there would be no class conflict. Everyone will contribute
according to his abilities and everyone will get according to his needs. This is a classless
society whereby private property has been abolished.
CLASS CONFLICT
arl Marxhasexplainedclassasanindividual’splaceinrelationtotheproductionprocess.
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Class conflict arises because of scarcity of resources and there will always be conflict
between the haves and the haves not. He talks about some variables which determine class:
( i) There is conflict over the distribution of resources between economic classes:hetalked
about two classes–
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● hose who have the monopoly over the production process – bourgeois – haves
● Those who have nothing but their labour to sell – proletariat – haves not
● Mediatoryclass:hesaidtheywillcomeupwhentherevolutionwillcome–theywill
merge into the proletariat (haves not)
( ii)Easycommunicationbetweentheindividualsofthesameclasspositionsothatideasand
action programme can be passed easily.
( iii)Thiswillleadtothegrowthofclassconsciousnessandthemembersoftheclasswillbe
developing feelings of solidarity.
( iv) There is dissatisfaction of the lower class over its inability to control the economic
structure and a feeling will arise that they are exploited victims.
( v) There is the establishment of a political organization resulting from the economic
structure, historical situation and maturity of the class consciousness.
hen there would be class consciousness, then there would be a revolution and socialist
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societies would be the norm.
There is thePOLARIZATION OF THE CLASSES:
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1 . C lass in itself, when there was no consciousness before.
2. Class for itself, when they become conscious that they are the subjects of exploitation.
TH
EORY OF SURPLUS VA
LUE:
I n the production process, the surplus value is enjoyed by the capitalists and the labourers
who are making this cannot enjoy – which becomes the source of their dissatisfaction.
PAUPERISATION (POVERTY OF THE HA
VES NO
T)
Without any resources, the proletariat is pauperized.
ALIENATION
I n the state of normlessness – in relation to the production process – the labour becomes
detached
1 . rom the product that he has produced
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2. From himself
3. From the community of fellow men
4. From the species essence
5. From the production process itself
CLASS SOLIDARITY & REVOLUTION
Gandhi said that means justify the end, but Karl Marx said that ends justify the means.
ictatorship of the Proletariat: These haves not,oncetheywillrevolt,theywillestablish
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control over the state and this will be the intermediate stage between transition from
capitalism and communism.
INAUGURATION OF THE COMMUNIST SOCIETY
CRITICISM:1. We have not seen a very successful communistrevolution in any country.
2. His theory does not take into account the middle classes that have arisen.
(Ritzer has provided a great summary of Marx’s ideas, which can be referred to)
MA
X WEBER FROM GERMANY
e has greatly influenced in the development of the three perspectives of sociology:
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structural-functionalist, conflict and symbolic-interactionism.
A) THE ID
EAL TY
PE
n analytical construct that serves the investigator as a measuring rod to assert the
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similaritiesandthedeviationsintheconcretecases.GermanIdealisticsfeltthatthescientific
method cannot be used to investigate cultural beliefs – but Max Weber wasoftheopinion
that it could be.
I tisamentalconcept.Soifwearelookingatbureaucracy–wearetolookatthereal-work
bureaucratsandthenwemakeamentalconstructofbureaucratsandanalyzethedifferences
andsimilarities,Thebureaucratsherearetheconcretecases–andwearecomparingthemto
the mental construct.
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The question before Weber:Can the scientific method be used to investigate cultural beliefs?
es. Because we can make ideal types – by looking at concrete cases, and making a
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generalization. (Basically, the German Idealists did not believe that cultural concepts could be
Characteristics of the Ideal Type:
1 . S ubjective in nature:Different individuals have differentmeanings of it.
2. Different from Reality: There is noexactsimilaritybetweentheidealtypeandthe
concrete reality.
3. No ethical idealor passing of any value-judgements.They are objective in nature.
4. They do not tell an “average state of reality.” They are mental concepts used to
facilitate analysis.
5. This is not a hypothesis– that we would need to prove/disprove.
. N. ROBERTSON: “An ideal type is simply an abstract description constructed by the
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sociologists from the observation of the number of the real cases in order to reveal their
characteristics.”
nidealtypeisalogicallyconsistentmodelofasocialphenomenonthathighlightsitsmost
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significant characteristics.
xampleofFamily:Iffamilyisanidealtype–theneachfamilywillhavesomeparticular
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characteristics–itwillnotcompletelycorrespondwiththeidealtypebutthiswouldfacilitate
analysis.
axWeber’stheorywasheavilyinfluencedbyPlato’sandKant’sphilosophy–whichwould
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help us understand the Ideal Type more.
B) MAX WEBER ON RE LIGION
Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism:
ax Weber is looking at the theory of economic determinism – an idea thatwasgivenby
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KarlMarxwherethereisabase/infrastructure(theeconomicrelationsandthedistributionof
means of production) and superstructure (society) which stands on the base.
eberdoesnotcompletelyturnaway/refutethistheory,buthemakesitnuanced:according
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to him, even non-economic variables can influence economic behaviour and changes in
society.
roposition: Religious outlook of the people helps to understand the behaviour of an
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individual – even their economic behaviour.
here is a positive relation between religion (Protestant ethics) and economic enterprises
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(capitalism) – he has collected data and analysed.
rotestantEthics:Godhasselectedcertainpeopletocontrolthewealth(iftheyarewealthy,
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itisasignfromGod)–andsomepeoplehavebeenselectedtoreachHeaven–ifeverything
in their life is prosperous, then it is a positive sign. Protestant ethics would dictate
1 . R e-investing profits to encourage enterprise
2. Taking fewer holidays
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3 . W ork as a virtue
4. Non-alcoholism
hese features of the Protestant faith were thus directly linked with the encouragement of
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enterprise and the rise of capitalism.
omparativeApproach:Hehascompared6majorreligionsoftheworld:Islam,Hinduism,
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andevenJudaismetc.,andhehasanalysedthatthesefeaturesarenotthereinthesereligions
and that is one reason why capitalism did not arise in these countries.
He also compared different countries in Europe
C) WEBERIAN TH
EORY OF BUREAUCRACY
I t is a type of hierarchical organization which is designed to coordinate the work of many
individuals pursuant to large-scale administrative tasks.
An Ideal Type of Bureaucracy:
1 . ixed official jurisdictional areas
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2. Hierarchy of the Authority
3. Division of Labour
4. Appointment on the Basis of Eligibility
5. Fixed Salary, Allowances & Pension
6. Maintenance of Files
7. Full-Time Appointment for Long-Term Services
8. Difference between Private and Public Issues
9. Supervision by Higher Officials
SOCIAL ACTION
I t is social insofar as its subjective meaning takes account of the behaviour of others and
thereby oriented in its course. Social Action would refer to all human behaviour that was
(subjectively) meaningful, that is, action to which actors attached a meaning.
1. R ational Actions: A calculated action that takes a logical approach afteranalyzing
the means and the ends. Example: Preparing for an exam
2. Value-OrientedAction:Example:asoldierlayingdownhislifeforthecountry.His
actionisnotdirectedtowardsattainingspecificmaterialgoallikewealth.Itisforthe
sake of certain values like honour and patriotism.
3. Affective Action: A psychological or emotional action.Example: crying at a victory.
4. TraditionalAction:Somethingthatisnotcalculatedorcomingfrominherentvalues
or emotions, but done because it is a practice in society. Example: greeting elders.
AUTHORITY ACCORDING TO WEBER
raditionalAuthority:Wherethereisfaithintherulesandnorms,thataretransferredfrom
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generation to generation. While the source of traditional authority was custom and
precedence, and is based on the belief of sanctity of tradition and is not codified in
impersonal rules. It is based on a system in which authority is legitimate because “it has
always existed.” Example: Queen of England, based on traditional rules of succession in
monarchy
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ational-Legal Authority: was based on legal demarcation of authority. This authority is
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based on rational grounds and anchored in impersonal rules which are legally enacted.
Rational legal authority which prevailed in modern times was epitomised in the bureaucracy.
harismaticAuthority:Thereissomequalitywithinanindividual–ExampleofNarendra
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Modi,Hitler.Itisderivedfromdivinesourcesorthe‘giftofgrace’,andrestsintheappealof
leaderswhoclaimallegiancebecauseoftheirextraordinaryvirtuosity,whetherethical,heroic
or religious. Example: Hitler, Mao, Gandhi etc.
(Read on these thinkers further from Shankar Rao’s book.)
SO
CIOLOGICAL TERMS
OCIETY: TH
S E DEFINITION BY GINSBURG – Society is a collection of individuals united by
certain relations or modes of behaviour which markthemofffromotherswhodonotenter
into these relationships or differ from them in behaviour.
Elements:
1 . ociety thus is an abstract term, but it concerns tangible persons.
S
2. Mutual interaction and mutual awareness
3. Mutual interdependence
4. Some similarities and differences
5. Each individual has different roles and status – which are based on the division of
labor.
6 . Society is not static but dynamic in nature and society strives towards progress.
7. Social Change
8. Conflicts in society
9. Everysocietyhasaspecialculture–awayoflivingincludingintangibleaspectslike
ideologies and tangible aspects like fashion,cuisine,architectureetc.Thiscultureis
inherited by each generation because of socialization.
O
C MMUNITY:AsdefinedbyMacIver,communityisanareaofsociallivingmarkedbysome
degreeofsocialcoherence.Weapplythetermcommunitytothelocality–‘itisaterritorial
concept.’
ven after movingtoanewplace,thesearelinksthatcomefromplaceoforigin.Example:
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Rajasthani community, Punjabi community etc.
It also means ‘we-feeling’ however, this has been diluted to some extent – as wherever you
hesearerelativeconcepts:So,withintheRajasthanisociety,there’sMarwarisandMewaris
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whicharecommunities.WhileintheIndiansociety,thereisaRajasthanicommunity.Within
the global society, there is an Indian community.
SOCIETY COMMUNITY
1. Society is a web of social relationship .Communitylivesinaparticularareawith
1
some degree of we-feeling.
2 . No definite geographical area 2. Definite geographical area
3. Community-sentiment may not be there 3. Community-sentiment is there as people
are more close knit.
4. Bigger concept 4. Smaller community
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5 . Abstract concept . Concrete concept
5
6. More heterogenous 6. More homogenous
AS SOCIATION:
Human beings have various needs and they have different means to fulfil these needs.
1 . H uman beings alone try to fulfill these needs.
2. Human beings may fulfil through conflict – but this is not sustainable.
3. So, the b est method is cooperationandintegration.Weusuallywouldintegratewith
persons who we are like-minded.
ssociation is an organization deliberately formed for the collective pursuit of social
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interests or a set of interests which its members share. (Definition of MacIver)
CHARACTERISTICS OF ASSOCIATION
1 . A ssociation is a human group.
2. Ithasacommoninterest,inordertofulfillwhichtheycametogether.Example:sports
club, political party etc.
3. Association is based on cooperation – it is based on coming together.
4. Ithasanorganization:thereisahierarchyonthebasisofwhichstatusisassignedand
therolesareassigned.Example:Inacompany,thereisasethierarchicalorganization
whereby status and roles are assigned.
5. Regulation of relationships: each member is to follow the rules which they are
governed with.
6. Durability:Associationsmaybepermanent(likefamily,State)ortemporary(likethe
Interim Student Body)
n association is a deliberately, artificially created group that is there to fulfill certain
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specific needs. It could be a religious congregationgrouporaneconomicpressuregroup–
like a trade union. This is in contrast to an ‘institution’ which slowly evolves in the society.
S SOCIATION
A COMMUNITY
1. Membership is voluntary. (Youonlyjoin 1 .Thisisunvoluntaryasit’sbasedonbirth.
if you want to fulfill your needs) Remember that it is based on origin &
geographical differences.
2. There are specific interests. 2. There are general interests.
3. There is no aspect of a locality. 3. There is a locality that a community is
marked by.
4. This may have a legal status. Example: 4. This does not have a legal status.
political parties must be registered. Example:Punjabicommunitydoesnothave
a legal status.
5. Less stable. Example: The Red Cross 5. More stable
Society, though longstanding – is not stable.
IN
STITUTIONS
Institutions, are slowly gradually evolved in the society. They are not artificially created.
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ccording to Ginsberg, thisisrecognizedandestablishedusesgoverningtherelationships
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between the individual and the groups. Example of family
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IN
STITUTION
1 . T hey areslowly and gradually evolvedin the society.
2. They are universal in society – in that sense they are more widely found in
Associations. Example: an association like a political party may not be there in all
societies, but an institution like the State is present in all the societies with some
standardized norms and different peculiarities.
3. Based on the structure of the institution, there are norms which will govern the
institutions.
4. With the help of the controlling mechanism (the norms), the institutions would
control the behavior of the individuals. Example: norms of thefamilymayregulate
the behavior of the child.
5. They arerelatively permanent(in comparison to associations).
6. They are abstract in nature: they are intangible and there are some regular
relationships which through nomenclature, we aretryingtogiveaconcreteshapeto
the idea of those relationships. Example: Marriage
7. They have oral or written traditions. Example: The old institutions like family
usually would have oral traditions, but new oneslikethemodernedificeoflawhas
written norms.
8. Institutions have symbols.Example:thesinduraurmangalsutramaybethesymbols
of marriage.
9. Institutions can beprimary or secondary:
Primary are those which are evolved first in the course of the development of the
society. Example: Religion, family, marriage.
Secondary: which evolved later: like prison, law,institutional education etc.
elationship between Association &Institution:Thesamethingcanbeanassociationor
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an institution from different perspectives.Exampleof family/marriage:
(i) F amily as a concept is an institution – because an institution is a conceptual
framework that has gradually evolved.
(ii)But when we are talking of particular groups like a marriage between Amitabh
BachanandJayaBachan–thatparticularmarriageisanassociation.Whenwetalkof
particular cases, they become an association – concrete family or marriage.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ASSOCIATION & INSTITUTION
S SOCIATION
A I N
STITUTION
ssociation is a group of people
A Institution isanorganizedwayofdoingthe
things
Association denotes the membership We don’t belong to an institution but we
need it for some purposes. They are
common norms or procedures – they are a
way of doing things, to which we don’t
belong.
ay be temporary or permanent
M More permanent
Concrete Abstract
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SOCIAL SYSTEM
hatisasystem?Anorderlyarrangementofcertainpartswhichareinterrelated.Agroupof
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things or parts working together in a regular relationship.
1. E ach part has its own boundary. Each system has a function that is unique to that
system.
2. One system is asub-systeminanother–sothereisasmallersystemthatcanbethe
part of a bigger system
3. Abstract or a certain way of looking at things.
4. There is a certain orderly arrangement of things.
5. Orderly arrangement
6. Applicable to organic (ecosystem) & the inorganic world (like political system or
economic system)
I n biological sciences when we say system,itmeansanorderlyarrangementofbodyparts.
Similarly, in the social context, we have a system.
hen we say social system, we are referring to individuals: 2ormoreindividualsamong
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whom we find anestablished pattern of interactions.
1. H ow is this interaction process possible? They behave in accordance with their
shared cultural norms.
2. Theyactinpursuitofasharedgoal.Theyinteracttoachievethisgoal.Example:in
a university,eachteacherandstudenthasaparticulargoalbutthesetofinteractions
are there for their common goal – education.
3. It may have a number of sub-systems.
4. Social system is an ideal type – as said by Max Weber.
5. Herbert Spencer, Montesquieu (a political scientist),MaxWeberhaveusedtheterm
system. But not all sociologists use this term.
EL EMENTS OF THE SOCIAL SYSTEM
1. The interactions between individuals.
2 .Action:Theactivitywhichyouareperformingintheinteractionwithothers.Actionhas2
aspects: one is position (the status), and second is processional aspect (the role).
or example: your gender and your religion would be your ascribed status, and your
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profession may be your achieved status.
tatus is a position that you stand on, and role is the functional aspect of the status: your
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rights and duties. These status and role manifestin the form of actions.
3 . Actor has a system of expectations based on his own need-arrangement (how you are
arranging your needs–everyonemakesahierarchyofneeds).Thisneed-arrangementhas2
aspects:
ratification aspect: What will the actor getandwhatwillbethecostatwhichhe
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will get? Example:
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Orientation aspect: How he will get it?
4. Mechanisms of the Social System
ocialization:Trainingprogram–wheneveranewpersonjoinsasocialsystem,heis
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oriented to the norms that are prevalent in the system.Thistakesplaceonaformal
and informal level. This may come from parents, teachers, the internet etc.
ocialControl:Itcouldbecustomary(uncodified)orcodifiedlaws.Itmaybeformal
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and informal.
here can be various levels of the social systems: groups, organizations, societies and
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supra-nation systems (trade alliance that is cross-border as well, for example).
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION:Society is arranged in a hierarchy.
unctional Perspective on Stratification: stratification is said to be functional to the
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society. It also clarifies the position and the functions that you hold: the status and roles.
WHAT IS A STATUS?
itchellsays,“Thepositionoccupiedbyaperson,familyorkinshipgroupinasocialsystem
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relativetotheothers–andthispositiondeterminestheirrights,dutiesandotherbehaviours,
including the nature and the extent of the relationship with persons of other status.”
otice how Mitchell’s definition does not limit the application of status to individuals but
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also to groups. On the basis of this definition, we can talk about a few characteristics of
Status.
CHARACTERISTICS OF STATUS
1. W e are referring to positions. And every position has some rights, duties and
obligations. Example: a priest of a temple.
2. Oneindividualmayenjoyseveralstatuses,atagivenpointoftimeaswellasacross
different periods of time.
3. This status is related to the life chances of the individual. Example: If you are a
woman, your life chances
4. Some statuses may be more important for a person than others. Example: In a
traditionalsociety,thefamilyorkinshipstatusmaymattermore,butinmodernstatus,
this may come from class etc. Each status also thus depends on the cultural and
temporal trends.
5. Hierarchical arrangement is there among different statuses. Example: caste system
6. Social Order & Social Stability:
FunctionalistSchoolofthoughtsaysthatstatusallowsthesocialorderandstabilityto
be maintained. So, a society divided into various statuses and this delineates your
functions in the society.
Of course the conflict perspective would look at it from a negative perspective.
WHAT IS A ROLE?
