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1
 Exam 3 Information
• Exam Date: Wednesday Dec. 4, 6 -7:25 pm.
• Conflict Exam, Thursday Dec. 5, 6 – 7:25 pm.
➢Available to students with legitimate time conflict with regularly
scheduled exam.
➢You must submit a request to your section professor and Prof. Ciolek by
email by 5 pm Monday, Dec. 2 that you would like to take the conflict
exam and state the reason why.
➢We reserve the right to deny a student from taking the conflict exam if it
is determined that there is not a legitimate reason for taking the exam at
that alternate time, or if they have not submitted a request from
instructors in advance, as required above.
• Students with accommodations
➢Remind your section instructor of your exam accommodations.
➢Exam will be taken in 2C14 of the J-Rowl Science Center. Bring a copy of
your official notice of accommodations to the exam room.
➢Start at the regular time and submit at the agreed time.
2
 Exam 3 Information (2)

• Allowed resources –
➢You may use you a calculator with capabilities and functions up
to the TI-Nspire. Devices with communication/internet capability
are not allowed.
➢You are allowed a single 8.5′′ × 11′′ sheet of paper (both sides)
crib sheet. Must be a single piece of paper – no taped or stapled
pages.
➢Writing instruments (pencils, pens). For pens, darker inks are
preferred. Red ink is not allowed.
• A short table of physical constants (same as done for Exams
1 & 2) will be included on the first page of the Exam 3 test
booklet.

3
 Exam 3 Information (3)
• Exam will focus on topics presented in classes 17, 18, and 20-
24 (today’s topic).
• Exam Structure
➢Multiple choice and numerical short answer questions for ~ 70%
to 80% of exam pts.
✓ ~ ½ conceptual and scaling questions
✓ ~ ½ numerical solution
➢Free response questions for the remaining % of exam pts.
• Good resources
➢MasteringPhysics: Lecture quizzes; Practice Problems; Homework
➢Exam Archives (LMS)
➢Activity worksheets
➢Lecture slides
➢Text
• Monitor your email and LMS announcements for exam
information and updates.
4
 Physics 1200
Lecture 24
Spring 2024
Photons, Photon Energy – Photoelectric Effect,
Photon Momentum – Compton Effect

5
 Einstein & The Photoelectric Effect

• In 1921 Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. In the citation
for his prize, it was stated that he was receiving the award based on his
“services in theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the
law of the photoelectric effect”.
➢ There was no explicit mention of the theory of relativity – special or
general – by the committee that awarded him the prize. A lot of people
even then still had problems accepting relativity.
➢ Einstein presented his theory for the explanation of the photoelectric
effect in 1905, the same year he put forth the theory of relativity
(including the mass-energy relation), and a landmark paper on his theory
of Brownian motion (i.e., the random, jittery motion of very small objects
in a fluid). 1905 was an incredibly productive year for Einstein (and for
Physics). 1905 sometimes referred to as Einstein’s “Annus Mirabilis”
(Miracle Year).

6
 The Photoelectric Effect Experiment

• Earliest experiments investigating

this by H. Hertz (1887, who also Anode Cathode
experimentally verified Maxwell’s
prediction of emission of
electromagnetic waves by
accelerated charges), and by P.
Lenard (1900).

7
 The Photoelectric Effect Experiment-Analysis

• To escape from a surface, an

electron must absorb enough
energy from the incident light to
overcome the attraction of
positive ions in the material.
• Attractions constitute a potential-
energy barrier; the light supplies
the “kick” that enables the
electron to escape.
• Ejected electrons form what is
called a photocurrent.

8
 The Photoelectric Effect Experiment-Analysis (2)
• Electrons are ejected from the illuminated
emitter plate (cathode) & travel to the
Cathode
collector plate (anode). Anode
• Energy of freed electrons is conserved. For
electrons travelling from cathode (C) to
anode (A), conservation of energy gives:
𝐾C − 𝑒𝑉C = 𝐾A − 𝑒𝑉A
⇒ 𝐾A = 𝐾C + 𝑒 𝑉A − 𝑉C = 𝐾C + 𝑒𝑉AC ,
𝐾 is the kinetic energy, 𝑉 is the electric
potential at A or C, and 𝑉𝐴𝐶 ≡ 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐶 .

• When battery polarity is reversed (shown in figure), the potential between the plates
slows down electrons approaching anode. The stopping potential 𝑉0 = −𝑉AC is the
potential that just stops the current from getting to the anode, that is, the potential
that causes 𝐾A = 0.
➢ The maximum kinetic energy of the ejected cathode electrons for that case is
𝐾C,max + 𝑒𝑉𝐴𝐶 = 0 ⇒ 𝐾C,max = −𝑒𝑉AC = 𝑒𝑉0 ⇒ 𝐾C,max = 𝑒𝑉0 .

9
 The Photoelectric Effect Experiment – Key Results
1. Photocurrent depends on light frequency. For a given material, monochromatic
light with a frequency below a minimum threshold frequency produces no
photocurrent, regardless of intensity. (Contrary to EM wave prediction: intensity of
light is proportional to the square of the electric field amplitude, independent of
frequency.)
2. No measurable time delay between when light is turned on and when cathode
emits photoelectrons (when the light frequency exceeds the threshold). Found
true no matter how faint the light is. (Contrary to EM wave prediction: energy
absorbed by an electron is the time integral of absorbed power. Should be a time
delay for absorption of sufficient energy to eject an electron from the metal.)
3. Stopping potential does not depend on intensity but does depend on frequency.
Only effect of increasing intensity is to increase the number of electrons per
second, and hence, the photocurrent 𝑖. The greater the light frequency, the greater
the energy of the ejected photoelectrons. (Contrary to EM wave model prediction:
intensity of EM wave is proportional to electric field amplitude, and the electric
field does work on the electron in the metal that causes it to be ejected. Hence,
higher intensity should result in electrons with greater kinetic energy when ejected
– thus requires greater stopping potential to halt current.)

10
 Photocurrent in Photoelectric Effect Experiments

• Graphs show photocurrent as a

function of potential difference
𝑉AC for light of a given frequency
and two different intensities.
• The reverse potential
difference −𝑉0 needed
to reduce the current to
zero is the same for
both intensities.

11
 Einstein’s Proposal: Photons
• To explain the photoelectric effect, Einstein made the radical postulate that a
beam of light consists of small, discreet packages of energy called photons, or
quanta. (“Quanta” is the plural form of “quantum”.) He also postulated:
➢ Photons in vacuum travel at the speed of light in vacuum, 𝑐. They have zero mass.
➢ The energy of an individual photon is:
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = ,
𝜆
𝑓 and 𝜆 are the frequency and wavelength of the photon (same as for the
electromagnetic wave associated with the photon) , and ℎ is Planck’s constant
(ℎ = 6.626 × 10−34 J ⋅ s, in SI units), also known as the “quantum of action”.
• The fundamental physical constant ℎ was first proposed and calculated by Max
Planck (1900) to solve the inability of classical electromagnetic wave theory to
explain “cavity radiation” (radiation in thermal equilibrium with matter in a
cavity, also called “blackbody radiation”).
➢ Planck’s cavity radiation solution was the first major step toward the theory of
quantum mechanics. He won the Nobel Prize in Physics for this work in 1918.
➢ Einstein’s photon hypothesis was a dramatic extension of Planck’s idea. It was the
second major step on the road toward quantum mechanics.
12
 Einstein’s Proposal: Photons (2)
• Individual photon arriving at a surface is
absorbed by a single electron.
• Einstein proposed the maximum kinetic
energy of ejected photoelectrons from a
surface is
𝐾C,max = 𝑒𝑉0 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙 ,
𝜙 is the work function of a metal, which is
an indication of the energy needed to eject
electrons from the bulk metal.
• Electron can escape from the surface
(𝐾C,max > 0) only if the energy it absorbs is
greater than the work function 𝜙.
➢ Explains how energy of emitted electrons in
the photoelectric effect depends on light
frequency: the greater the work function of a
material, the greater the minimum frequency
needed to emit photoelectrons. Thus, there is
a threshold frequency.
13
 Einstein’s Photon Proposal: Verified by Millikan

• R. A. Millikan performed
photoelectric experiments
attempting to disprove (!!!)
Einstein’s photon hypothesis.
• He performed the experiment
sketched in the figure on the
preceding slide (which is also
be doing in your lab today).
Shown is a hand-drawn graph
of his experimental data.