YOUNG: “Role is a function of status”
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INGSLEY DA
K VID:“Roleisthemannerinwhichapersonactuallycarriesouttherequirement
of his position.”
1 . R ole is obligatory in nature. Every member is bound to perform certain roles.
2. Thereareafewrolesthataresharedbymanyandfewthatarelimitedtoonlysome.
For example: there is only one governor or one prime minister.
3. Some social roles are voluntary, but some are not.
TH
E RELATIONSHIP BE TWEEN STATUS & ROLE
1. T hese are interrelated as one is apositionalaspectandtheotheristhebehavioural
aspect of the position. This is essentially just an analytical division. Status is
manifested through the behaviour.
2. Role&statusarerelationalterms:roleisinrelationtotheroleofothers.Example:
Teacher-Student relationship, we cannot understand the role of teachers without
understanding of the students’ role.
3. They point to two different fields of study: status is more sociological and roleis
more psychological. Instatusweareconcernedaboutsocialstructures;positionsare
occupied in social systems. Role is concerned with thebehaviourof individuals.
4. Both status androlesaredynamicandconstantlychanging.Forexample:weare
doing the role of students, but we also hold the positions of members of a committee.
5. Botharecorrelatedbutitispossibletohaveonewithouttheother.Forexample:
in the University, the VC position is vacant – and the Dean is on an interim basis,
enjoying the status of the VC but he does not serve the role.
Atthesametime,youcanhavearolebutnotthestatus.Example:ifafamilymember
is taking care of an ill person – they are not a nurse but they are serving that role.
WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF STATUS?
Ascribed Status:Status which is determined on thebasis of your birth. Examples:
1 . c aste (a closed group that you can’t change),
2. kinship qualities: like background of the family and cultural norms,
3. age (important in traditional society),
4. sex (and not gender),
5. religion
chieved Status: What you have achieved with your efforts. In an open society,
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hypothetically, you can occupy any status by your own abilities and efforts. Example:
1 . O ccupations and professions
2. Class
TH
REE DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF ROLE
ole-Behaviour:Howactuallythepersonisbehavingorperforminghisrole.Example:Ifthe
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engineer is giving instructions in a very smooth manner, while the other person is using a
very harsh tone – how these two persons are manifesting their roles and meeting the
expectations of their role.
S tudents also for example, manifest different kinds of behaviours to fulfil the roles. This
depends on a lot of factors:
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1. W hat istheeffortthatyouareputtinginandwhatisthelevelofobligationthatyou
have?
2. Howmanystatusesapersonholds?(Iftheyholdmorethanoneposition,theycannot
manifest uniform behaviour)
3. Hereditary experiences (this includes both genetics and experience elements – both
your genes and being experienced in certain tasks may influence)
ROLE-TAKING
Taking the role of the others: visualizing the role of others.
socialpsychologistMeadhasgivenafamoustheoryofroleplayingandroletaking:when
A
we visualize other people’s roles and try to understand them and adopt them.
ead calls these “significant others” – the significant individual roles in life like fathers,
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mothers, doctors, teachers (see from a child’s perspective). Then we are in the position of
role-playing because we have understood.
irst comes the playstage (when welearntheindividualindividualrole)-thelearningisof
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significant others → then comes the game-stage (when we have understood it and can
emulate it) – learning is ofgeneralized others.
Then we are ready to play the game of the society.
ROLE-CONFLICT
s we have understood, every individual has multiple status, and multiple roles to play –
A
which come into conflict. At one place, the conflict within the body of its own roles, and
second, conflict with the roles of others.
I n thefirstcase,theconflictgeneratingduetoownbodyofroles:howweperceivetherole
andwhataretheexpectationsoftheroleandhowyouhaveperformedit.Example:astudent
is supposed to behave ideally but he does not.
econd,itisbecauseoftheroleofothers:whenweplaymultipleroles.Example:doctorwho
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is also a husband: there is a conflict when his duties clash. This can be sorted out by the
hierarchy of the roles.
DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY IN AM
ERICA
I n Western European sociology had two dominant perspectives: structural-functionalism
(Durkheim)andconflictperspectives(Marx).Simmel&MaxWeberwereknownforsowing
the early seeds of Symbolic interactionism.
This was to reach its zenith in American universities.
FA
CTORS OF EARLY SOCIOLOGICAL DE VELOPMENT IN AM
ERICA
hereweresomebasiccontextsinwhichtheAmericanbodyofsociologicaltheoryemerged.
T
Two first factors were common with Europe:
1. P
ost-Industrialization Changes & Urbanization: They had both positive and
negative impacts. The social scientists were in pursuit of different solutions to the
problems posed by thesechanges.SoalthoughtheearlyAmericansociologistswere
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a ttracted to the ideas generated by the labour movement and socialist groups about
dealing with the dangers of industrialization, they were not in favour of radically
overhauling the society as of yet.
2. ReligiousIdeas:ChristianityandparticularlyProtestantethicsfavouredthesavingof
human lives – and the social scientistsweretryingtoalsosavesocialliveswiththe
help of scientific investigations.
Given their religious roots, and the religious parallels, the vast majority of
sociologists did not challenge the basic legitimacy of society.
3 . DevelopmentoftheUniversitySystem:InWesternEurope,therewasanestablished
university system – and sociology had a lot of problems with its growth. But in
America, the universities were still developing, and thus sociology did not face as
many complications to evolve and flourish.
I nfluence of European Theory on the Development of NewTheories:Amongthem,the
influence of Comte & Spencer was very high. There were 2 important ideas:
(1)Positivism (Comte)
● Theywereverymuchawayfromthehistoricalanalysisofsociety–there
wasahigherinfluenceofpositivismandscientificmethods(tobeableto
use scientific reasoning inrelationtothesociety).Notably,bothComte
and Spencer had favoured positivism.
● Instead of interpreting long-term historical changes, sociology had
turned in the direction of scientifically studying short-term processes.
● There was a desire to achieve: “u niversalistic abstraction and
quantitative methods.”
(2)The Theory of Social Darwinism & Organic Analogy:Whatever is true in
the life of an organism is also true for society. Those who are the fit, will
survive and those who are not, will not: the idea of survival of the fittest. This
approach discourages any external support for the “unfit.” (Spencer)
hywereSpencer’sideassomuchmoreinfluentialintheearlyyearsofAmericansociologythan
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those of Comte, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber?
1. Spencer wrote in English
2. Spencer wrote in non-technical terms.
. He offered a scientific orientation that was attractive to an audience that was becoming
3
enamoured of science and its technological products.
.Heofferedacomprehensivetheorythatseemedtodealwiththeentiresweepofhumanhistory.
4
The breadth of hisideas,aswellasthevoluminousworkheproduced,allowedhistheorytobe
many different things to many different people.
. Finally, and perhaps most important, his theory was soothing and reassuring to a society
5
undergoing the wrenching process of industrialization—society was, according to Spencer,
steadily moving in the direction of greater and greater progress.
CLIPSE OF SPENCER IN THE INTELLECTUAL WO
E RLD:Bythe1930s,however,Spencerwasineclipsein
the intellectual world in general, as well as in sociology. His Social Darwinist, laissez-faire ideas
seemed ridiculous in light of massive social problems, a world war, and a major economic depression.
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EARLY AM
ERICAN SOCIOLOGISTS
earetalkingaboutaperiodbefore1910whenimportantnameslikeG.H.Meadandothers
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came about. But Sumner (1st personwhohasstartedlecturinginsociology–therewasnot
yet a department of sociology) andWardwere importantnames in early America sociology.
oth Sumner and Ward talk about social Darwinism but Ward talks more about social
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reforms.
WILLIAM GR
AHAM SUMNER:
e taught one of thefirstcoursesintheUSthatcouldbecalledsociology.Hewasamajor
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exponent of Social Darwinism and the philosophies of Herbert Spencer.
Survival of the Fittest
i. umner basically adopted asurvival-of-the-fittestapproachtothesocialworld.Like
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Spencer, he saw people struggling against their environment, and the fittest were
those who would be successful.
ii. AgainlikeSpencer,Sumnerwasopposedtoefforts,especiallygovernmentefforts,to
aid those who had failed. In his view such intervention operatedagainstthenatural
selection that, among peopleasamongloweranimals,allowedthefittosurviveand
the unfit to perish.
iii. This theoretical system fit in well with the development of capitalism because it
provided theoretical legitimacy for the existence of great differences in wealth and
power.
Sumner is of little more than historical interest for two main reasons.
a) F irst, his orientation and Social Darwinism in general have come to beregardedas
little more than a crude legitimation of competitive capitalism and the status quo.
b) Second, he failed to establish a solid enough base at Yale to build a school of
sociologywithmanydisciples.Thatkindofsuccesswastooccursomeyearslaterat
the University of Chicago.
LESTER F. WARD (1841-1931)
ard became the first president of the AmericanSociologicalSocietyandtaughtatBrown
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University.
imilarity with Sumner (Social Darwinist Ideas): Ward, like Sumner, accepted the idea
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that people had evolved from lower forms to their present status. He believed that early
societywascharacterizedbyitssimplicityanditsmoralpoverty,whereasmodernsocietywas
more complex, was happier, and offered greater freedom.
Difference from Sumner (Need for Social Reform through Applied Sociology):
ne task of sociology, PURE SOCIOLOGY, was to study the basic laws of social change and
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social structure.
ut Ward was not content simply to have sociologists’ study social life. He believed that
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sociology should have a practical side; there should also be an APPLIED SOCIOLOGY. This
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a pplied sociology involved the conscious use of scientific knowledge to attain a better
society.
Thus, Ward was not an extreme Social Darwinist; he believed in the need forand
→
importance of social reform.
VE BLEN
The central problem for Veblen was the clash between:
a) B usiness: the owners, theleaders,andbasicallythecapitalistsoftheindustrywho
focused on the profits of their own companies but to keep prices and profits high,
often engaged in efforts to limit production. They obstructed the general welfare.
b) And Industry:the actual workers, and those who engineerthe goods.
hus,businessleaderswerethesourceofmanyproblemswithinsociety,which,Veblenfelt,
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should be led by people (e.g., engineers) who understood the industrial system and its
operation and were interested in the general welfare.
“Theory of Leisure Class”
Veblen’s Important Work:The Theory of Leisure Class
o impress the rest of society, the leisure class engaged in both “conspicuousleisure”(the
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non-productive use of time) and “conspicuous consumption” (spending more money on
goods than they are worth). This leads to wastage of time and resources.
J OSEPH SCHUMPETER:LikeVeblen,healsofocusedoneconomicsociology.Heisbestknown
for his work on the nature of capitalism, especially the process of “c reative destruction”
that,inhisview,liesattheheartofthecapitalistsystem(Schumpeter,1976).Creation,or
innovation, is central to capitalism, but it cannot occur without the destruction of older or
out-of-date elements that could impede the new ones or the capitalist system more generally.
THE EM
ERGENCE OF THE CHICAGO SCHOOL: SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM TH
EORY
L BION SM
A ALL startedteachingatChicagoSchoolandfoundthedepartmentofsociologyat
the University of Chicago in 1892.
ismajorcontributionwasasanadministrator:theestablishmentoftheAmericanJournal
H
of Sociology and the American Sociological Society. He was not that recognized as a
theorist,butmoreasanadministrator.Heisknownfortheinstitutionalizationofsociologyin
the United States.
Basic Tenets of the Chicago School:
a) S ymbolicInteractionism:Functionalismandconflictlookatsocietyfromamacro
lens at big institutions, but symbolic interactionism was more interested in
understanding the actions, behaviour and the minutest interactions of the
individuals.
b) Strong Connection with Religion: which is why the goal was seen as social
reform.
c) Positivism
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S cientific sociology with an objective of social amelioration was to be practiced in the
burgeoning city of Chicago, which was beset by the positive and negative effects of
urbanization and industrialization.
W.I. THOMAS
e is known for hisempiricalwork“ThePolishPeasantinEurope&America”wherehe
H
has researched about the social disorganization among Polish migrants.
his was a macro-sociological study, though overtime, Thomas gravitated towards
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microscopic social-psychological orientation:
Theory of the Definition of the Situation:
“If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.”
hesituationsinhumanlifearealreadydefinedbythesociety.So,thesituationinwhichthe
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child finds himself hasalreadybeendefinedforhim.Therulesaccordingtowhichhemust
behave are determined by the groupintowhichheisborn.Thereisthusaconflictbetween
the whims of the child and the group expectations posed on him → this may require
discipline and self-sacrifice.
homas gave an illustration in his book: The Unadjusted Girl, in which he tells us how
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situations are defined for girls in a gendered manner.
his is essentially a theory about socialization, and the definitions by family, playmates,
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schools, formal instruction and by signs of approval and disapproval, the child learns the
norms of the society.
ROBERT PARK:
1. I nteractionism & Simmel: He was highly influenced by Simmel and his action &
interaction theory (howhumansinteractwitheachotherandhowthisproducestheir
actions).
2. DominantFigureatChicago:Parkwasanimportantfigureandbecameadominant
figure at the Chicago department which gained prominence in sociology into the
1930s.
3. European Antecedents: He had studied in Europe and therefore was highly
influenced by European sociologists. He was instrumental in bringing the ideas of
continental European thinkers to the attention of Chicago sociologists.
4. Reporter:Hewasareporteraswell,andthereforeworkedatthegroundlevel.That
experiencegavehimasenseoftheimportanceofurbanproblemsandoftheneedto
go out into the field to collect data through personal observation
5. Graduate Research Programs: He also developed Graduate Research Programs.
These are very important in the development of any university.
Cooley and Mead had a great interest in Social Psychology
C.H. COOLEY
istheorywassimilartosymbolicinteractionismandsocialpsychology.Cooleyspecifically
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gave two important concepts: The Looking Glass Self & Sympathetic Introspection.
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ehadaninterestinconsciousnessbutherefusedtoseparateconsciousnessfromthesocial
H
context. This is bestexemplifiedbytheconceptoftheLookingGlassSelf.Bythisconcept,
Cooley understood that people possess consciousness and that it is shaped in continuing
social interaction.
( 1)LookingGlassSelf:Everyhumanbeingpossessesaconsciousness.ButCooleysaysthat
this consciousness cannot exist apart from the social context, and is shaped in continuing
social interaction. This is the major difference between Cooley and Mead.
he characteristic feature of humans is that they have consciousness. But Cooleysaysthat
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consciousnesscannotbeunderstoodwithoutthesocialcontext.AccordingtoCooley,theself
and the social are the two sides of the same coin.
3 important propositions for the looking-glass self:
1 . I am not what I think I am.
2. I am not what you think I am.
3. I am what I think you think I am.
owdowedevelopourconsciousness?Weformourconsciousnessbasedonhowwethink
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other persons perceive of ourselves. When we look into the mirror, three things are
happening. (1) Identity (2) Picture (3) Construction of your image by yourself
hecoreideaisthatanindividualdevelopstheideaofselfthroughcontactwiththeprimary
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group, particularly with the family members. This he does by becoming consciousoftheir
attitudes towards him. Thus the child understands which aspects of the assumed roles will
bring him praise, which blame, which ones are acceptable to others, and whichones
unacceptable.
“Self is social and self-consciousness would not exist in the absence of society.”
(2) Concept of Primary Group:
he small groups where you have face to face relationships. These groups are close-knit
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groups: where we know each other.
rimary groups are intimate, face-to-face groups that play a key role in linking the
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actortothelargersociety.Especiallycrucialaretheprimarygroupsoftheyoung—mainly
thefamilyandthepeergroup.Withinthesegroups,theindividualgrowsintoasocialbeing.
It is basically within the primary group that the looking-glass self emerges and that the
ego-centeredchildlearnstotakeothersintoaccountand,thereby,tobecomeacontributing
member of society.
Examples:
1 . F amily
2. Peer Group
ooley (and Mead) rejects the behaviouristic view of human beings the view that people
C
blindly and unconsciously respond to external stimuli. They believed that people had
consciousness,aself,andthatitwastheresponsibilityofthesociologisttostudythisaspect
of social reality
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Sociology I Lecture Notes
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( 3) Sympathetic Introspection: According to Cooley, a sociologist should read and
understand the consciousness and therefore should keep him in the shoes of others. This
would be the method of sympathetic introspection.
y analyzing what they as actors might do in various circumstances, sociologists could
B
understand the meanings and motives that are at the base of social behavior.
hemethodofsympatheticintrospectionseemedtomanytobeveryunscientific.Inthisarea,
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among others, Mead’s work represents an advance over Cooley’s.
GEORGE HE RBERT ME AD:
M
● ead has also contributed towards consciousness.
● He was not a sociologist per se, but a philosophy. But some of the students of
sociologyusedtotakehisclassesinsocialpsychologyinthephilosophydepartment.
Thus Mead had a deep personal impact on the people who were later to develop
symbolic interactionism.
● The students of Mead put together their notes on Mead’s courses and published
posthumouslythebook‘Mind.Self&Society.’Itmovedhisideasfromtherealmof
oral to that of written tradition.
ead vs Behaviourists vs Cooley: Mead regarded as sensible thebehaviourists’concerns
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but did not agree with them when they felt consciousness was not amenable to scientific
study. Mead enunciated a focus similar to that of Cooley. But whereas Cooley’s position
seemed unscientific, Mead promised a more scientific conception of consciousness by
extending the highly scientific principles and methods of psychological behaviourism.
osymbolicinteractionismdevelopedSimmel’sinterestinactionandinteractionandMead’s
S
interest in consciousness.
ole-PlayingTheory:Thistheorydescribeshowdifferentsocialpositionsandtheirrolesare
R
learntbyindividuals.Thereistheplaystageandthegamestage.Here,thesocialpositionas
understood byapersonresultsinhimadoptingthesamewhenhereachesthatposition,that
is, when he transitions from being an observer to being a participant in the "game".
Understandingofthepositionaswellastheroleoftheposition,resultsinthetransitionfrom
observation to participation.
ignificantOthers:Thosewhocomeincontactwithyouintheveryfirststageofyourlife.
S
Example:aninfantcomestodependonandidentifyhimselfwithhismotherasshesatisifes
theneedsofchildhood.Butinduecourseoftime,hedifferentiateshimselffromhismother
and also differentiates the mother from the father. He then integrates these into the social
system. In this way, the number of ‘significant others’ increase for a child.
eneralized Others: The child not only differentiates itselffromothersbutalsobeginsto
G
acttowardshimselffromtheviewpointofthewholegroup.Thechildtriestounderstandthe
relative roles of various individuals involved in the same context.
● So when childplaystheroleofbridegroom,inthegameofmarriage,hemustknow
notonlytheroleofthebridegroom,butalsothatofthebride,thefather-in-law,priest,
relatives etc.
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Sociology I Lecture Notes
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● T he whole community is the the generalised other with which the child becomes
identified.
● The basicideaisthatselfisnotsomethingthatexistsfirstandthenintorelationship
with others. The ‘self’ is a product of social interaction and social context.
● “Self and social are two sides of the same coin.”
HERBERT BL UMER: THE SOLE TO
RCHBEARER OF CHICAGO SC
HOOL
H
● e coined the term symbolic interactionism.
● Up to 1930s therewasgreatdominanceoftheChicagoSchool.However,evenafter
its decline after 1930s – Blumer continued to be a prominent name into the 1950s.
● He wrote a number of essays that were instrumental in keeping symbolic
interactionism vital into the 1950s.
Basic Essential Features of Symbolic Interactionism:
1 . S ymbolic Interactionism says that human beings have the capacity of thought.
2. This capacity is shaped by the interactions.
3. With the help of social interactions, every individual attaches meaning to their
actions, and learn meanings and symbols.
4. People are able to modify these meanings and symbols
5. This modification allows them to choose one ofthecoursesofactionbyexamining
advantages and disadvantages.
6. This pattern of action and interaction makes groups and societies.
Why this school faced a downfall/decline?
1 . Establishment of Eastern Sociology Departments: There was a shift from the
Mid-WesternuniversitiesingeneralandChicagoschoolinparticularastheirdominancewas
resented.Asacounter,theAmericanSociologicalReviewwasestablished.→Therewasthe
growth of other power centres like Harvard & the Ivy League.
2 . Growth of the Quantative Method: Sociology’s Quantitative Method with its
sophisticated statistical method was growing but symbolic interactionists at the Chicago
school were more inclined towards qualitative methodology, ethnographical research etc.
S ymbolic interactionismwaslargelyanindeterminate,oraltraditionandassucheventually
lost ground to more explicit and codified theoretical systems such as the structural
functionalism associated with the Ivy League
FEMINIST SOCIOLOGICAL TH
EORY (NOT DISCUSSED IN CLASS)
here were some women who werecomingupinthefieldofsociology:mostnotablyJane
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Addams, and otherslikeGilman,CooperandWeber.Theirtheoryshapedtheearlyfeminist
sociological theory.
Chief Hallmarks of their Writing:
( 1) an emphasis on women’s experience and women’s lives and works being equal in
importance to men’s;
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( 2)anawarenessthattheyspokefromasituatedandembodiedstandpointandtherefore,for
themostpart,notwiththetoneofimperiousobjectivitythatmalesociologicaltheorywould
come to associate with authoritative theory making (Lemert, 2000);
( 3)theideathatthepurposeofsociologyandsociologicaltheoryissocialreform—thatis,the
end is to improve people’s lives through knowledge; and
( 4) the claim that the chief problem for amelioration in their time was inequality. What
distinguishestheseearlywomenmostfromeachotheristhenatureofandtheremedyforthe
inequality on which they focused—gender, race, or class, or the intersection of these factor.
They saw their theory as the basis of their activism.
W.E.B. DU BO
IS & RACE TH
EORY
e taught sociology, but he was less a sociologist and more of an activist and a public
H
intellectual interested in advancing the cause of civil rights, primarily for African Americans.
1 )ConceptofVeil:Oneofhisbest-knowntheoreticalideasistheveil,whichcreatesaclear
separation, or barrier, between African Americansandwhites.Theimageryisnotofawall
but rather of a thin, porous material through which each race can see the other, butwhich
nonetheless serves to separate the races.
2 ) Double Consciousness:asenseof“two-ness,”orafeelingamongAfricanAmericansof
seeing and measuring themselves through others’ eyes.
S TABLISHMENT
E OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AT HA
RVARD: STRUCTURAL
FUNCTIONALISM
hestudyofstructuralfunctionalisminHarvard.(1920sto70s-80s).Twoimportantpersons
T
include Sorokin and Talcott Parsons.
SOROKIN
e established the development of sociology. His theories are not very famous but he is
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famous for:
( ii) stablishment of Harvard Dept. of Sociology
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(iii) For bringing Talcott Parsons to Harvard (who had been an instructor of
Economics)
orokin’sTheoryofSocialChange:Mostsociologiststillthenhadlookedatsocialchange
S
as a linear process – an evolutionary process.Insteadofviewingcivilizationsintotermsof
development and decline, he proposed that they alternate between two cultural extremes
(sensate and ideational).
- S
orokin says that social change is Cyclical. A cycle is there from:
1. Sensate: A society where the emphasis is on sensory experiences: practical,
hedonistic, sensual and materialistic.
The logical extreme of sensory experiences, this would have its own germs of
demise because at its extreme, it would lead to the death of the self.
2. Idealistic: There is a balancing between sensory experiences and religious or
spiritual experiences. No society achieves this stable condition.
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3. I deational: We are more prone to the spiritual experiences. It emphasizes on
thingswhichcanonlybeperceivedbythemind.Itisconcernedwiththeabstract,
religious,faithandtheultimatetruth.Thisisanotherextreme,andnobalanceis
there.
TA
LCOTT PARSONS
aught Graduates: Parsons’searlycontributionwashisinfluenceofgraduatestudentslike
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Robert Merton, William Moore & Kingsley Davis who became pioneers in structural
functionalism. He taught graduates from 1930s to 1960s.
e associate the flourishing of structural functionalism with theadventofParsons.Oneof
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the main contributions of Parsons are the grand theories given by him.
Two Important Books:
1. S tructureofSocialAction:Hehastalkedmuchaboutactionsandinteractionsbuthe
has written highly about the broad social structures.
● He also looks at how social systems are also related to cultural systems
● These interrelated parts make harmony and equilibrium which suggests that
you require very less changes in society. – We should not disturb the
equilibrium as it may lead to a new equilibrium altogether.
● The Structure ofSocialActionmadethecaseforsociologicaltheorizingasa
legitimate and significant sociological activity. The theorizing that hastaken
place in the United States since then owes a deep debt to Parsons’s work
2. Social Systems: He looks at the interrelated parts of different systems, and then
analyseshowsystemsoperateinsociety,howtheycauseharmonyandequilibriumin
the society.
His book had two important impacts on American Sociology:
1. H e introduced the grand theorizing and thinkers of European sociology to an
American audience:Max Weber, Durkheim & Pareto
2. However, he hasnotaddressedtheideasofMarxoreventoSimmel.Thatiswhy
Marxist theories did not enter American discourse for a long time.
Summary of Parson’s Theory
arsons’s theoretical strength, and that of structural functionalism, lay in delineating the
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relationships among large-scale social structures and institutions.
utually Support & Dynamic Equillibrium among Interrelated Institutions: Parsons
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tended toconcentrateonthestructuresofsocietyandtheirrelationshiptoeachother.Those
structures were seen as mutually supportive and tending toward a dynamic equilibrium.
ocial Change as an Orderly Process: The emphasis was on how order was maintained
S
among thevariouselementsofsociety.Changewasseenasanorderlyprocess,andParsons
(1966, 1971) ultimately came to adopt aneo-evolutionaryview of social change.
I ntersystematicRelations:Parsonswasconcernednotonlywiththesocialsystempersebut
also with its relationship to the otheractionsystems,especiallytheculturalandpersonality
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s ystems. But his basicviewonintersystemicrelationswasessentiallythesameashisview
ofintrasystemic relations; that is, that they weredefined by cohesion, consensus, and order.
I notherwords,thevarioussocialstructuresperformedavarietyofpositivefunctionsforeach
other.
Students of Parsons:
Important students of Parson: Merton, Moore & Kingsley Davis
Mertongave two conceptions ofFunction-Dysfunction&Latent-Manifest Function.
oore&DavisattemptedtoshowhowSocialStratificationcanbefunctionaltothesociety.
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The crux of their theory is based on meritocracy as they propoundthatthemostdeserving
persons in society should occupy the most important functions of society.
PEAK & DECLINE OF STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
1 940s & 50s: The years of great dominance of structural functionalism, by which time,
Parsons had become a famous name and his students had started producing illustrious works.
ut structural functionalism now came underattackoftheCriticalTheoristslikeC.Wright
B
Mills, who criticizedit.Thedeclineoffunctionalismhasalsobeenlinkedtothepositionof
Americansocietyintheworldorder→withthedeclineofUSdominance,functionalismalso
lost its dominance.
Criticism of Structural Functionalism:
i. olitical conservativeness
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ii. Unable to deal with social change because of its focus on static structures
iii. Incapable of adequately analyzing social conflict
RISE & FALL OF CO
NFLICT
I nthe1920s,theFrankfurtInstitutewasopenedforthedevelopmentofMarxiantheory,but
due to the advent of the Nazis, they had to take refuge in the US. So a centerofMarxian
theory moved to the centre of the capitalist world.
heyreturnedposttheWar,butsomestayed.Itisimportanttounderscoreafewofthemost
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important aspects of critical theory(CalhounandKaraganis,2001).Initsearlyyears,those
associatedwiththeInstitutetendedtobefairlytraditionalMarxists,devotingagoodportion
of their attention to the economic domain.Major Changeswere going on:
1. B utaround1930,amajorchangetookplaceasthisgroupofthinkersbegantoshiftits
attentionfromtheeconomytotheculturalsystemespeciallythe“cultureindustry”,
which it came to see as the major force in modern capitalist society.
2. To help them understand the cultural domain, the critical theorists wereattractedto
the work of Max Weber. The effort to combineMarxandWeberandtherebycreate
“Weberian Marxism”
3. A second major step taken by at least some members of the critical school was to
employ the rigorous social-scientific techniques developed by American
sociologists to research issues of interest to Marxists. This, like the adoption of
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Sociology I Lecture Notes
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eberian theory, made the critical school more acceptable to mainstream
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sociologists.
4. Critical theorists made an effort to integrate individually oriented Freudian theory
withthesocietal-andcultural-levelinsightsofMarxandWeber.Thisseemedtomany
sociologists to represent a more inclusivetheorythanthatofferedbyeitherMarxor
Weber alone
C. WRIGHT MILLS
ills is noteworthy for his almost single-handed efforttokeepaMarxiantraditionalivein
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sociological theory.
Mills published two major works that reflected his radical politics:
1. T he first was White Collar (1951), an acid critique of the status of a growing
occupational category, white-collar workers.
2. The second was The Power Elite (1956),abookthatsoughttoshowhowAmerica
was dominated by a small group of businessmen, politicians, and military leaders.
ociological Imagination: His theorytriestocorrelateprivateproblemswithpublicissues.
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Inordertounderstandanindividual,wesometimesdon’tonlyneedanunderstandingofthe
individual’s biography but social history as well.Examples:
i. ersonal unemployment is linked to economic breakdowns.
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ii. Crime rates in certain neighbourhoods is related to the poverty of that particular area.
iii. Changing role of women in workforce is related to cultural norms and economic
demands.
CriticandSubjectofCriticism:Mills’sradicalismputhimontheperipheryofAmerican
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sociology. He was the object of much criticism, and he, in turn, became a severe critic of
sociology.OfparticularnoteisMills’sseverecriticismofTalcottParsonsandhispracticeof
grand theory.
LEWIS COSER
ryst with Conflict-Functionalism: Increasingly, conflicttheoristsattemptedtosynthesize
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structural functionalism and conflct. Coser wroteabookonthefunctionsofsocialconflict.
Thisworkclearlytriedtodealwithsocialconflictfromwithintheframeworkofastructural
functional view of the World.
hecriticismwasthatalthoughthisanalysismaybeuseful,thereismuchmoretothestudy
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of conflict than the analysis of its positive functions.
I ntensityofConflict&theNatureofProblem:Intensityofconflictisdirectlylinkedwith
the nature of the problem.
i. I f problem is philosophical, the conflict will be prolonged.
ii. Ifitismaterialisticproblem,itwillbeshort(example:theproblemofroti,kapdaand
makan)
CO
LLINS
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“ H
igher the conflict, higher would be the emotions.”: Expanded this work and worked in
relation to the emotions and sentiments attached. Higher the conflict, higher the emotions.
motionalorsentimentalpartofconflictislinkedwiththenatureoftheconflict.Thiscould
E
be functional for society because it leading to social progress.
DAHRENDORF
arxianTraditionliketheMirrorImageofSF:DahrendorfwasaEuropeanscholarwho
M
was well versed in Marxian theory. He sought to embed hisconflicttheoryintheMarxian
tradition. However, in the end his conflict theory looked more like a mirror image of
structural functionalism than like a Marxian theory of conflict.
i. ahrendorf’smajorwork,ClassandClassConflictinIndustrialSociety(1959),was
D
themostinfluentialpieceinconflicttheory,butthatwaslargelybecauseitsoundedso
much like structural functionalism that it was palatable to mainstream sociologists.
ii. That is, Dahrendorf operated at the same level of analysis as the structural
functionalists (structures and institutions) and looked at many of the same issues.
iii. Dahrendorf recognized that although aspects of the social system could fit together
rather neatly, there also could be considerable conflict and tension among them.
Theory of Imperatively Coordinated Association:
ocial organisations are imperatively coordinated association, and within this there are
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presentsocialgroupswhichenterintoconflictwitheachother.Alternatively,therearebroad
structures of power and authority, and within these broad structures, several groups are
having conflict. There are always groups which try to monopolize power and authority.
herefore, 2 groups - one has power and authority, while the other does not. The groups
T
whichdon’thavepowerandauthoritytrytomonopolizethegroupswhichhavethemandthe
conflict will take place. E.g., state and people ruled by state, patriarchy, capitalist and
labourer.
THE EXCHANGE THEORY OF GEORGE HO
MANS
I nteractionismDistinctfromOthers:Homans’sbasicviewwasthattheheartofsociology
lies in the study of individual behavior and interaction. He was little interested in
consciousness or in the various kinds of large-scale structures and institutions thatwereof
concern to most sociologists.
xchangeTheoryofRewards&Costs:Hismaininterestwasinsteadinthereinforcement
E
patterns, the history of rewards and costs, that lead people to do what they do. Basically,
Homansarguedthatpeoplecontinuetodowhattheyhavefoundtoberewardinginthe
past.Conversely, they cease doing what has provedto be costly in the past.
ocus of Sociology: As its name suggests, exchange theory is concerned not only with
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individual behavior but also with interaction between people involving an exchange of
rewards and costs. The premise is that interactions are likely to continue when there is an
exchangeofrewards.Conversely,interactionsthatarecostlytooneorbothpartiesaremuch
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less likely to continue. Thus, the focus of sociology should be not on consciousness oron
social structures and institutions but rather onpatternsof reinforcement.
DRAMATURGICAL ANALYSIS OF ERVING GOFFMAN
offmanpublishedaseriesofbooksandessaysthatgavebirthtodramaturgicalanalysisasa
G
variant of symbolic interactionism.
i. oputitsimply,Goffmansawmuchincommonbetweentheatricalperformancesand
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the kinds of “acts” we all put on in our day-to-day actions and interactions.
ii. Poorperformancesordisruptionsareseenasgreatthreatstosocialinteractionjustas
they are to theatrical performances.
tage Analogy: Goffman went quite far in his analogy between the stage and social
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interaction.
i. I nallsocialinteractionthereisafrontregion,whichistheparallelofthestagefront
in a theatrical performance. Actors both on the stage and in social life are seen as
being interested in appearances, wearing costumes, and using props.
ii. Furthermore,inboththereisabackregion,aplacetowhichtheactorscanretireto
preparethemselvesfortheirperformance.Backstageoroffstage,intheaterterms,the
actors can shed their roles and be themselves.
onsistentwithSymbolicInteractionism:Dramaturgicalanalysisisclearlyconsistentwith
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itssymbolic-interactionistroots.Ithasafocusonactors,action,andinteraction.Workingin
thesamearenaastraditionalsymbolicinteractionism,Goffmanfoundabrilliantmetaphorin
the theater to shed new light on small-scale social processes
PH
ENOMENOLOGICAL SOCIOLOGY &THE WORK OF AL FRED SCHUTZ
What is Intersubjectivity:
i. chutz wasfocallyconcernedwiththewayinwhichpeoplegrasptheconsciousness
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of others while they live within their own stream of consciousness.
ii. Schutzalsousedintersubjectivityinalargersensetomeanaconcernwiththesocial
world, especially the social nature of knowledge.
ife-World–TheWorldofEverydayLife:MuchofSchutz’sworkfocusesonanaspectof
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thesocialworldcalledthelife-world,ortheworldofeverydaylife.Thisisanintersubjective
worldinwhichpeoplebothcreatesocialrealityandareconstrainedbythepreexistingsocial
and cultural structures created by their predecessors.
ifferentTypesofRelationsintheLifeWorld:Withinthelife-world,Schutzdifferentiated
D
between intimate face-to-face relationships (“we-relations”) and distant and impersonal
relationships (“they-relations”). While face-to-face relations are of great importance in the
life-world, it is far easier for the sociologist to study more impersonal relations scientifically.
ummary:Overall,Schutzwasconcernedwiththedialecticalrelationshipbetweentheway
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people construct social reality and the obdurate social and cultural reality that they inherit
from those who preceded them in the social world.
ETHNOMETHODOLOGY BY GA
RFINKEL
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Pioneer:Harold Garfinkel who was a student of Schutz
In a sense it combines Parsons’ structural functionalism and Schutz’s Phenomenology.
ifference Between Phenomenology & Ethnomethodology: Whereas phenomenological
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sociologists tend to focus on what people think, ethnomethodologists are more concerned
with what people actually do.
ubject Matter: Basically, ethnomethodology is the study of “the body of common-sense
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knowledgeandtherangeofproceduresandconsiderations[themethods]bymeansofwhich
the ordinary members of society make sense of, find their way about in, and act on the
circumstances in which they find themselves
tudyofConversations:Thus,ethnomethodologistsdevotealotofattentiontothedetailed
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studyofconversations.Suchmundaneconcernsstandinstarkcontrasttotheinterestofmany
mainstream sociologists in such abstractions as bureaucracies, capitalism, the division of
labor, and the social system.
tructures & How They Are Created in Everday Life: Ethnomethodologists might be
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interested in the way a sense of these structures is created in everyday life; they are not
interested in such structures as phenomena in themselves.