• He found that his data could be used to calculate ℎ, as predicted by Einstein.

• He was very disappointed in his experimental result: he thought that it couldn’t
be correct, because it contradicted the electromagnetic wave theory of light.
• He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1923, partly for his photoelectric
effect experiment, and for his experiment that was the first to calculate the
charge of an electron (the ‘oil-drop experiment’).
14
Work Functions

15
 EM Wave Intensity in the Photon Description
• When discussing EM waves, we introduced wave intensity:
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝐸𝑀 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦)
Intensity 𝐼 = = .
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒)(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎)

• For photons, this could be written using the following considerations:

➢ The energy of a single photon is 𝐸𝛾 = ℎ𝑓 .
(Because photons are relativistic particles, 𝛾 is often used as the symbol
to denote a photon.)
➢ If there are 𝑁𝛾 photons in the EM wave, all having the same frequency
𝑓, the total EM wave energy = 𝑁𝛾 ℎ𝑓.
➢ Follows that, when using the photon description, the intensity is
𝑁𝛾 ℎ𝑓 𝑁𝛾
𝐼= = ℎ𝑓 = 𝐹𝛾 𝐸𝛾 , where
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎) 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

(𝑁𝛾 )
𝐹𝛾 = = photon flux.
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

16
 Concept Question
A photoelectric cell is illuminated by light of wavelength 𝜆 and a
photocurrent 𝑖 is observed under forward bias. One way to double the
current is to
A. Halve the wavelength 𝜆 .
B. Halve the photon flux.
C. Double the voltage bias.
D. Double the wavelength 𝜆.
E. Double the photon flux.

17
 Concept Question Solution
The photocurrent is given by the relation
𝑑𝑁𝑒 𝑑𝑁𝑒
𝑖=𝑒 , where = number of emitted photoelectrons/sec.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
For every emitted photoelectron, one photon was absorbed.
𝑑𝑁𝑒 𝑑𝑁𝛾
⇒ = = rate at which photons are incident on the photoelectric cell.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
For a photocell with a fixed area,
𝑑𝑁𝛾
= 𝐹𝛾 𝐴𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 , where 𝐴𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = surface area of photocell, and
𝑑𝑡
𝐹𝛾 = incident photon flux.
𝑑𝑁𝛾
∴𝑖∝ ∝ 𝐹𝛾
𝑑𝑡
⇒ To double 𝑖 , must double 𝐹𝛾 .

Answer: Double the photon flux (E).

18
 Photon Momentum
• Last class we derived the relativistic energy-momentum relation:
𝐸 2 = 𝑝𝑐 2
+ 𝑚𝑐 2 2
.
Relation shows that every object having energy also has momentum.
• Because they travel at the speed of light, photon mass 𝑚 = 0.
• Follows that, for photons, 𝐸 2 = 𝑝𝑐 2

𝐸 ℎ𝑓 ℎ
⇒ 𝑝= = = = magnitude of photon momentum.
𝑐 𝑐 𝜆
• The direction of the photon’s momentum is in the same direction as
the energy transport, which is the same as the direction that the wave
propagates (travels).

19
 Photon Momentum – The Compton Experiment
• In a 1922 experiment, A. Compton was
able to demonstrate for the first time
the particle-like effect of the
momentum of an X ray photon in an
electron-photon collision. The process
is now known as the “Compton effect,”
or “Compton scattering.”
➢ He was awarded the 1927 Nobel Prize
in Physics because of that experiment.
• In the Compton experiment, X rays are
scattered from electrons.
➢ Scattered X rays have longer
wavelengths than incident X rays, and
their scattered wavelength depends on
scattering angle 𝜙.

20
Photon Momentum – The Compton Experiment (2)
• In Compton scattering, an incident
photon collides with an electron
that is initially at rest.
➢ The photon gives up part of its
energy and momentum to the
electron, which recoils as a result
of this impact.
➢ Scattered photon flies off at an
angle ϕ with respect to the
incident direction, but it has less
energy and less momentum than
the incident photon.
➢ ∴ The wavelength of the scattered
photon 𝜆′ is longer (greater) than
the wavelength 𝜆 of the incident
photon.

21
Photon Momentum – The Compton Experiment (3)
• Using conservation of total momentum-energy of the X ray and electron
system, the change in the wavelength of the scattered photon is
ℎ
𝜆′ − 𝜆 = (1 − cos 𝜙) ,
𝑚𝑐
where 𝜆 = wavelength of the X ray photon before collision,
𝜆′ = wavelength of the photon after collision,
𝜙 = angle photon has been scattered with respect to its initial
direction of propagation,
𝑚 = electron mass,
𝑐 = speed of light, and
ℎ = Planck’s constant.
ℎ
➢ Note: = 2.426 × 10−12 m. This quantity is referred to as the
𝑚𝑐
“Compton wavelength”.

22
 Photon Properties: Summary

Photons are electromagnetic wave (light) quanta. Have the following

characteristic properties.
• Energy: 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑐/𝜆 .
• Momentum magnitude: 𝑝 = ℎ/𝜆 .
• Wavelength: 𝜆 = ℎ𝑐/𝐸 .
• Frequency: 𝑓 = 𝐸/ℎ .
• Mass: 𝑚 = 0 .
• Propagation speed: 𝑣 = 𝑐 .

23
 Terms You Should Know

• Photon – a quantum of electromagnetic radiation

• Photon Flux – the number of photons passing through a unit area per
unit time (units: m−2 s −1 ).
• Photoelectric effect – ejection of an electron from a material when
photons of sufficient energy strike the surface
• Work function – the minimum amount of energy a photon must have to
eject an electron from a given material.
• Planck’s constant – the ratio of the energy of a photon to its
characteristic frequency.
• Compton scattering – scattering of a photon from an electron,
conserving momentum and energy.

24
 Light: Waves or Particles?

• Physical experiments reveal that light has a dual nature: a “wave-particle

duality.”
• No single model or interpretation (EM wave model, photon particle-like
model) suffices in describing all physically observed aspects of light
(propagation, interaction with matter, etc.).
• It comes down to: what sort of experiment is being performed?
➢ If an experiment is designed to observe the wave-like properties of light, the
wave-like properties of light (e.g., two-slit interference, diffraction etc.) are in
fact observed.
➢ If an experiment is designed to observe the particle-like properties of light, the
particle-like aspects of light (e.g., photoelectric effect, Compton scattering,
etc.) are in fact observed.

25
 Discussion Question 1

Light in beam A has a wavelength that is twice that in beam B. The energy
of a photon in beam A is
A. Twice that in beam B.
B. Half that in beam B.
C. The same as that in beam B.
D. Depends on intensity.

26
 Discussion Question 1 Solution

Photon energy:
ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝛾 = ℎ𝑓 = .
𝜆
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
⇒ 𝐸𝛾𝐴 = , 𝐸𝛾𝐵 = .
𝜆𝐴 𝜆𝐵
For 𝜆𝐴 = 2𝜆𝐵 ,
𝐸𝛾𝐴 ℎ𝑐/𝜆𝐴 𝜆𝐵 𝜆𝐵 1
= = = =
𝐸𝛾𝐵 ℎ𝑐/𝜆𝐵 𝜆𝐴 2𝜆𝐵 2
𝐸𝛾𝐵
⇒ 𝐸𝛾𝐴 = .
2

Answer: The energy of a photon in beam A is half that of a photon in beam B (A).

27
 Discussion Question 2

The energy in eV of a photon in a red beam of light of wavelength 620 nm

is closest to:
A. 0.020 eV.
B. 2.0 eV.
C. 200 eV.
D. 2.0 × 104 eV.

28
 Discussion Question 2 Solution
m
ℎ𝑐 6.63×10−34 J⋅s 3×108 1 eV
s
𝐸𝛾 = ℎ𝑓 = = = 2.01 eV.
𝜆 620×10−9 m 1.6×10−19 J

29
 Discussion Question 3

A beam of light with wavelength 𝜆 and intensity 𝐼0 has a photon flux 𝐹0 . If

the wavelength is halved, but the intensity remains the same, what is the
new flux?
𝐹0
A. .
4
𝐹0
B. .
2
C. 𝐹0 .
D. 2𝐹0 .