POST-STRUCTURALISM & FOUCAULT
s structuralism grew within sociology, outside sociology a movement was developing
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beyond the early premises of structuralism: poststructuralism.
The major representative of poststructuralism is
i. ichel Foucault
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ii. another is Giorgio Agamben.
tructures&Beyond–Foucault’sWork:Inhisearlywork,Foucaultfocusedonstructures,
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buthelatermovedbeyondstructurestofocusonpowerandthelinkagebetweenknowledge
and power. More generally, poststructuralists accept the importance of structure but go
beyond it to encompass a wide range of other concerns.
recursortoPost-ModernTheory:Poststructuralismisimportantnotonlyinitselfbutalso
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becauseitoftenisseenasaprecursortopostmodernsocialtheory.Infact,itisdifficult,ifnot
impossible, to draw a clear line between poststructuralism and postmodern social theory.
Thus Foucault, a poststructuralist, is often seen as a postmodernist.
LA
TE 20TH CENTURY DEVELOPMENTS IN SOCIOLOGICAL TH
EORY
In America → Micro-Macro Integration
helinkagebetweenmicroandmacrotheoriesandlevelsofanalysishasbeenthefocalpoint
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of sociological theory in America in the 1980-90s.
itzer seeks to developaasociologicalparadigmthatintegratesmicroandmacrolevelsin
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both their objective and their subjective forms. Thus, there are four major levels of social
analysis that must be dealt with in an integrated manner—macro subjectivity, macro
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o bjectivity, micro subjectivity, and micro objectivity. Jeffrey Alexander has made a very
similar model of levels of analysis and called it “multidimensional sociology.”
In Europe → Agency-Structure Integration
ifferent from Micro-Macro Analysis: This issimilaryetdifferentfromthemicro-macro
D
level integration. For example, although agents areusuallymicro-levelactors,collectivities
such as labor unions can also be agents. And while structures are usually macro-level
phenomena,wealsofindstructuresatthemicrolevel.Thus,wemustbecarefulinequating
these two bodies of work and must take much care when trying to interrelate them.
( a)AnthonyGiddens:Giddens’sapproachseesagencyandstructureasa“duality.”Thatis,
theycannotbeseparatedfromoneanother:agencyisimplicatedinstructure,andstructureis
involved in agency. Structure in this view is not only constraining but also enabling.
( b)MargaretArcher:MargaretArcher(1982)rejectstheideathatagencyandstructurecan
beviewedasaduality,butinsteadseesthemasadualism.Thatis,agencyandstructurecan
and should be separated.
( c) Pierre Bourdieu: Agency-structure issue translates into a concern for the relationship
between habitus and field:
i. abitus is an internalized mental, or cognitive, structure through whichpeopledeal
H
with the social world. The habitus both produces, and is produced by, the society.
ii. The field is a network of relations among objective positions. The structure of the
field serves to constrain agents, whether they are individuals or collectivities.
verall, Bourdieu is concerned with the relationship between habitus and field. The field
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conditions the habitus, and the habitus constitutes the field. Thus, there is a dialectical
relationship between habitus and field.
( d) German JurgenHaberma:Hehasalsodealtwiththeagency-structureissueunderthe
heading of “the colonization of the life-world.”
he life-worldisamicroworldwherepeopleinteractandcommunicate.Thesystemhasits
T
roots in the life-world, but it ultimately comestodevelopitsownstructuralcharacteristics.
As these structures grow in independence and power, they come to exert more and more
control over the life-world. In the modern world, the system has come to “colonize” the
life-world—that is, to exert control over it.
TH
E MO
VEMENT TO
WARDS TH
EORETICAL SYNTHESIS
J ustlikemicro-macroandagency-structureintegration,thereisamovementtowardsbroader
integration.Thisishappeningataverybroadleveluniversally.Andtheattempthereisnotto
make one grand synthetic theory that encompasses allsociologicaltheorybuttosynthesize
narrowly theoretical ideas.
hat is involved here is a wide-ranging effort to synthesizetwoormoredifferenttheories
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(for example, structural functionalism and symbolic interactionism).
Bringing Perspectives from Outside
a) Sociobiology
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) R
b ational Choice Theory from Economics
c) Systems Theory
IS OUR SOCIETY MO
DERN OR POST-MODERN?
ll the great classical sociological theorists (Marx, Weber, Durkheim, and Simmel) were
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concerned, in one way or another, with the modern world and its advantages and
disadvantages.Ofcourse,thelastofthese(Weber)diedin1920,andtheworldhaschanged
dramatically since then.
) Proponents of Modernity: Although contemporary theorists recognize these dramatic
A
changes,therearesomewhobelievethatthereismorecontinuitythandiscontinuitybetween
the world today and the world that existed around the last fin de siècle.
iddens–TheHighPriestofModernity:Giddensusestermssuchas“radical,”“high,”or
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“late”modernitytodescribesocietytodayandtoindicatethatwhileitisnotthesamesociety
astheonedescribedbytheclassicaltheorists,itiscontinuouswiththatsociety.Giddenssees
modernity today as a “juggernaut” that is, at least to some degree, out of control.
urgenHabermasseesmodernityasan“unfinishedproject.”Thatis,thecentralissuein
J
the modern world continues, as itwasinWeber’sday,toberationality.Theutopiangoalis
still the maximization of the rationality of both the “system” and the “life-world.”
B) What is Post-Modernism?
ostmodernity is a historical epoch that is supposed to have succeeded the modern era, or
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modernity.
ostmodernsocialtheoryisawayofthinkingaboutpostmodernity;theworldissodifferent
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that it requires entirely new ways of thinking. Postmodernists would tend to reject the
theoretical perspectives outlined in the previous section, as well as the ways in which the
thinkers involved created their theories.
How is post-modernity different from Modernity?
i. ostmodernity is a depthless, superficial world; it is a world of simulation (for
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example, a jungle cruise at Disneyland rather than the real thing).
ii. Second, it is a world that is lacking in affect and emotion.
iii. Third,thereisalossofasenseofone’splaceinhistory;itishardtodistinguishpast,
present, and future.
iv. Fourth,insteadoftheexplosive,expanding,productivetechnologiesofmodernity(for
example,automobileassemblylines),postmodernsocietyisdominatedbyimplosive,
flattening, reproductive technologies (television, for example).
In these and other ways, postmodern society is very different from modern society.
How is thinking about post-modernity a different way of thinking?
Such a different world requires a different way of thinking.
i. irst, postmodernists reject the kind of grand narratives that characterize much of
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classical sociological theory. Instead, postmodernists prefer more limited
explanations, or even no explanations at all.
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ii. econd,thereisarejectionofthetendencytoputboundariesbetweendisciplines—to
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engage in something called sociological (or social) theory that is distinctfrom,say,
philosophical thinking or even novelistic storytelling.
iii. Third, postmodernists are often more interested in shocking or startling the reader
than they are in engaging in careful, reasoned academic discourse.
iv. Finally, instead of looking for the core of society (say, rationality or capitalistic
exploitation),postmodernistsaremoreinclinedtofocusonmoreperipheralaspectsof
society.
SOCIAL RESEARCH
Why research and what is research?
Collection of information → Relooking into the Information → Making conclusions
bservation Method: There is a difference between careful observation or casual
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observation.Intheformer,welookforrelevantinformationinsofarascarefulobservationis
selective.
i. cientific Temperament in Observation:“What you see,you believe.” – empiricism
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ii. Common Sense Observation: “What you believe, you see” – bias (In our
common-sense understandings, we are influenced by various biases.)
What is Epistemology?
pistemology is a branch of philosophy – which is the study of knowledge. This has 3
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elements:
1. P erception(Thusisthebeliefthatperceptionistheonlysourceofknowledge:what
cannotbeperceivedthroughthesensesmustbetreatedasnon-existent.Theremaybe
external and internal senses, but the debate as to whether both work or just one)
External Senses are the 5 senses
Internal Senses are based onintuition and cognitiveprocesses
2. Inference (conclusions made on the basis of perception;theymaybesaidtobethe
steps from one or more propositions known as premises to a conclusion)
3. Authority (sabda – a person who commands repute or reverence in a particular
domain, or can be treated as trustworthy, his word or testimony is taken as given)
Inductive vs Deductive
hen we move from a general premise to specific conclusion: it is an inference based on
W
widely accepted facts or premises. This isDeductiveInference: Example:
1 . A beverage is something we drink with a strawa
2. We drink soup with a straw
3. Soup is a beverage
vergeneralization may happen in cases where we extrapolate the results from one
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observation to others.
hen we go from specific to general: it is an inference based on observation, often of a
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sample. This is anInductive Inference.
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xample:Yougaveyoursouptoanumberofyourfriends,wholikedit.Youinferredthatthe
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soup is generally tasty for all people who may taste it based on that sample.
S cientificReasoning:Whereaninductivereasoningisused,wherewecollectdataandmake
conclusions. This is in the context of empirical research.
There are different ways of collection of data/knowledge.
What exactly are we doing in a research study?
e are posing a question→collectionoftherelevantdatawhichmayanswerourquestion
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→ presentation of the answer to the question.
irst, you mustcollectinformationfromreadings.(LiteratureReview)–youwillbeableto
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find out the multiple issues in that field. We must narrow done to one issue and one question.
Where do we use social research?
1. P ositivist/EmpiricalApproach:Thebasicaimistoconfirmandgivevaliditytoour
commonsensical understandings, and also to find and form new knowledge.
2. Policy Making: Data from social researchisusedprimarilyinpolicy-making.Only
the basis of data and social research, legislation can be made.
3. Policy Evaluation:It could also be used to assessthe success of a scheme, policy etc.
DEFINITIONS
esearchisasystematicinvestigationofanewsituationorphenomenonorprobleminorder
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to generate new knowledge or validate existing knowledge
homas & Nelson: define research as the “careful and systematic means of solving the
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problem.”
ebsterDictionary:“Researchisthenewlydiscoveredfactsorthepracticalapplicationof
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such new or revised conclusions, theories or law.”
ocial Research is defined by Pauline Young as a systematic understanding which by
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means of logical techniques, aims at
● Discovering new facts or verifying and testing the old facts;
● Analysing their interrelationship and the correlational explanations;
Developing tools and concepts in the theories which would facilitatereliableand
●
valid study of human behaviour.
ARADIGMS OF RE SEARCH:ParadigmsofResearcharethethedifferentwaystodoresearchor
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different philosophical approaches. There are4 classifications(given by Mogen)
1 . Positivism: We are referring to the study & analysis of positive facts in an objective
framework.
● I t has greatly influenced initial thinkers like Emile Durkheim & Comte. It is still
relevant.
● These facts are not dependent on the subjective understanding of any individual.
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● A researcherusingapositivisticlenswillfirstcollectobjectivedataandwiththisdata
he will try to generalise certain postulates, questions, axioms.
● This is quantitative as we change the human experience into numeric data – this
allows for greater impartiality. → Example of Suicide.
2. Constructivism:
I t is aschoolofthoughtwhichhasemergedwiththeheavyinfluenceofMaxWeber.(Heis
also known for interactionism – as he gave the idea that social actions have subjective
meaning which the actors attach to them).
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● his is primarily a qualitative method.
● Weanalysehowhumanactorsattachtheirsubjectivemeaningtotheiractions.Weare
trying to understand their feelings.
● It views knowledge and truth as something that is created through individual
interaction and experience in society.
3. Critical Theory:
his came in tandem with thefocusonthemarginalizedgroups:theweakersectionsofthe
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society, and women. This advocates for a socio-political transformation.
1 . his combines qualitative and quantitative methods.
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2. This emerged more in the 1920s-30s.
3. This took the perspectives of both Karl Marx & Max Weber.
4. It helps to studythereasonwhythesedifferentiationsaswellasinequalitiesexistin
these social structures.
4. Pragmatism:
I t has a higher influence on the philosophical school of thought. It focuses on how the
solutionsoftheproblem.Asaresearchparadigm,pragmatismis basedonthepropositionthat
researchersshouldusethephilosophicaland/ormethodologicalapproachthatworksbestfor
the particular research problem that is being investigated.
Morgan’s book “SOCIOLOGICAL PARADIGM & ORGANIZATIONAL AN
ALYSIS” (1979)
ow social scientists view the socialphenomena:theyareshapedby2fundamentalsetsof
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philosophical assumptions:
a) O ntology:Howweseetheworld–whetherweseetheworldasessentiallyinorder
or undergoing constant change.
b) Epistemology: The best way to study the world – whether it is an objective way
(positive) or subjective way (constructivism).
There are 4 paradigms:
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Here vertically, radical change & regulation (read: social order) – areontological.
Horizontally, subjective & objective areepistemological.
I fresearchersviewtheworldasconsistingmostlyofsocialorder(ontology)andhenceseek
tostudypatternsoforderedeventsorbehaviors,andbelievethatthebestwaytostudysucha
world is using objective approach (epistemology) that is independent of the person
conducting the observation or interpretation, such as by using standardized data collection
tools like surveys, then they are adopting a paradigm offunctionalism.
owever, if they believe that the best way to study social order is though the subjective
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interpretation of participants involved, such as by interviewing different participants and
reconciling differences among their responses using theirownsubjectiveperspectives,then
they are employing aninterpretivism paradigm.
I f researchers believe that the world consists of radical change and seek to understand or
enactchangeusinganobjectivistapproach,thentheyareemployingaradicalstructuralism
paradigm.
I ftheywishtounderstandsocialchangeusingthesubjectiveperspectivesoftheparticipants
involved, then they are following aradical humanismparadigm.
WHAT ARE THE OB JECTIVES OF RESEARCH?
a) Positivism Methodology
T
● o discover new facts
● To verify & attest the old facts
b) To understand human behaviour and how humans attach meaning →Constructivism
c) To evaluate the social problems and their effects →Critical Theory
d) And if you are providing solutions →Pragmatism
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e) Policy Formulation & Evaluation
WHAT ARE THE STAGES OF RESEARCH?
1 . Formulation of the Problem: A ‘problem’ is a gap in knowledge, something not
understood. It must be defined properly.
2 . Formulation of Hypothesis which is the “tentative solution”: When the problem is
known, we may have some preliminaryideaofthepossiblesolution.Thismayleadustoa
hypothesiswhichisthetentativeexplanationofaphenomena.Itisaprovisionalsupposition
which is not yet proved but it is anticipated to be correct.
3. –Literature Reviewmay comeafterorbeforetheformulation of hypothesis
4 . Collection of Data: The formulated hypothesis will have to be tested. This requires
collection of data. In social investigations, collection of data may be done by interview,
schedules, questionnaires, field observations etc. The method may depend on thenatureof
the research and the resources at our disposal.
5. Analysis of Data: discarding the irrelevant dataand focusing on the relevant data.
6. Data Presentation:In percentage form, throughtables, schedules, statistical graphs etc.
7 .TestingtheHypothesis:Wehavetoweighthehypothesisonthetouchstoneoftheresults
of the study.
8 .Generalizationwillbedrawn:Afterthedatahasbeencollected,processedandanalysed,
we have to draw broad inferences or conclsions or generalizations.
9. Report Writing
Hypothesis may not always be right.
UNIT OF ANALYSIS: YOUR TARGET OF INVESTIGATION
The target may be a person, a group, a nation or even an inanimate object.
i. I f you’re investigating a street gang or an organization, that is your unit.
ii. If you’re investigating the profitability of a firm, the firm is your unit.
iii. How to make a webpage attractive, unit is the webpage
iv. Investigating knowledge transfer between two firms → knowledge transfer is the unit.
v. Why certain neighbourhood has a high crime rate → neighbourhood
vi. What are the types of crime in neighbourhood → crime
THE BU
ILDING BLOCKS OF RE SEARCH
In Theoretical Plane which is abstract, we haveConcept→ Proposition → Theory
I n the Empirical Place wehaveVariable→Hypothesis→Models(thesecorrespondwith
above alignment)
1. Concept:
oncepts are abstracted from concrete experience to represent a class of phenomena.
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Example: crime, poverty.
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euseconceptstoexploretheunitofanalysis.Conceptshavemanyabstractions–whichwe
W
alsocallconstructs.Higherorderofabstractioniscalledconstruct,andlowerorderiscalled
concept.
n observation, we find some units that we have observed, we find the similarities &
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dissimilarities, and put a name to this bundle of similarities: this is a concept.
Examples:
a ) S o, attitude is a concept, the disposition of an attitude is a construct.
b) Weight is a unidimensional concept
c) Communication Skills is a multidimensional concept which becomes a construct.
2. Variable
variable is the measurable aspect of the concept that varies from group togroup/caseto
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case/time to time.
owwilltheintelligenceofthestudentsbemeasured?IQTest–wegetavariablefromthe
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testscores.So,conceptsarenotmeasurablebutvariablesaremeasurable.Ifearningpotential
is a concept, the salary is the variables.
There may be different kinds of variables
xample: Intelligence (IQ) → Academic Achievement (Grade Point) → Earning Potential
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(Salary)
Types of Variables:
I ndependent:Itexplainstheothervariable.Example:IQ(whichisthevariable)may
be an independent variable, which explains the academic record.
ependent: It is explained by other variable. Example: Grade point (which is a
D
variable) is dependent on IQ.
ediating:It'spartofthecausalpathwayofaneffect,andittellsyouhoworwhyan
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effecttakesplace.Ifsomethingisamediator:It'scausedbytheindependentvariable.
It influences the dependent variable. In the above example, Grade Point is mediating.
oderating:A moderator influencesthelevel,direction,orpresenceofarelationship
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between variables. It shows you for whom, when, or under what circumstances a
relationship will hold. For example, while social media use can predict levels of
loneliness,thisrelationshipmaybestrongerforadolescentsthanforolderadults.Age
is a moderator here. Others would include usually the sex, culture, other factors etc.
Moderating is an extrinsic variable, but mediating is a connection or a causal pathway.
ontrol: A control variable is anything that is held constantorlimitedinaresearch
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study. It’s a variable that isnotofinteresttothe study’sobjectives,butiscontrolled
because it could influence the outcomes.
xample:Ifwehavetwovariables–typeoflighting(independentvariable),number
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ofcorrectlyrecalledwordsontest(dependentvariable)–thensomecontrolvariables
are: number of hours studied, age, native language.
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3 . Hypothesis: A declarative statement on the relationship between the concept and
propositions are calledhypothesis.
4 . Propositions are the relationship between the concepts which we get from deduction
(logic)orinduction(empiricalmethod).Wecannotdirectlytestthepropositionsbecausethey
are based on abstract concepts, so we test the variables.
hestatementofrelationshipbetweendifferentvariablesiscalledhypothesis.Itisatentative
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solution to the problem.
Example
esearch Objective: To determine whether there is a differencebetweenboysandgirlsin
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the professional career after passing out from the college.
esearchQuestion:Isthereadifferencebetweenboysandgirlstheprofessionalcareerafter
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passing out from the college?
lternative Hypothesis: Positive relationship between variables – we would like to prove
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this
Symbol:Ha
Example: Boys and girls do differ in the above situation.
Null Hypothesis: Negative association between variables– we would like to disprove this
Symbol:Ho
Example: There is no relationship between computer literacy and academic achievement.
Hypothesis can be strong or weak. This is based on two concepts:
a)Causality
b)Direction:Positive/Negative
Illustration
i. StudentIQscoreisrelatedtotheiracademicachievement.(Wedon’thaveanycausal
r elationship, and neither positive or negative relationship) –Weak hypothesis
ii. StudentIQscoresarepositivelyrelatedtotheirachievement(Causalityisstillabsent)
– Direction is given
iii. StudentIQscoreshavepositiveimpactontheirachievement(Wehavecausality,and
direction) –Strong Hypothesis
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5 . Theory: A set of Systematically, interrelated constructs and propositions which help in
explaining and predicting the phenomena or behaviour of interests withincertainboundary
conditions and assumptions.
6 .WhatisaModel:AModelisarepresentationofallorpartofsystemthatisconstructedto
studythatsystem.Theorytriestoexplainthephenomenawhilemodeltriestorepresentsthe
phenomena.
he basic difference that must be specified whenever differentiating theory-model,
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concept-variableandsoon,isthatoneisonatheoreticalplaneandtheotheronanempirical
one.
Illustration (Given by David Whetten in 1989): There are 4 building blocks of theory –
i. Construct: what is the nature of the phenomena (what concepts are important for
e xplaining the phenomena)
ii. Proposition: how are these concepts related to eachother
iii. Logic: why are these concepts related to each other.
iv. Boundary Conditions: who, when, where and under what circumstances they are
related.
Research Process
Explanation of the Diagram
1. Exploration:The first phase of research is exploration.This phase includes
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i. e xploring and selecting research questions for further investigation,
ii. examining the published literature in the area of inquiry to understand the current
state of knowledge in that area, and
iii. identifying theories that may help answer the research questions of interest.
2 .ResearchDesign:Thenextphaseintheresearchprocessisresearchdesign.Thisprocess
isconcernedwithcreatingablueprintoftheactivitiestotakeinordertosatisfactorilyanswer
the research questions identified in the exploration phase. This includes
i. s electing a research method (qualitative & quantitative)
ii. operationalizing constructs of interest, and
iii. devising an appropriate sampling strategy.
hat is the Operationalization of the Constructs of Interest? If I am talking about class, I
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havetodefineandspecifywhatisaclass–explainingtheconcept.Operationalizationisthe
process of designing precise measures for abstract theoretical constructs. This is a major
problem in social science research, given that many of the constructs, such as prejudice,
alienation,andliberalismarehardtodefine,letalonemeasureaccurately.Operationalization
starts with specifying an “operational definition” (or “conceptualization”) of the
constructs of interest.
3 .Execution:Havingdecidedwhotostudy(subjects),whattomeasure(concepts),andhow
to collect data (research method), the researcher is now ready to proceed to the research
executionphase.Thisincludespilottestingthemeasurementinstruments,datacollection,and
data analysis.
ilot Testing: It helps detect potential problems in your research design and/or
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instrumentation(e.g.,whetherthequestionsaskedisintelligibletothetargetedsample),and
toensurethatthemeasurementinstrumentsusedinthestudyarereliableandvalidmeasures
of the constructs of interest. The pilot sample is usually a small subset of the target
population.
RESEARCH TO
OLS
Research Tool: which we use for the collection ofqualitative data
(1) Observation: It is of two types:
( a)participantobservation:whentheresearcherishimselfparticipatinginthegroup
to collect data – so many researchers have done this especially for research on
criminal & anthropological research.
oth possibilities are there: that the identity of the researcher is revealed or it is
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unrevealed.
heethicalissueisthatwhethertokeepsomesensitiveinformationasconfidentialor
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not.Soaresearcheroncriminalshastwinduties:theethicaldutyasaresearchernot
to reveal it, and his duty as a citizen – to report to the police.
heresearchermayfindaroleinthegroupwhichwillnotdisturbtheusualpatterns
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of behaviour in that group. This may not be a complete membership, but only a
part-time one.
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( b)non-participantobservation:whentheresearcherisanoutsider.Inthiscase,the
observerisneithercontrollingthesituationnorinvolvedinithimself.Theconditions
donotgetcreatedorcatalyzedbytheobserver.Theconditionsdevelopontheirown.
Theobserverjoinsthegroupbutdoesnotindulgeintheiractivities.Thisrequiresthe
observer to win the trust of the subjects of the research
There is also however:Systematically Controlled Observation:
esearch for physical sciences is carried out in laboratories which involves creation of
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conditions for the research. The same methodology cannot be applied as it is in social
research.
xample: However, under this method,forexample,ifanewpolicyisintroducedbyNLU
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administration,andthisaffectstwogroupsofpeopledifferently,aresearchcanbecarriedout
where under a pre-planned structure, the two groups are called on a particular day at a
particular place, to carry out observation. The conditions here are created by the observer.
The subjects are aware of the structure under which the research is taking place. Another
methodunderthiscategoryissocio-psychologicalobservation.Here,theobservermayassign
some tasks to the subjects and then observe their behavior.
( 2) Interview: Verbal communication between the interviewer or the participant. Interview
may be said to be face-to-face verbal interchange in which one person (the interviewer)
attemptstoelicitsomeinformationorexpressionsofopinionfromanotherpersonorpersons
regarding a particular issue. There are the following categories:
( a)Structuredinterviews:thewholeinterviewispre-structuredandpre-determined.
All the questions have been decided. This is quite inflexible in the sense that the
interviewer has a checklist of questions that are put exactly in the same form and
exactly the same order.
( b) Semi-structured interviews: Majority of the questions are prepared but the
researcherhasdiscretionofaskingquestionsasappropriatetimes.Muchmoreflexible
and open ended.
(c)Focused Interview
ere,aconditionhasalreadydevelopedoraneventhastakenplace.Aninterviewis
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thentakeninordertogaininformationfromrespondentsonlyontheparticularissue.
The interview is completely focused on it.
For example, interviews onlive-inrelationshipswillnotbeafocusedinterview.But
interviews on a particular rape case will form focused interviews.
(d)Repeated Interview
ere,theparticularsocialeventbeingstudiedisinprogress.Repeatedinterviewsare
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needed in order to gather information at various stages of the development of the
social issue. The behavior of respondents at various times are gauged.Thismethod
gives a better understanding of the social problem. Examples include interviews
duringthecourseofelections,atvariousstagesoftheimplementationofgovernment
policies, etc.
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(e)In-depth Interview
hese interviews try to cover each aspect of the respondent related to the social
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problem.Theminutedetailsoftheproblemarelookedinto.Thisrequiresaveryhigh
level of skill on part of the interviewer.Theskilltodevelopinter-personalrelations
withtherespondentinordertoextractmaximumamountofinformationisnecessary.
Mosttimes,respondentsdonotrevealthetruthorthewholetruthininterviews.They
tend to share only such information which matches with the social standard. Only
whentheinterviewercangarnertheleveloftrustwhichwillfacilitategettingdetailed
information,willanin-depthinterviewbesuccessful.Theinterviewerneedstobuilda
rapport with the interviewees. This isoneofthemostdifficultinterviewmethodsto
conduct. However, it gives the best understanding of the social problem being studied.
Difference Between:
Questionnaire:Where the questions are filled by therespondent
chedule: While questionnaire is filled by the respondent, but thescheduleisfilledbythe
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investigator. Example, census. This may be often used when there is possibility of
misinterpretation of question (due to language barrier), and illiteracy.
(3) Questionnaire
1 . W hen there are many respondents
2. When we need to be very precise (More objective, less subjective answers.)
3. When the respondents are literate
he limitation: It won’t give us answers that are between the lines. The respondent only
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selects yes or no, but there is no option of a maybe.
Types of Questions
1 . O pen-Ended Questions: What is your opinion?
2. Close-Ended Question: Do you believe in this? Yes or No.
3. Multiple-Choice Question: When many choices are given.Sometimesonehastobe
selected,
4. Rating Question: On a scale.
5. Ranking Queston: In order of preference
6. Scaling Technique: Likert scale is used: strongly agree, mildly agree etc.
(4) Focused-Group Discussion:
1 . W hen the respondents may not be literate enough to fill the questionnaire.
2. Sensitivity of the topic. Example, live-in relationship, homosexuality etc.
You start the discussion, and moderate the individuals to frankly express their views.
SOCIAL SURVEY
ocial surveys are usually conducted by the government or by organisations who have to
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conductsocialresearchonamassivenumberofresearchelements.Theterm‘socialsurvey’
issometimesusedasanalternateto‘socialresearch’becauseitoftenincludesothertypesof
research.
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Social survey is of two types: Census Survey and Sample Survey.
i. ensus survey is essentially a population survey. This means that data iscollected
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from all members of the universe.
ii. Inasamplesurvey,researchisconductedonlyonasampleoutoftheentireuniverse.
Thissampleisusedtorepresenttheentireuniverse.Aparticularmethodofcollecting
samples is undertaken. All members of the universe are not surveyed.
Sampling
sample survey is a systematic means of gathering data on people’s behaviour, attitudes,
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opinions by questioning a representative group.
( i)Population/Universe:Theunitsofanalysistogetherconstitutethepopulation–itrefersto
the entire group from which data is to be collected. Inotherwords,itisthetotalityofthe
phenomenon studied, the people who are the subject of a statistical investigation.
he universe/population consists of all survey elements that qualify for inclusion in the
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research study. It forms the entire domain in which the research is conducted.
( ii) Sample: When we take individuals outoftheUniverse.Asampleisanyportionofthe
population. But this sample is expected to be the representative of the population.
( iii) Sampling Frame: This is an accessible section of the target population (usuallyalist
with contact information) from where a sample can be drawn. Limited resources and
accessibility might prohibit researchers from collecting data from all target population
segments.
o for example, if we are designing a research on youth. The youth are the universe. The
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studentsofNLUJmaybetakenasthesamplingframe,outofwhichagainwewillchoosea
sample.
Sample Size: The number of people in the sample.
The Process of Sampling may be:
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robability Sampling: Probability sampling is a technique in which every unit in the
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populationhasachance(non-zeroprobability)ofbeingselectedinthesample.Thesampling
procedure involves random selection at some point, at least.
hencausalrelationshipistobeproved:likepovertyleadstocrime.Thisisbecausewecan
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use mathematical tools This leads to more generalization.
on-ProbabilitySampling:Nonprobabilitysamplingisasamplingtechniqueinwhichsome
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units of the population have zero chance of selection.
ypically, units are selected based on certain non-random criteria, such as quota or
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convenience. Because selection is non-random, nonprobability samplingdoesnotallowthe
estimation of sampling errors, and may be subjected to a sampling bias. Therefore,
information from a sample cannot be generalized back to the population
o-relationshipisnotestablished.Obtainingthesamplecanbeeasierandlesscostlybutthe
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sample may be biased.
Types of Probability Sampling
1 . Simple Random Sampling. In thistechnique,allpossiblesubsetsofapopulation(more
accurately, of a sampling frame) are given an equal probability of being selected. This is
called theLottery Method.
Appropriate when:
a) Y ou have rare knowledge of the population. (The sample is not sub-divided or
partitioned)
b) You want results that are unbiased and more generalizable.
2 . Systematic Random Sampling: In this technique, the sampling frame is ordered
accordingtosomecriteriaandelementsareselectedatregularintervalsthroughthatordered
list.
sing a formula, the “skip interval” (K) is determined. So K stands for Population
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Size/Sample Size or PS+1/SS. This is basically the ratio between the sample size and the
population size.
N/n or N+1/n
o every Kth element in a population isincluded.Soforexample,iftheanswercomes15,
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then every 15th person in the list of population willbe chosen.
50 is our sample,
3 . Stratified Sampling: This mode entails dividing the population into segments or strata
and then sampling is done from within each segment. This technique ensures that the
different strata will be represented in the sample in precisely the same proportion as they
occur in the population.
4 . Cluster Sampling: If you have apopulationdispersedoverawidegeographicregion,it
may not be feasible to conduct a simple random samplingoftheentirepopulation.Insuch
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c ase,itmaybereasonabletodividethepopulationinto“clusters”(usuallyalonggeographic
boundaries), randomly sample a few clusters, and measure all units within that cluster.
5 . Multi-Stage Sampling:Theprobabilitysamplingtechniquesdescribedpreviouslyareall
examplesofsingle-stagesamplingtechniques.Dependingonyoursamplingneeds,youmay
combine these single-stage techniques to conduct multi-stage sampling.
Example: State level, district level, village level.
Types of Non-Probability Sampling
1 .Conveniencesampling.Alsocalledaccidentaloropportunitysampling,thisisatechnique
in which a sample is drawn from that part of the population that is close to hand, readily
available, or convenient.
xample: For instance, if you stand outside a shopping center and hand outquestionnaire
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surveys to people or interview them as they walk in, the sample of respondents you will
obtain will be a convenience sample. This is a non-probability sample because you are
systematically excluding all people who shop at other shopping centers
2 .JudgementSampling:Itisthejudgementoftheresearcherthatthispersonissuitablefor
my research. More useful, even though still based on your choice. Since this choice or
judgement is based on some rational reasoning. Also a deliberate sampling of sorts, for
example, choosing only fourth and fifth years to study the placement patters.
3 .QuotaSampling:thepopulationissegmentedintomutually-exclusivesubgroups(justas
in stratified sampling), and then a non-random set of observations is chosen from each
subgroup to meet a predefined quota.
I n proportional quota sampling, the proportion of respondents in each subgroup should
match that of the population.
on-proportional quota sampling is less restrictive in that you don’t have to achieve a
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proportional representation, but perhaps meet a minimum size in each subgroup.
4 .SnowballSampling:Insnowballsampling,youstartbyidentifyingafewrespondentsthat
match the criteria for inclusion in your study,andthenaskthemtorecommendothersthey
know who also meet your selection criteria.
xample: For instance, if you wish to survey computer network administrators and you
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know of only one ortwosuchpeople,youcanstartwiththemandaskthemtorecommend
others who also do network administration.
5 . Self-Selective Probability Sampling: Self-selection sampling (also called volunteer
sampling) relies on participants who voluntarily agree to be part of your research. This is
common for samples that need people who meet specific criteria, as is often the case for
medical or psychological research.
xample:SupposeyouaresurveyinghighschoolEnglishstudents.Youaskthemtoratethe
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books they read throughout the academic year, but you make participation optional
REPRESENTATION OF DA
TA
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awdataisneverexpressedassuch.Inthefieldstudy,wewillbeusingdescriptivestatistics
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and percentages. Mean, Mode & Median may also be used.
earenotusinginferentialquantitativetechniques:wherecertainformulasareused,tofind
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out some correlations and test out our hypothesis.
CODE OF ET HICS:What are the ethical concerns whenyou are conducting research?
AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH has made a Code ofEthics:
1 . M aintainingobjectivity&integrityin the research.
2. No subjective biasshould be there.
3. Respectthesubject’srighttoprivacyanddignity.Don’taskquestionsthatviolate
someone’s privacy. Example: on sensitive topics like live-in relationship
4. Protectthesubjectfrompersonalharm:Example–ifwearedoingastudyondrug
abuse, then we need to make sure that we don’t report this to the authorities.
5. Confidentiality:Respondents should be anonymous.We may call them R1 or R2 etc.
6. Seek the Informal Consent:When we are asking a personto fill in a questionnaire.
7. Acknowledge Collaboration: When we are collaborating or taking someone’s
assistance,
8. When we are takingfunds from anyone, we need to acknowledgethat.
9. Disclaimer:Wewillgiveadisclaimer,inourquestionnairesforFieldStudy;thatwe
will use this data only for the purpose of our CA.
UTILITY OF RESEARCH
olicy Formulation: When any policy or legislation is being formed or a law is being
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amended, we need data to validate it. Example: menstrual leave.
Sometimes, evaluation of a policy may also be needed. Example: NREGA
Refer also to written notes for types of research design
Conflict Theories:
awthorne&Hunt:Thisisaprocessbyseekingtomonopolizetherewardsbyeliminatingor
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weakening the competitor. Your target is your competitor.
When instead of the goal, your target becomes competition → that is conflict perspective.
Characteristics
Conflict is universal
I t has an intermittent characteristic also → in the latent form it is continuous but in the
manifestformitmaynotbecontinuous.Thoughconflictmayalwaysbepresentinthelatent
form(soforexample,therivalrybetweenIndiaandPakistan),itmaytakeamanifestformin
certain cases.
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I tisconditionedbythecultureandthenorms.Becauseineachcultureviolentbehaviourand
the acceptance of the violent behaviour is different. This is especially true of the tribal
cultures.
Each culture has a different perspective.
--
Conflict may be personal or impersonal.
We cannot remain in situations of conflict. There are ways of resolving the conflict
There are some frustrations that the members of society have that lead to these conflicts.