30
 Discussion Question 3 Solution

Beam intensity:
ℎ𝑐
𝐼 = 𝐸𝛾 𝐹𝛾 = 𝐹𝛾 . (Light of single wavelength: “monochromatic.”)
𝜆
ℎ𝑐
𝐼0 = 𝐹𝛾0 .
𝜆0
ℎ𝑐
𝐼 𝐹 𝜆0 𝐹𝛾 𝜆 𝐼
𝜆 𝛾
= ℎ𝑐
= ⇒ 𝐹𝛾 = 𝐹𝛾0
𝐼0 𝐹 𝜆 𝐹𝛾0 𝜆0 𝐼0
𝜆0 𝛾0

For constant 𝐼, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 .
𝜆0
And, for 𝜆 = (doubles the energy of a photon),
2
𝐹𝛾0
⇒ 𝐹𝛾 = . ∴ Photon flux is halved.
2
𝐹0
Answer: 𝐹 = (B).
2

31
 Lecture Problem 1

When ultraviolet light with a wavelength of 400 nm falls on a certain

metal surface, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons
is 1.10 eV.
What is the kinetic energy if the wavelength is changed to 350 nm?

32
 Lecture Problem 1 Solution

Einstein photoelectric law:

ℎ𝑐
𝐾max = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙 = −𝜙.
𝜆
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
𝐾max0 = 𝜆0
−𝜙 ⇒ 𝜙= 𝜆0
− 𝐾max0
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
⇒ 𝐾max = − − 𝐾max0 = − 𝜆 + 𝐾max0
𝜆 𝜆0 𝜆 0

ℎ𝑐 𝜆
⇒ 𝐾max = 1−𝜆 + 𝐾max0 .
𝜆 0

∴ For 𝜆0 = 450 nm, 𝐾max0 = 1.10 eV,

m
6.63 × 10−34 J ⋅ s 3 × 108 350 × 10−9 m 1 eV
𝐾max = s 1− + 1.10 eV
350 × 10−9 m 400 × 10−9 𝑚 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽
⇒ 𝐾max = 1.54 eV.

33
 Lecture Problem 2

How many photoelectrons are

ejected per second in the
experiment represented by the
graph?

34
 Lecture Problem 2 Solution

𝑑𝑁𝑒
𝐼=𝑒
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁𝑒 𝐼 10×10−6 A
= = = 6.25 × 1013 s −1 .
𝑑𝑡 𝑒 1.60×10−19 C

35
 Lecture Problem 3

The wavelength for the

experiment shown was 413 nm.
How many photoelectrons per
second would be emitted if the
wavelength were 2480 nm?

36
 Lecture Problem 3 Solution
From graph, stopping potential:
𝑉0 = 2.0 V.
Einstein relation:
ℎ𝑐
𝐾max = 𝑒𝑉0 = −𝜙
𝜆
For 𝜆0 = 413 nm,
ℎ𝑐
𝜙= − 𝑒𝑉0 = work function of metal
𝜆

m
(6.63×10−34 J⋅s)(3×108 s ) 1 eV
𝜙= − 𝑒 2.0 V = 1.0 eV
(413×10−9 m) 1.60×10−19 J

Can ask: for this experiment, what is the threshold frequency (or wavelength, 𝜆𝑡 ) for ejection
of photoelectrons? Defined by relation:
m
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 6.63×10−34 J⋅s 3×108 s
𝐾max,t = 0 = − 𝜙 ⇒ 𝜆t = = = 1.24 × 10−6 m
𝜆𝑡 𝜙 (1 eV)(1.60×10−19 J/eV)

∴ 𝜆t = 1240 nm. For 𝜆 > 𝜆t , photons don’t have enough energy to eject electrons from the
metal.
⇒ For 𝜆 = 2480 𝑛𝑚 (> 𝜆t ) there is no current. No electrons are ejected from the metal.
37
 Lecture Problem 4

An LED emits 1W of optical power at 620 nm. How many photons

per second are emitted by the LED?

38
 Lecture Problem 4

Emitted LED power:

𝑑𝑁𝛾
𝑃 = 𝐸𝛾 . (Assuming all photons emitted have same wavelength.)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁𝛾 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃𝜆 (1.0 W)(620×10−9 m)
= = ℎ𝑐 = = m = 3.12 × 1018 s −1 .
𝑑𝑡 𝐸𝛾 ℎ𝑐 6.63×10−34 J⋅s 3×108 s
𝜆

39