Types of Conflict (as per Simmel)
1. War (when there is a desire to gain anything materially)
2. Intra-Group
3. Litigation (A judicial struggle by one person or groups to protect their rights)
4 .ConflictofImpersonalideas:Anideologicalconflict→Coser,Colinhadtalkedabouthow
conflicts can prolong over time
Based on Principles of Classification
5 Latent & Overt (Example of India & Pakistan → in general there is latent, but duringa
cricket match, this comes in the open
6. Class-Based
7. Gender Based
Race Based
International
Personal and corporate
ccommodation→Baldwinsaysthataccommodationreferstotheacquiredchangesinthe
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behaviour of the individuals which helps them to adjust to the changes in their environment.
I tisthenaturalresultoftheconflict.Itisacontinuousanduniversalprocessanditispresent
in all the societies in all times.
There may be different methods of accomodation
Force: Useful when there is a difference in the dominating power of the two parties
When both the parties are at the same level, compromise may be made
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When there is a third party for dispute resolution Example of Arbitratiin & Mediation
Toleration → Gandhian philosophy
onversion: In religious conflicts, there may be a religious conversion. But this may not
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necessarily be religious → it might be about conveeson of o’e's ideas
ationalization:Whenwerationalizeandblametheotherperson.Example;ifyouscopeless
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and blame the party.
Assimilation:
efinition by Young & Mark:“Fusionorblendingoftwopreviouslydifferentgroupsand
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then there is a fusion of that” Example:Indian&Britishtraditions.Normally,thisisinthe
cultural context.
Social Assimilation:
After marriage, when husband’s and wife’s traditions get assimilated.
ccommodationisthefirststagetoassimilation.Intheformeryouaretryingtoadjusttothe
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environment and continue to be unique but not so in assimilation.
Assimilation may be two-sided. For example, India influenced British culture also
Factors which favour assimilation (most applicable in the husband-wife example):
1. Toleration
2. Intimate social relations
3. Cultural similarity
Factors that Hinder Assimilation
1. Physical-Racial-Cultural Differences
2. Domination & Subordination
3. Isolation
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
MARRIAGE
Westmarkin his book: theHISTORY OF HUMAN MA
RRIAGES talks about marriages thus:
“ Themoreorlessdurableconnectionbetweenmaleandfemalelastingbeyondthemereact
of procreation till after the birth of children.”
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I n modern contexts, we also talk about homosexual marriages, but theydon’thavegeneral
anduniversalacceptance.Eveninthecountrieswherethereisalegalapproval,theremaynot
be a social approval.
Malinowski:“A contract for the production and maintenanceof children.”
hen we look at marriage today, somecouplesdonotwantchildren.Theymayalsoadopt
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children.
Why marriage as an institution develops?
To give the social acceptance to the relationship between male and female.
To give legitimacy to the children born out of this relationship.
notherimportantdevelopmentalfactorwasthehumaninstinct.Wealsoassociatemarriage
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and family with the concept of private property → thatmenwanttocontrolthingsintheir
possession. Marriage then would also be about controlling the spouse and the children.
Another definition:
Relationship between permissible mates
ivil or religious ceremonies are also associated with marriage which requires social
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approval
FUNCTIONS OF MA
RRIAGE
1. Regulation of Sexual Life
2. Establishment of Family
3. Economic Cooperation
4. Emotional Stimulation of the Partners
5. Aim at Social Solidarity
Classification of Marriages on the Basis of the Number of Members:
Polygamy:One man and more than one female
Sororal & Non-Soroal: Sororal is when the wives are sisters, and non-sororal is
hen the wives are not sisters.
w
1 . his is prevalent when there are more women and less men.
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2. Early ageing of women
3. Political alliances
4. When they wanted to have more children
5. This is primarily prevalent in tribal and remote parts especially to manage the
domestic sphere
Polyandry:One woman and more than one man
raternal and Non-Fraternal: When the husbands are brothers vs when the
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husbands are not brothers
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Very common in matriarchal systems
1. S kewed sex ratio → with more men and less women, forexampleinsomepartsof
Rajasthan, there is female foeticide
2. Desire to keep the property intact → to avoid partition between brothers
3. Heavy bride price → when the males have to give price for marrying
Problems Association
1 . Determining the Parenthood of the Children: In some communities, child can select the
father
2. Genetic disorders
Monogamy:One male and one female
1 . o make marriage as a stable institution
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2. This is a universally practical practice
3. A better understanding between husband and wife
4. Contributes to the stability of the family life
5. Better status of women
6. Better socialization of women
Monogamy also happen in tribal societies like Santhals and Khasis
roup Marriages: Very rare in modern times but they were prevailing in someareaslike
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Australia, India and Tibet → it was also prevalent in Toda tribe.
Two or more men marry two or more women
Rules of Marriage: Endogamy and Exogamy
ndogamyreferstomarriagewithinthegroup→especiallycaste-endogamy,andsometimes
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it may be even sub-caste endogamy. Examples: Caste endogamy, Race endogamy
xogamyreferstomarriageoutsidethegroup.Example:Pravara-exogamy(ifyourrishi/guru
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is the same), Pind-exogamy (sapinda marriages), Gotra-exogamy, village exogamy (ifyour
villages are close, then you havebhaichara– thenyou cannot marry)
--
20th September
How has industrialization impacted the family?
e will discuss Wilmott and Michel Young who have described the stages of the
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development of family. These theories are applied in other parts of the world as well.
Michel Young talks about 4 stages:
1 . Pre-Industrial Society: They have portrayed atypicalpictureofanuclearfamilywhere
therewasaverycloserelationshipbetweenhusbandandwifeandthechildrenandtheywere
based on agro-based and textile-related employment.
According to them, this continues even today.
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2. Post-Industrial Society:When the agriculture activity was
uclear family became an extended family.Theytalkedaboutmatriarchalstructuresthat
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emerged in Britain primarily. Here, either the husband have left the women or have died
because of various reasons.
A study conducted in early 20th century, they foundmany such families existed in Britain.
3 . Symmetrical Families emerged where the husband and the wife were working. He is
describingamiddleprofessionalclassfamily.Therewasdivisionoflabourinthehousehold
tasks.Bothinthecontextofthestatuswereequal,andthus,theyarecalledasSymmmetrical
families. Even today we see these families in the middle class among the professionals.
ne principle that works in such families is ST RATIFIED DIFFUSION: in social stratification,
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whatever has been done by the upper classes, may be done by the lower classes later.
Through this concept, they envisage the 4th stage
4 . Managing Directors: Professional status takes over the household status. Typical
patriarchal society where the higher posts are occupied by the male populace, we see that
husbandsaremoreengagedinthepublicsphereofwork.Butwomenaremoreengagedinthe
household work.
his was what was visualized by the theorists and a lot of analysts believe that this is the
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situation in the contemporary world.
Answer Writing:
First write basic postulates of the theory and then write the analysis
AFTER MID-TERM
SO
CIALIZATION – MODULE 3
● I tislikeasocialtrainingprogramme.Likewhenyouenterintotheuniversity,thereis
an orientation programme. Learning takes place continuously.
● In the case of the society, we have trainers. The first trainers are our parents, then
come teachers, friends and even social media. These aresocializing agents.
● Socialisation turns the ‘animal’ being into a ‘human’ being. It is a process of
changing.Wetakeabirthasahuman,butwelearnalotandbecome‘social’beings.
The interactions that we have, there is an impact on us.
● Socialisation is a continuous process. It starts from our birth, and it continues till
death. Every moment we are learning something and we are changing something.
hysicalMaturityvs.SocialMaturity:Physicalmaturityisaboutphysicaltraits,butsocial
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maturity is about social exposure and experiences. Example: a person coming from the
streets,
Socialization is about
i. evelopment of the self-concept.
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ii. The internationalization of the norm
(I) DEVELOPMENT OF THE SELF-CONCEPT.
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mpirical School of Sociology: The development of the self happens in the social
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environment and social context.
I or Me are formed by the society – supported by Symbolic-Interactionism.
ature v. Nurture Debate: Nature suggests that therearesomebiologicaltraits+Nurture
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suggests something that has been developed through the socialization process.
(II) INTERNATIONALIZATION OF THE NORMS:
e learn that we need to touch the feet of the elder, to mark respect. There may besome
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cultural variations also. But how do we internalize these norms?
( 1) Making a distinction between the new that you are learning and the old things
which you already knew.
( 2) Rewards &Punishmentarealwaysimportantforinternalization.Shouldtherebe
morepunishment?Ormoreincentives?Oneschoolofthoughttellsusthatthereneeds
to be a balance of rewards and punishment, and excess of any of them is bad.
( 3)TheSelf-ControlontheFrustrationwhichisanecessaryoutcomeofthelearning
process. (Young children get frustrated very easily – because of excessive
psychological changes, and societal expectations). → When we are in a position to
manage all this,
IAN RO
BERTSON talks about 4 types of Socialization(Different from Stages at different Ages):
a) P rimarySocialization:Intheearlyphasewhensocializationtakesplace,threethings
are learnt by the child.
Distinction between rewards & punishment
Internalization of the norms.
Cognitive skills developed: What are the norms, rules of the group?
Association of Rewards with certain activities & of Punishment
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Parents,especiallymotheratthispointcomeoffasanimportantmediatorbetweenthe
child and the outside society
Fathers and teachers are also included in this.
b) AnticipatorySocialization:Inordertoorinanticipationofjoiningagroup,aperson
starts practicing that group’s norms & behaviour.
Example:1. If you are giving NDA, and you alreadystart behaving like them
2.If a model wants to go to Bollywood, they startacting like that.
c) DevelopmentalSocialization:Whenyoualreadyhavesomeknowledge,andyouare
developing it. Example: Newlyweddedwife→Ifforexample,sheislearningnew
dishes or new ways of preparing them.
Example:When you live in the hostel, you learn more.
You are not replacing what you know, you are adding to your repository of
knowledge.
d) Re-Socialization:Whenthemembershipdrasticallychanges,youunlearnyourearly
socialization to adopt new practices.Example:
i. A girl is forced to enter into prostitution.
ii. A saint becomes a dacoit
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One Day Missed:
SOCIAL AGENTS
n the basis of principle of authority, it can be divided into two groups. The criteria for
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division is the agent’s authority over the individual.
● H aving the control or authority over the learner: Parents, teachers (social status of
these agents is that they have authoritative capacity over the learners);
● Having same social status as that of learner: friends, social media
ointofcontentionamongscholars–Whichcategoryteachesmore?Thosewithauthorityor
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thosewithout?10-20yearsback,theinfluenceofthefirstcategorypeoplewasconsideredas
more on the learner. True even today to only some extent as the early socialization if still
influencedbythisgroup.Duetochangingfamilysystem,familymayevenbeconvertedinto
the second category. Having more social agents belonging to the first category creates
frustrations among the learners and therefore it is one of the negative aspect of socialization.
TH
EORIES OF SO
CIALIZATION
Social psychologist advocated that the concept of ‘self is social’
Philosophical School of Thought: Human beings possess self at the time of the birth itself
ociological School: Promotes empiricism; mind develops within the context of social
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interaction.
5 thinkers:
Cooley’s Theory of Looking Glass Self:
There are 3 stages: what is actual impression (What you are)
What you think others think of you (Your judgement on other’s perception)
What others thin
ead’sRolePlayTheory:Howaparticularchildinternalizestheroleswithinhisbehaviour
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and the norms of the society.
ignificant Others: The membersoftheprimarygroupwithwhichachildinteractsatfirst
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→ we internalize the roles of others.
eneralized Others: Taking the whole role of the society → if the child wants to learn
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cricket,hewillunderstandtheroleofaplayer,ofabatsman,etc.Example:Doctororpatient,
how in general they behave → Community perspective
Stages of Life → Play stage, game stage etc
Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalysis helps us in understanding Socialization:
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Concept of ego and superego
Ede: Representation of animal impulses
Superego: Norms of the society
Ego: It balances these two, and gives direction
W. I. Thomas defining the situation
ituations are also defined by society,sometimesourparentsdo,sometimesthesocietydo.
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We only have to act according to these pre-defined situations.
Concept of Unadjusted Girl → who has not been gender socialized
Emile Durkheim’s Collective Representation
Example from Charvaka philosophy → Sui generis
llofthesetheoriestellusthatmindissocial→atthetimeofourbirth,wedonotpossessit
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but in the course of the life, we develop it.
Can culture determine our personality?
ulture provides us context: thereisveryimportantinfluenceofcultureinthesocialization
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process
hen the culture determines our personality, then why do we all still have different
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personalities?
1. T he Influence of the Sub-Culture: If there is the Indian culture, there may be a
sub-culture: Rajasthani culture, Marwari culture etc.
2. Cultural Alternatives: When we say culture, there is universalizationbutthereare
alternatives.
3. Biological Factors: By our very birth,wearedifferent.Onepersonmayhavegreat
memory, but another may be great at extempore.
Why are there differences even in thesamefamily?Theculturalcontextisthesame
family is same, but there are situational differences.
4. SituationalDifferences:Inthesamefamily,twosiblingsmayhavebeensocializedin
differentconditions:onewheretheywerewell-offandmotherusedtobeathome,but
now when they are not well-off and mother has to take up extra work.
5. DifferenceintheTransmissionoftheCulture:Eachreceiveandreproduceculture
in different manner.
What is the Importance of Socialization?
1. It converts biological beings into social beings.
2. Development of self and personality
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3 .Socializationhasbeenenactingtheroles.Weinternalizetheroles,andunderstandwhatour
roleisandhowtoenactit.(Asabrother,son,studentetc.whatdoweneedtodo?→These
roles depend from culture to culture)
4. Maintain the social order:
I t controls the individual behaviour. → Mechanism of socialization makes the individual
learn the society’s norms. [Socialization and social control are complementary to each other]
or example, ifwelearnthatweshouldrespecttheelders,butwhenwedonotdoso,there
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are negative sanctions
uch a social control mechanism allows for the maintenance oforderandharmonyinythe
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society.
5. –
Faults with Socialization
ocialization is a process, that is not per se faulty, but can have certain faults.Wehaveto
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understand Impact of Socialization on the individuals:
1. An individualmay not be able to understand culturecompletely.
2 . Damage to self-image: We learn so many things in society but we may not like them.
Example: class or caste-based differences → we individually trytolearnandunlearn.This
may cause damage to self-image.
xample: Girls may be told to nottakeupajobthatistraditionallyforthem→damageto
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self-image.
xample: A studywasdoneinAmericawhereitwasfoundthatAfricanAmericanstudents
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wouldbehesitanttoaskquestionsintheclass,becauseofthestereotypethatblackstudents
are not academically good.
3. Improper Socialization & Effect on Mental Health
ocialization is directly linked with parental influence. Mental health problems are often
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prevalent in poorerclasses,astheyarenotproperlysocialized→andparentsmaynothave
been able to provide them with proper socialization.
4. Resistance of Social Control
ocietylooksatyouonthebasisoftheprofession,andthusyourparentswouldforceyouto
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choose socially approved professions.
Social control on the girl child
onfusionofanAdult:Thereisasimplepatterninourlife.School→College→Profession
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→Marry→Family→Death.Therewillbesocialpressurefromonestagetotheother.You
cannot escape.
5 . Inconsistency in Socialization: When two different agents give inconsistent
socialization.
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he parent says don’t take alcohol. Friends say take alcohol. Two different kinds of
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socialization.
(BIANCA’S NOTES FOR EARLY SEPT)
SOCIAL GROUP
Definitions
- Johnson:a social group is a system of social interaction
- Nimkoff: wherever two or more individuals come together and influence eachother
they may be said to constitute a social group
Characteristics
- ollection of individuals
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- At least 2 individuals
- Interaction among the individuals
- Mutual awareness about each other
- Common interest
- Stability
- Group unity or solidarity
Classification of groups
Different sociologists have attempted this based on different principles
- Sunner: in group (we group) and out group
o Hinduasaningroup,whichmeansthegroupyoubelongto,thenalltheother
groups would be out groups [the principle of classification is religion]
o If you call NLU J as an in group- all other unisareoutgroup[principleof
classification = university]
- Ellwood: voluntary and involuntary group [ basis is voluntariness]]
o Involuntary groups are groups that a person gets membership by birth and
without his own volition, for e.g. family, caste, religion
o Voluntary groups: voluntary membership
- Sorokin: horizontal and vertical groups
o Horizontal- large and inclusive groups, like nation, religion
o Vertical – smaller groups, for e.g. based oneconomicdivision,ifyoudivide
theIndiansocietyintohigherclass,middleclasswithloweranduppermiddle
class , and lower class
- Cooley: primary group
o Othersociologistshavemadealogicalinferencetowardstheresidualgroups)
and secondary groups (which he has not himself classified)
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o H e talks about sympathetic contact where a we feeling and emotions are
attached like family
o and a categorical contact- based on the position you are occupying, doctor
patient, teacher student, lawyer client
- Tonnies (german sociologist):
o used 2germanwords‘Germeinschaft’meaningcommunitywhichpertainsto
family, kinship, neighbourhood, basically your personal life
o Gesell Schaft = association, pertains to public life
- Simmel,anotherGermansociologist:basedonsizeofthegroup,hehasclassifiedthe
groups on the basis of no. of members eg- bncp
- Park and Burger: Territorial and non-territorial:
o territorial includes community, district, state
o Non – Territorial includes class,
SOCIAL PROCESS
- Pattern of interactions
- Horton and Hunt said that repetitive forms of behaviour which are commonly found
in social life form the ‘social process’.
- Social interactionship
- Two individuals needs to be there and certain exchange
SOCIAL INTERACTION
Definition
ldredge: it is a general process whereby 2 or more persons are in meaningful contact as a
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result of which behaviour is modified, however slightly.
Conditions
- Contact: it means coming together of different social units.
● C ontact in time – refers to our contact with the earlier generation. Through this
contact, the social norms are transmitted from one generation to the other
● Contact in space – contact with your contemporaries
- Communication: it is a typology in the modern societies which we refer to as medium
of communication. Through communication we can take in the ideas of others
● S enses, emotions and ideas are the means where senses and emotions are the natural
forms of communication and ideas signify the role of intellectuals.
● Senses and emotions are common to animals as well
● But ideas are specific to intellect in the humans
- Internalisation and the response
● F
or e.g. an order to shut the order- process of internalisation meaning the
perception/receipt of that order and the response of shutting the order
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● F
or e.g. if a social agent teaches you to touch the feet of the elderly- when you follow
that the communication is complete.
ow does interaction take place? - it can take place through gestures also, so we have two
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classifications
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● irect: pushing, fighting
● Symbolic: use of gestures, language spoken or written
TYPES OF SOCIAL PROCESSES
1. Cooperation
2. Competition
3. Conflict
4. Accommodation
5. Assimilation
COOPERATION
- Working together for the pursuance of a common goal
- Universal process
- No conflict must be there
Definition
lredge: cooperation is a form of social interaction wherein 2 or more persons work together
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to gain a common end
Tyes
- Direct: when the individuals are in identical situations. E.g. playing basketball in the
evening as a team, worshipping together in a temple, tilling the field together, essentially any
group activity
- Indirect: individuals in their own capacity and pace work towards a common goal.
E.g. manufacturing f a cloth through different levels, farmer, spinner, tailor etc.
- Primary: cooperation in a primary group , e.g. in a family, neighbourhood
- Secondary: e.g. organisations, workplace,
- Tertiary: very large groups cooperating with each other. For e.g. when 2 political
parties cooperate with each other
COMPETITION
Definitions
orton and Hunt: It is the struggle for the position of the rewards which are limited in supply,
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goods, status or power.
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Nature and characteristics
- Scarcity of resources is a condition for competition, e.g. placements
- Sometimes competition can escalate to conflict, there is a thin line
- It is a continuous process, because the resources are always scarce and therefore, the
struggle to get those resources is a constant process
- It is a cause of the social change- because in order to get more resources, you will
employ different strategies and mechanisms which brig about social change. For e.g. in order
to provide employment, govt. will introduce certain schemes
- Competition may be personal or impersonal; the former takes place when you know
each other, for e.g. in a class setting you know who to compete with; but in the latter case if
you take the example of a competitive exam, you don’t know whom exactly you are
competing with
- Competition can be constructive/ destructive in nature: healthy competition generates
positive change; secondly, when the competition turns into a bloody conflict, or when you
employ corruption for a contract
- It is governed by certain norms: but not in the case of a conflict
- It can be unconscious:
Role of competition
Competition is important because
- It defines the status of individual
- It is a source of motivation
- It provides social mobility
Types
- Social
- Economic
- Political
- Cultural: when one culture comes into contact with the other in a healthy way- can
lead to assimilation
(My Notes Continued)
Conflict Theories:
awthorne&Hunt:Thisisaprocessbyseekingtomonopolizetherewardsbyeliminatingor
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weakening the competitor. Your target is your competitor.
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When instead of the goal, your target becomes competition → that is conflict perspective.
Conflict is universal
I t has an intermittent characteristic also → in the latent form it is continuous but in the
manifestformitmaynotbecontinuous.Thoughconflictmayalwaysbepresentinthelatent
form(soforexample,therivalrybetweenIndiaandPakistan),itmaytakeamanifestformin
certain cases.
I tisconditionedbythecultureandthenorms.Becauseineachcultureviolentbehaviourand
the acceptance of the violent behaviour is different. This is especially true of the tribal
cultures.
Each culture has a different perspective.
--
Conflict may be personal or impersonal.
We cannot remain in situations of conflict. There are ways of resolving the conflict
There are some frustrations that the members of society have that lead to these conflicts.
Types of Conflict (as per Simmel)
1. War (when there is a desire to gain anything materially)
2. Intra-Group
3. Litigation (A judicial struggle by one person or groups to protect their rights)
4. Conflict of Impersonal ideas: An ideological conflict → Coser, Colline etc.
Based on Principles of Classification
5 Latent & Overt (Example of India & Pakistan → in general there is latent, but duringa
cricket match, this comes in the open
6. Class-Based
7. Gender Based
Race Based
International
Personal and corporate
ccommodation→Baldwinsaysthataccommodationreferstotheacquiredchangesinthe
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behaviour of the individuals which helps them to adjust to the changes in their environment.
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I tisthenaturalresultoftheconflict.Itisacontinuousanduniversalprocessanditispresent
in all the societies in all times.
There may be different methods of accomodation
Force: Useful when there is a difference in the dominating power of the two parties
When both the parties are at the same level, compromise may be made
When there is a third party for dispute resolution Example of Arbitratiin & Mediation
Toleration → Gandhian philosophy
onversion: In religious conflicts, there may be a religious conversion. But this may not
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necessarily be religious → it might be about conveeson of o’e's ideas
ationalization:Whenwerationalizeandblametheotherperson.Example;ifyouscopeless
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and blame the party.
Assimilation:
efinition by Young & Mark:“Fusionorblendingoftwopreviouslydifferentgroupsand
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then there is a fusion of that” Example:Indian&Britishtraditions.Normally,thisisinthe
cultural context.
Social Assimilation:
After marriage, when husband’s and wife’s traditions get assimilated.
ccommodationisthefirststagetoassimilation.Intheformeryouaretryingtoadjusttothe
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environment and continue to be unique but not so in assimilation.
Assimilation may be two-sided. For example, India influenced British culture also
Factors which favour assimilation (most applicable in the husband-wife example):
1. Toleration
2. Intimate social relations
3. Cultural similarity
Factors that Hinder Assimilation
1. Physical-Racial-Cultural Differences
2. Domination & Subordination
3. Isolation
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SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
MARRIAGE
Westmarkin his book: theHISTORY OF HUMAN MA
RRIAGES talks about marriages thus:
“ Themoreorlessdurableconnectionbetweenmaleandfemalelastingbeyondthemereact
of procreation till after the birth of children.”
I n modern contexts, we also talk about homosexual marriages, but theydon’thavegeneral
anduniversalacceptance.Eveninthecountrieswherethereisalegalapproval,theremaynot
be a social approval.
Malinowski:“A contract for the production and maintenanceof children.”
hen we look at marriage today, somecouplesdonotwantchildren.Theymayalsoadopt
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children.
Why marriage as an institution develops?
To give the social acceptance to the relationship between male and female.
To give legitimacy to the children born out of this relationship.
notherimportantdevelopmentalfactorwasthehumaninstinct.Wealsoassociatemarriage
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and family with the concept of private property → thatmenwanttocontrolthingsintheir
possession. Marriage then would also be about controlling the spouse and the children.
Another definition:
Relationship between permissible mates
ivil or religious ceremonies are also associated with marriage which requires social
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approval
FUNCTIONS OF MA
RRIAGE
1. Regulation of Sexual Life
2. Establishment of Family
3. Economic Cooperation
4. Emotional Stimulation of the Partners
5. Aim at Social Solidarity
Classification of Marriages on the Basis of the Number of Members:
Polygamy:One man and more than one female
ororal & Non-Soroal: Sororal is when the wives are sisters, and non-sororal is
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when the wives are not sisters.
6 . T his is prevalent when there are more women and less men.
7. Early ageing of women
8. Political alliances
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9 . When they wanted to have more children
10.This is primarily prevalent in tribal and remote parts especially to manage the
domestic sphere
Polyandry:One woman and more than one man
raternal and Non-Fraternal: When the husbands are brothers vs when the
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husbands are not brothers
Very common in matriarchal systems
4. S kewed sex ratio → with more men and less women, forexampleinsomepartsof
Rajasthan, there is female foeticide
5. Desire to keep the property intact → to avoid partition between brothers
6. Heavy bride price → when the males have to give price for marrying
Problems Association
1 . Determining the Parenthood of the Children: In some communities, child can select the
father
2. Genetic disorders
Monogamy:One male and one female
7 . To make marriage as a stable institution
8. This is a universally practical practice
9. A better understanding between husband and wife
10.Contributes to the stability of the family life
11.Better status of women
12.Better socialization of women
Monogamy also happen in tribal societies like Santhals and Khasis
roup Marriages: Very rare in modern times but they were prevailing in someareaslike
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Australia, India and Tibet → it was also prevalent in Toda tribe.
Two or more men marry two or more women
Rules of Marriage: Endogamy and Exogamy
ndogamyreferstomarriagewithinthegroup→especiallycaste-endogamy,andsometimes
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it may be even sub-caste endogamy. Examples: Caste endogamy, Race endogamy
xogamyreferstomarriageoutsidethegroup.Example:Pravara-exogamy(ifyourrishi/guru
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is the same), Pind-exogamy (sapinda marriages), Gotra-exogamy, village exogamy (ifyour
villages are close, then you havebhaichara– thenyou cannot marry)
Contemporary Changes in Marriages
1. What are the changes that we perceive in marriage
Forms of Marriage: Even same-sex marriages are happening
Stability
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Aims & Objectives: Marriage is not only for procreation
2. Challenges that are there in front of marriage as an institution
ptions and models that are there in front of marriage as an alternative → Live in
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relationships & Same-Sex Marriages
3 .TheImpactofSocialLegislationontheInstitutionofMarriage→SatiProhibitionAct,
Domestic Violence Act → change of status of marriage
Some changes brought about by Hindu Code Bill
i. indu Marriage Act fixed the age of marriage (18 & 21), thusindirectlyimpacting
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child marriages
ii. Polygamous marriages were banned.
iii. DivorceasapracticewaslegallyintroducedandaccepteddespitethefactthatHindu
marriages were believed to survive births and rebirths
iv. Inter-Caste Marriages
Other legislations like Special Marriage Act also impacted the institution of marriage.
CONTENTS OF FIELD ST UDY
Introduction
Literature Review→ 10 summaries (books, articles)
Research Methodology (Why you selected these methods etc → 2 pages)
● opulation, Universe
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● Sample Size (50 Q + 10 I)
● Sampling Strategy
● Hypothesis
Questionnaire→ 10 q → Question wise analysis
Analysis
2 ways to analyse the questions → do question wise or to concept wise
First include charts, graphs, % etc.
Correlate this with somesociological theory
If your observation is different from this theory, write that also
If your topic relates to law, relate it with that law. (2 pages)
Recommendations
Conclusions
Limitations
FAMILY
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efinition by Nimkoff: He has said that family is more or less durable association of
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husband and wife with or without child or of a man or woman alone with children.
Misses on:
1 . S ingle-parent family with children
2. Focus on heteronormativity, and misses homosexual marriages
3. Definition calls it an association
Includes
It talks about mating relationships
It talks about a form of marriage → monogamous heterosexual marriage
Nuclear family
Characteristics of Family
1 . F amily is a universal concept
2. Speaks about social regulation (husband and wife relationship + child and parent
relationship)
3. Common residence
4. Whether it is a nuclear family or a joint family
5. Way of tracing your ancestors
6. System of nomenclature
7. Status Ascribing
8. Socialization
How has industrialization impacted the family?
e will discuss Wilmott and Michel Young who have described the stages of the
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development of family. These theories are applied in other parts of the world as well.
Michel Young talks about 4 stages:
1 . Pre-Industrial Society: They have portrayed atypicalpictureofanuclearfamilywhere
therewasaverycloserelationshipbetweenhusbandandwifeandthechildrenandtheywere
based on agro-based and textile-related employment.
According to them, this continues even today.
2. Post-Industrial Society:When the agriculture activitywas
uclear family became an extended family.Theytalkedaboutmatriarchalstructuresthat
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emerged in Britain primarily. Here, either the husband have left the women or have died
because of various reasons.
A study conducted in early 20th century, they foundmany such families existed in Britain.
3 . Symmetrical Families emerged where the husband and the wife were working. He is
describingamiddleprofessionalclassfamily.Therewasdivisionoflabourinthehousehold
tasks.Bothinthecontextofthestatuswereequal,andthus,theyarecalledasSymmmetrical
families. Even today we see these families in the middle class among the professionals.
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ne principle that works in such families is ST RATIFIED DIFFUSION: in social stratification,
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whatever has been done by the upper classes, may be done by the lower classes later.
Through this concept, they envisage the 4th stage
4 . Managing Directors: Professional status takes over the household status. Typical
patriarchal society where the higher posts are occupied by the male populace, we see that
husbandsaremoreengagedinthepublicsphereofwork.Butwomenaremoreengagedinthe
household work.
his was what was visualized by the theorists and a lot of analysts believe that this is the
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situation in the contemporary world.
Answer Writing:
First write basic postulates of the theory and then write the analysis
KINSHIP
What are the structures & rules of kinship?
his is despite the understanding thatformalrelationshipsaretakingprecedenceoverother
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forms of relationships like those established on the basis of blood or marriage.
A
R DCLIFFE BR
OWN – a veryfamousanthropologistdefinedKinshipthus:“Itisasystemof
dynamic relationship between the personandpersoninacommunity.Thebehaviourofany
two persons in anyoftheserelationsbeingregulatedinthesamewayandtogreaterorless
extent by the social uses.”
Types of Kins:
On the basis of the kinship relationship, we can understand the network of relationships.
There are two types of lineages:
Unilineal: Matrilineal & Patrilineal – where onlyone is selected
Bilateral/Bilineal:Where ancestry is traced throughboth matriliny and patriliny
What are the types of kins?
rimary: Primary group → Primary kins in the family. There are 8 types of these
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relationships.Husband&Wife,Father&Son,Father&Daughter,Mother&Son,Mother&
Daughter, Brother-Brother, Brother-Sister, Sister-Sister
Secondary:There are 33 types of kinship
Example: Mother’s brother, brother’s wife, sister’s husband,
Tertiary:Secondary kin of primary kin
xample: Father’s brother’s son, wife’s brother’s son. → there are 151 such networks
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possible according to anthropologists.
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tructures of Unilineal Groups: They form the kinship’s basic structures. First there is
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lineage→clan(smallestgroup–similartoGotrainHindusociety–peopleknoweachother
& they can trace their ancestors) → Moiety (when tribes are divided
oiety(biggeronewhichtracesthelineageofthetribebydistinguishingthetribeintotwo:a
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descentgroupthatcoexistswithonlyoneotherdescentgroupwithinasociety.Insuchcases,
the community usually has unilineal descent (either patri- or matrilineal) so that any
individual belongs to one of the two moiety groups by birth, and all marriages take place
between members of opposite moieties. It is an exogamous clan system with only two clans)
Phratry (Bigger than clan, composed of different clans – where we don’t know each other)
c lan(smallestgroup–similartoGotrainHindusociety–peopleknoweachother&theycan
trace their ancestors)
Rules or Kinship Uses
6 Rules
1 . Rule of Avoidance: In a close relationship, you are avoiding or keeping a distance
between two relationships. Especially, in opposite-sexrelationships.Example:father-in-law
and daughter-in-law + son-in-lawandmother-in-lawmaintaindistancetoavoidharmonyof
that relationship.
ukafirtribe:Soninlawisnotsupposedtoseethefaceofthefatherinlawandmotherin
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law
I nsometribalpopulations,therearesometraditionsthatasoninlawisnotsupposedtosee
the face of the mother-in-law until they have a child.
2 . Joking Relationship:Ahealthierrelationship,asoftkindofrelationship,whereyoucan
enjoy each other (in a very positive manner); these are safety valves according to
xample: Jija-saali relationship + Devar-babhi relationship: you can gossip withthemand
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have fun.
I n Orans of Orissa, relationship between grandparents and grandchildren is also of such
nature.
I nFijiisland,son-in-lawhavesucharelationshipwithfather-in-law.→Itleadstoanimplicit
intimacy of a relationship
3. Teknoymi:Giving respect to another such that youdon’t utter their name.
xample: In India, sometimes, wives don’t say the name of the husbands. Such kinds of
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traditions are also there in Australia, Britain etc
4 . Avunculate: The importance of the mother’s brother in the society – especially in
matriarchal societies.
5 . Amitate: Importance of father’ssister(Bua)inthefamily–forexample:Buanamesthe
child
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6 .Covade:Relationshipbetweenhusbandandwife,forexample:ifthewifeispregnant,she
isnottodohardlabour,andsheistolivealifeofhardrestrictionswithregardtofoodetc.In
some societies the husband also does the same and supports the wife.
[One Day Missed]
SOCIAL MO
BILITY
ocial Stratification according to the functionalist perspective, serves the harmony of the
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society, but from the conflict perspective, it leads to conflict in society.
ocialMobility:Whetherthesocietyprovidesapersonmobilityinthesocialhierarchyfrom
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up to down or down to up?
Social Mobility may be of different types:
( a) Vertical Mobility: When there is a change in the status of the individual. Example:A
person from a lower caste becomes an IAS officer.
( b) Horizontal Mobility: There is no change in the status but there is a change in the
position. Example: If a lecturer in NLU goes to CLC DU and becomes a lecturer there.
Another kind of classification, is:
( a)Inter-generational:Mobilityishappeningfromonegenerationtotheother.Forexample,
when father is a clerk and the son becomes an IAS officer.
( b) Intragenerational: In the lifetime of one individual, the changes that happen. For
example, if you are a student now, and you may become the partner of a law firm later.
Examples of Group Mobility:
1. T he relevance of intragenerational comesinthecontextofgroup’ssocialmobility–
for example in Sanskritization.
2. Example of Reservation
3. Conversion of religion by lower-caste persons
4. Example of landless labourers getting land through the Land Reforms as a group
sperSorokin,thereisnosocialstratawheresocialmobilityistotallyclosed.Anexample
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may be of Indian society, where the caste society would technically not allow for social
mobility. However, in Sanskritization, there is no structural change, but the perception of
changeisthere–youaretryingtochangetheperceptionofyourgroup.Throughthis,thereis
a social mobility.
What are the factors that help in social mobility?
1. Education:With the help of Education, you canalter your realities and situation.
2 .Skill&Training:Occupationaltypeofeducationwhichgivesyoucertainskillsrendering
you with a status. Example: A domestic worker gets a
3 . Urbanization: Metro-cities provide you ample opportunities to change yourlives.They
are class-based socieities which are “open societies”
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Sociology I Lecture Notes
Summer Semester (July 2023 – November 2023)
4 .Legislation:Lawcanalsochangethestatusofaperson.Forexample:33%ofreservation
for women in the Parliament + woman-centric legislation which change the status of a
woman in the family.
5 . Industrialization: It opens a lot of doors for changes, as people can get jobs and get
income
6. Modernization:More technology and advancement.Some techno-cities
2 TYPES OF ST RATIFICATION
tratificationisinevitableinsociety,buttherearediverseformsofstratification:Race-based,
S
Caste-based, Class-based.
1. Caste:
This is a stratification that is peculiar to India
I t’s a closed status-group. By birth, your identity is fixed. (Though some thinkers feelthat
Sanskritization allows for some change, there is no structuralchangebutonlybehaviourial
change)
I n India, we had a Varna system which was a more openhierarchy.Heremovementfrom
one Varna to another waspossible.Ashudracouldalterhisstatus,andhehadoccupational
mobility.
lowly, especially afterManusmriti,thistransformedintoajatisystemwhichwasaclosed
S
and rigid system. A lot of exploitation was done of the lower-caste persons.
Characteristics of Caste
.S.GHURE saysthatCasteisaverticalandsegmentalstructure.→Differentdivisionsare
G
present in society which are castes and sub-castes which are segmented. These castes and
sub-castes are complicated networks present in India which are hierarchically arranged.
a) Segmental: There are different segments i.e. castes and sub-castes
b) Hierarchical: These different segments are hierarchically arranged.
omebelievethatthesystemisgraduallydoingawaywithcasteinequities,andfoodrelated
S
restrictions,marriagerelatedrestrictionsetc.arebeingdoneawaywith.Thisisespeciallyso
in urban-educated segments.
aste as a Segmental Division is still present in India. But Caste as a Hierarchical
C
Division may be withering away. Example: Generally, surnames and caste-names are the
same. This is not always so, but this is something that assigns the status.
2. Class
S
● tratification based on economic status.
● Judged from one’s Salary & Occupation
● Middle Class is divided into more segments: Upper-middle class & Lower-middle
Class Hierarchy
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Sociology I Lecture Notes
Summer Semester (July 2023 – November 2023)
1 . pper Class
U
2. Upper Middle-Class: Where luxuries become necessities, example: Acs, 4-wheelers.
3. Middle Class (Generally a professional class)
4. Lower Middle Class
5. Lower Class
There may be an objective or a subjective criterion to define class. An objective criteria
Subjective would imply class consciousness. Example: If NLUJ is seen as a class, (Check)
Class is an open group, that is particularly seen in urban areas.
COMPARISON BETWEEN CASTE AND CLASS
A
C STE CLASS
1. Caste is very particular and peculiar to 1. Universal
India
2. Ascribed status is given on the basis of . Class is seen as Achieved Status –
2
Caste. because of Social Mobility.
3.Closedgroup→“Closedclassisacaste” 3. Open group
as per D.N. Majumdar
4. Divine origin (It is said that inRigveda, 4. Secular in nature
in Purushsukta, ultimate reality is
symbolised as a body from whose parts the
ead → Brahmin
H
Shoulders → Kshatriya
Thighs (sustains) → Vaishya
Feet → Shudra (Service providers)
5. Related to purity & impurity concept → 5
. Rather than these, there are feelings of
The idea that thosewhoarepureare‘dwij’ disparity.
(twice born) – those who have janeu and
those who are impure.
ouis Dumont has studied the 5th Varna →
L
the Untouchables who were born from
pratilom marriages (womenofhighervarna
who married men of lower varna)
6.Greatersocialdistance–lessornosocial 6 . Less social distance – more social
mobility mobility
7. Endogamous (traditionally) 7. Exogamous (depends) – in social
practice, a person prefers to marry from
same status
8. Caste Consciousness → It may lead to 8. Class Consciousness → It is normally
imbalance and disharmony in society perceived as constructive.
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
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Sociology I Lecture Notes
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Though people might be equal, not everyone is the same. People can be differentiated on
variousgrounds.Equalityaimsatgivingexposureandopportunitytoall.Thereareprimarily
three types of differentiations present – Caste, Gender and Class based.
Talcott Parsons, who is a functionalist has propounded 3 criteria which makes society
functional. Differentiation is primarily seen to be extremely relative in nature.
● Quality
These refer to inborn qualities shaped by society. Personality traits like intellectual
capabilities are included in this category.
● Possession
Refers to possession of resources, money, for example.Itmayeitherbeacquiredor
ascribed. This determines the opportunities that the individual would have access to.
● Performance
Thisfactordetermineshowwelltheindividualactualiseshisqualitiesandpossessions
in the society.
Differentiation leads to stratification or layering. Society places people in positions or
statusesonthebasisofcriterialikeclass,caste,race,gender,age,etc.onthebasisofthis,a
hierarchy is formed. Though we feel equalityshouldexist,thislayeringisafact.Thecaste
system is a good example of this.
Nimkoffdefinedstratificationastheprocessbywhichindividualsandgroupsarerankedina
more or less enduring hierarchy of status. Diverse forms of stratification exist.Racebased
stratificationandcastebasedstratificationinIndiaareexamples.Weaimtoendcertaintypes
of stratification, i.e., the social recognition of the differentiation. For example, caste based
discrimination. This is done through laws, social activism etc.
FEATURES OF STRATIFICATION
● Universal
Itisanancient,universalconcept.Itmaytakediverseformsindifferentsocieties,but
is found universally nonetheless.
● Social
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Sociology I Lecture Notes
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The layering is social in nature and not a natural consequence. Qualities may be
inborn,buttheacknowledgmentofthesequalitiesisdonebythesociety.Ittakesplace
onlywhenthedifferentiationisrecognisedbysociety.(Differentiation+Recognition
= Stratification). For example, intellectual qualities are placed above the artistic
qualities.
● Consequentialist
Stratification is co-relative to many other factors.Therefore,stratificationaffectsall
the other aspects of the life. Thus, it can be calledconsequentialist,asitaffectsthe
individual’s opportunities and life chances.
FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE OF ST RATIFICATION
[ Readin-depthfromHarlambos]Accordingtothefunctionalistperspective,everyelementof
society has some purpose; and every society has pre-requisite. Stratification would help in
maintaining the harmony or balance in society.4 thinkers:
1 . TalcottParsons:Ithelpsusunderstandthevalueconsensusofthesociety.Everysociety
has certainsharedvaluesandprestigeisassociatedwiththesevalues.Forexample,intribal
societies,braveryhashighvalue.Whensuchavaluewillbefollowed,thenitwillbehighly
appreciated and rewarded.
e has given the example of American society (which is capitalist)whereintelligenceand
H
hard-workhavealotofvalue.Apersonwhohasaspecializedskillwillbeplacedhigherup
in the hierarchy.
2 .KingsleyDavis&Moore:Theirtheoryisaveryfamoustheoryandtheyhavepublisheda
bookthePrincipleofStratification.TheytalkabouttheRoleAllocationtheory.Everysociety
has certain roles, and these roles must be filled by themostappropriatepersonsinsociety.
For this, there must also be training. Example: Doctors’ skills are more specialized. Inthe
Stratification pattern, we would place doctors higher than nurses.
How will we decide which role is important?
1 ) Uniqueness: Some roles are unique and other persons cannot be invoked for the same.
Example: Doctor’s role.
2 ) Dependence: To what extent the role is depend on the other. Example: Manager & the
Labourer in the Factory – Labour’s role isdependentupontheManagersbutManagersare
less dependent on the Labourers.
3 .Tumin:HewasoneofthemostimportantsourcesofthecritiqueofMooreandDavis:He
asked how will you decide which role is more important. Roles are not important because
they have some functional importance but it depends on which group hasmorebargaining
power.
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Sociology I Lecture Notes
Summer Semester (July 2023 – November 2023)
xample: Labourers may have more organized unionism, which leads to a tilt in the
E
bargaining power.
If government provides some policies to give basic necessary help
4 . Michel Young: He also critiqued Davis & Moore. He talked about skill in terms of
meritocracy. Merit of the particular individuals helps him reaching at that position
xample:Doctor’spositionisimportantbecausehehasmerit.Itshouldnotlookatfunctional
E
utility or the uniqueness but because of the person’s merit.
Example: The criticism of the Reservation Policies.
5 .EvaRosenfelt:Thebasicquestionisthatwhetherinafunctionalmodel,isanegalitarian
society possible? In Israel, Kibinzo have common socialization where children live in
dormitoriesandtheyshareeverything.Hehastriedtofindout,eveninthisegalitarian,there
areinequities.Inthedecisionmakingprocess–intheory,everyonehasachance,butintruth,
some persons who are higher in the gradation have this power.
Therefore, stratification is inevitable and universal.
CA IV
Summary of the Movie: Storyline
Our Analysis
Remaining 3 Pages: Social Issues
Despite the fact that both are cobblers, the ones who have control over the factory production,
hecapitalistsexploitthelabourerclasseswhoseconditionsareverypathetic.Withinthese,a
T
consciousness develops and they revolt.
Karl Marx’s concept of class conflict was always present in his
Production process
axWebersaysthatclassisdeterminedbasedonwhatisthemarketpositionoftheperson.
M
It refers to the development that has happenedinthesociety.Thesocietyisnolongeronly
just divided on the basis of economic class.
There is a growing professional class whose main asset is their skills on the basis of which
Upper Class – Property
Working Class – Skills (This middle stratum is increasing day by day)
Labourers – Lowest form of skill
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Sociology I Lecture Notes
Summer Semester (July 2023 – November 2023)
I n this manner, the society is stratified. He says that stratification is present in the society
based on the market position.
tratification is presenteveninsocialistcountries–theyalsohaveupper,middleandlower
S
class→Readthebook.Thereisthusnosocietywheresocialstratificationisnotthere.This
helps in appreciating Talcott Parsons’ functionalist perspective that stratification is inevitable.
13/10/23
espite all the forcesthattrytomaintainharmonyinsociety,certainsocialnormsmaystill
D
be violated in society. We called this non-abidance deviance.
In sociology, Durkheim talked about deviance → when the social norms are breached.
We are not saying that whatever is there in the society is correct, but we are saying that
“Deviance is given to any failure to conform to the customary norms.” –HAWTHORNE & HUNT
The functionalist model says that there is essential harmony in society.
E RTON talked about social deviance and he categorized different deviant individuals.
M
Americancapitalistsocietyhasbeenseenasonethatprescribescertainlegitimategoalsand
certain legitimate means to achieve those goals. [Achieving material wealth through
individual efforts]
I f wecompletelyconformtothesegoalsandthemeansgivenbythesociety,thenyouarea
conformist.Butifyouarenotconforming,thenyouareadeviant.Therearethus5typesof
people:
1 . C onformists
2. “Innovatives”:Whochoosethelegitimateaimbutnotchangingthesociallyaccepted
means. Example: Corruption
3. Ritualism:Theygiveuptheendbuttheyenduptherightcourseofmeans.Example:
who are not concerned with accumulation of excess wealth, but still they work
because they like working.
4. Rebellion:Giveuptheendsandthemeansbuttheysearchfornewendsandmeans.
Example: Entrepreneurs who start a new lifestyle
5. Retreatism: Those who reject both ends and means. Example: drug addicts,
alcoholics
WHAT FACTORS AFFECT DEVIANCE?
1. F aultinSocialization:IfSocializationisatrainingprogramme,ifitislearningofthe
norms of the society, it will lead to deviance.
2. Weak Sanctions & Poor Enforcement: When we talk about rewards and
punishments, we call them sanctions. Whentheyarepoorlyenforced,thendeviance
happens. Example: In Sociology class, anyone can enter at any time.
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Sociology I Lecture Notes
Summer Semester (July 2023 – November 2023)
3. E ase of Rationalization: When you are not in a position to achieve the ends, you
rationalize. Example: Why am I getting low marks? Because of the teacher. OR
Justification for the corrupt behaviour of police → Low salary
4. SubcultureSupportingDeviance:Somesubculturesmayjustifyandsupportdeviant
behaviour. Example: Gangs supporting violence.
WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DEVIANCE?
1. D eviancemaybeinterpretedasasafetyvalve:whentherearesomeloopholesinthe
society. It helps us recognize these gaps, and the need to change the rules.
2. Deviance unites the group. It leads people to preserve the norms that are close to
them. It brings solidarity and unity in the group.
16/10/23
IF WE UNDERSTAND DEVIANCE AS ASSOCIATED WITH SANCTIONS,
i. eviantActisRewarded:Inabattleground,ifasoldiertriestosavehiscountryby
D
doing something different from the norm → deviance is there here but he will be
getting praised and not negative sanction
ii. DeviantActisPunished:Amurderer→devianceisthereandhewillgivenegative
sanction
iii. DeviantActisneitherRewardednorPunished:Theremayathirdcategorywhere
anindividualisdeviatingfromthenormalcourseofsocietybutsocietymaytolerate
it. →Example:Ifapersonisinthehabitofkeepingpetsinhishouse–thismaybe
deviant conduct but he may not get any sort of sanctions.
DEVIANCE IS A RELATIVE CONCEPT:It depends on theparticular culture,particular timeetc.
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT THEORIES OF DELINQUENCY?
rime &delinquencycanbetwotypesofdeviance.Crimewouldrefertothelegaldomain.
C
Delinquency is specifically the acts done by young generation.
Sociological theories on crime came as a reaction to other theories of crime.
HYSIOLOGICAL TH
P EORY: Biological make-up of the personality → Different scholars were
trying to find out why crime takes place and initially it was thoughtthatcertainbiological
make-ups inherently are inclined towards criminal tendenies.
Example:
O
L MBRASAU triedtofindoutthecorrelationbetweenthebiologicalcharacteristicsand
criminal tendencies→Broad,tall,weighty→BiologicalCharacteristicsmaynotbe
cause of the crimebut they may be the pre-decidingfactors
HELDON & GU
S EEK: There is a correlation between physical build & delinquency.
Mesomorphic (long, tall, strength) have a delinquent personality according to him.
EISENCK hastalkedabouttheclassificationonthebasisofpersonality(extraversion–
o r extroverts) that extroverts are more inclined towards delinquency and crime.
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Sociology I Lecture Notes
Summer Semester (July 2023 – November 2023)
OCIOLOGISTS would rebut this by saying that such tendencies may arise because of some
S
sub-cultures, which living together may get a similar build up but there is no correlation.
SYCHOLOGICAL TH
P EORY:Abnormalexperiencesofthedelinquentperson→Theytalkabout
the delinquent as the normal and abnormal person.
M
● aladjustment to the situations which he has
● Problems in the socialization
O
B WLBY: If we think of a child – he needs parental supervision, love & affection in his
upbringing, but especially from the mother. But if this is not given, this is leading up to
abnormal tendencies which leads to criminal inclinations.
O
R BERT ANDRY:talksaboutthepossibilityofachildhasissueswiththefigureofafather→
troubled relationship withfather→inclinationtowardscrime→theymayhaveissueswith
dealing with authoritative figures
HOW DO FU
NCTIONALISTS UNDERSTAND DEVIANCE?
ccording to EM
A ILE DU
RKHEIM, deviance is an inevitable and normal phenomenon. It is
functionalthus:Itservesapurpose.Itactsasasafetyvalve.Example:Prostitution,according
tofunctionalistsisfunctionalforthesocietybecauseithelpsmenreleasetheirstress,andthus
it contributes to the family harmony.
They indicate towards certain maladjustments
E RTON talks about one of the most influential theories of Deviance→Ittalksabouthow
M
socialstructuresgeneratedeviance.HeistalkingabouttheAmericansociety.Therearesome
legitimate opportunity structures. There are some ends prescribed by society and there are
somepeoplewhomaynotconformtothelegitimatemeansorends.Theythus,deviatefrom
these.
How do Social Structures Generate Deviance → The question that Merton addresses.
O
C HEN gives a Structural-Functionalist perspective. He criticizes Merton and he says that
delinquencyisnotanindividualresponsetothecertainnormsprescribedbythesociety.Itis
a collective response. He has tried to work on the non-utilitarian crime.
When he says non-utilitarian crime, he is referring to the American Dream of creating wealth.
How is Crime collectively committed?
oung generation of the lower strata of the society have STATUS FRUSTRATION, as they are
Y
deprived of essential means. This precludes them from achieving the ends with legitimate
means.DuetoStatusFrustration,theyturnupsidedownthenormsoftheworkingclass.For
example, they may legitimize violence.
ILLER says that theyarenotreallychangingthenorms.TheseareinherenttoLowerclass
M
sub-culture norms. Cohen says that there is status frustration which leads them to develop
this.ButMillerissayingitexistsbeforeitself.Violence,threatening,extortion,-allofthese
are the norms of the lower class.
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Sociology I Lecture Notes
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L OWARD & OH
C LIN: They discuss about legitimate opportunity structures → and the
illegitimateopportunity structures. At three stages,these may be present:
1 . C riminal Sub-culture: Where your surroundings fromthe very inception is such
2. Conflict sub-culture: Where criminal sub-culture isnot there.
3. Retreatists:Theyhaveneitherlegitimateorillegitimateopportunitystructures.They
are simply drop-outs
Ecological theory- Chicago school of thought
Two sociologists - relationship between deviance and environment
Shaw and Mckqy
Tried to Understand ecological set up of cities - Chicago
D
● ivided the city into 5 zones
● Tried to see the relationship between ecology and deviance
● The middle zome is called the zone 1 and then divided into different zones towards
the outskirts
● High number of population- chances of committing crime are more
● The lower class- white and black migrants - compared from perspective of economy-
having lesser chances of survivi- chances of commitment of crime- deviance and
crime reduced
● Conducted also in the various major cities - how demographic of the cities - how
ecology is related to deviance
● Also called social disorganisation theory
● Other thinkers criticise it saying that this is a king of titology but still higiged as for
the first time talking about ecology ans deviance
● From zome of comcertatiijb to zome of transition
David Metza’s Theory of Neutralisation
I t talks about how to rationalise the things
●
● You blame the others
● You are accepting the mainstream norms- because you have a sense of guilt that yoy
are not able to perform the mainstream norm, so you provide the justification and
ratioanalise the things
● You blame the norm, but don’t reject rather accept it
heories of functionalism- over
T
Read harlombus for all the theories covered in class
Conflict school of thought - also read
99
Sociology I Lecture Notes
Summer Semester (July 2023 – November 2023)
100
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