CH1_CS01_MEASUREMENT AND EXPERIMENTATION

• Measurement: Measurement is the process of CHOICE OF A UNIT: A unit should possess the following • The symbols of the units do not take plural form.
comparing an unknown quantity with a known fixed characteristics to be chosen as a unit – • Symbols for derived units formed by multiplying the same
quantity. E.g., finding the length of a wire using a ruler. base unit with itself is expressed as the base unit raised to
• Should be of a convenient size
the appropriate power.
• Physical Quantity: A physical quantity is any physical • Should be possible to define the unit without ambiguity
• Should be reproducible • Symbols for derived units formed by multiplying two
property of a substance that can be quantified /
different base units are joined by a dot (.) or a space in
measured. E.g., length, mass, temperature etc. • Should not change with space and time
between each base unit.
• Fundamental Quantities: Fundamental or basic • Symbols for derived units formed by dividing two different
quantities are the quantities whose units cannot be Multiple & Sub-multiple units: Most units also have multiple base units are joined with the solidus (/). Sometimes the
obtained / derived from other units. E.g., mass, length, and sub-multiples so that larger and smaller quantities above symbol is written as the two units multiplied with
time and temperature are fundamental units. respectively can be measured and expressed easily. one another (with a dot or space in between) and the base
unit in the denominator is assigned a negative index.
• Derived Quantities: Derived quantities are those
quantities whose units are obtained/derived from other
units. E.g., speed, volume, area, density etc.
FUNDAMENTAL UNITS (SI SYSTEM)
• Unit: A unit is a standard measure or known fixed
measure of a physical quantity. E.g., length of a wire can
be expressed in the unit “centimetre.”

• A unit has two parts; a numeric value and a symbol for

the unit to indicate the quantity being measured.

SYSTEMS OF UNITS: Units can be measured using various

standardised systems: GUIDELINES OF WRITING UNITS
• The most commonly used one is the S.I. the • Every unit has an assigned symbol that must be used with a
International System of Units. The S.I. system extends space is left between the number and the symbol of the unit.
the metric system (MKS system). • Units named after scientists are not written with a capital
• The other commonly used system is the CGS initial letter. However, the symbol should be written by a
(centimetre-gram-second) system. French system capital letter or a combination of a capital letter and a small
• Another popular system is the FPS (foot-pound-second) letter. Symbols and names of units not named after a scientist
or British system. are written with small letters.

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TIME: S.I. unit: second (s): One second is the time interval LEAST COUNT: The least count of an instrument is the smallest The Vernier callipers was an instrument designed by French
of 9,192,631,770 vibrations of radiation corresponding to measurement that can be taken accurately with it. physicist Pierre Vernier. It has two scales – the main scale and
the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground the Vernier scale which slides over the main scale. The main
The smaller the least count of an instrument, the more accurate
state of cesium-133 atom. scale is like a regular metre scale whose smallest division is 1
the measurement made by using it.
mm. The Vernier scale generally has 10 divisions. There are
TEMPERATURE: S.I. unit: kelvin (K) E.g., for a metre rule the smallest measurement is one-tenth of two sets of jaws – two fixed and two movable ones.
o
Other units: Celsius ( C) and Fahrenheit ( F) o a centimetre or 1 mm. A stop watch has a least count of 0.5 s if
there are 10 divisions between the 0 s and 5 s mark. PARTS & FUNCTIONS
MASS: S.I. unit: kilogram (kg): One kilogram is defined as
the mass of a cylindrical piece of platinum-iridium alloy
kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures
at Sevres near Paris.

• Quintal: hundred times a kilogram

• Metric tonne: thousand times a kilogram
• Atomic mass unit (a.m.u): 1/12 the mass of a C-12 atom
MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH: Since the metre rule or student
LENGTH S.I. unit: metre (m): One metre is the distance scale is not precise, other instruments were developed to
1
travelled by light in of a second. measure length such as the Vernier Callipers and the Screw
3 × 108
Gauge.
• Astronomical Unit: mean distance between the earth
VERNIER CALLIPERS: Using a Vernier calliper, one can measure
and the sun. 1 AU = 1.496 x 1011 m
the thickness, depth and length of objects.
• Light Year: distance travelled by light in one year (S = v x LEAST COUNT OF VERNIER CALLIPERS: The least count of a
t) Vernier calliper is obtained by dividing the value of one
1 light year = 3 x 108 m s-1 x 365 x 24 x 60 x 60 s division of the main scale by the total number of
= 9.46 x 1015 m divisions on the Vernier scale. The Vernier callipers are
• nanometre (nm): 10-9 i.e., one billionth of a metre
so designed such that ‘n’ divisions on the Vernier scale
i.e., 1 nm = 10-9 m
correspond to ‘n-1’ divisions on the main scale. ∴ value
• Angstrom (Å): 10-10 times of a metre
of n divisions on the Vernier scale = value of (n - 1)
i.e., 1 Å = 10-10 m or Thus, 1 nm = 10 Å
divisions on the Main scale

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If value of 1 division on the main scale is x, then value of (n • Positive zero error: when the Vernier scale zero is to the
- 1) divisions is (n - 1) x right of main scale zero. This means that the Vernier scale
appears to be reading an extra value which needs to be
Thus, value of n divisions on the Vernier scale = (n - 1) x → deducted from the total reading to correct the overall
Value of 1 division on Vernier scale = x (n - 1) / n reading.
Least Count (LC) of Vernier Calliper = 1 Main Scale division
– 1 Vernier Scale division

LC = x – (𝑛−1)x/𝑛

LC = x/n
• Negative Zero Error: when the Vernier scale zero is to the
Where, n is the number of divisions on the Vernier Scale
left of main scale zero. This means that the Vernier scale
and x is the value of one main scale division.
appears to be reading lesser value which needs to be added
Generally, 1 MSD is 1 mm, and the number of divisions on to the total reading to correct the overall reading
the Vernier scale are 10. Thus, LC of Vernier Scale having
10 divisions on the Vernier scale = 1/10 = 0.1 mm or 0.01
ZERO ERROR: Due to wear and tear and incorrect use, the zero
cm (as 10 mm = 1 cm or 1 cm = 0.1 mm). mark of the Vernier scale does not coincide with the zero mark
MEASUREMENT USING VERNIER CALLIPER of the main scale, when the jaws are brought together (no
object is clamped between them).
E.g., Take an object, like a small wooden cube. Clamp the ZERO CORRECTION
Zero error = Division# aligning with main scale * L.C.
object between the jaws and tighten using the screw.
Measure the length up to the closest mm mark on the The two types of zero errors are –
main scale. Then take the reading from the Vernier scale,
1. Positive zero error
by taking the division # (p) which coincides or aligns with
2. Negative zero error
the main scale.
NOTE: Sometimes the positive zero error is marked with a plus
Length of the object (ab) = Main Scale reading + (p * L.C)
(+) sign while the negative zero error is denoted with a minus (-
) sign. When this convention is used, the formula to obtain
proper reading is

Correct reading = observed reading – ZE (with sign)

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SCREW GAUGE: A screw gauge or a micrometer is used to PITCH & LEAST COUNT OF SCREW GAUGE BACKLASH ERROR: On rotation of the thimble, the tip of the
measure diameter of wire, thickness of paper usually up to screw does not start moving in the opposite direction at once
Generally, the pitch of a screw gauge is 1 mm and it has 100 but remains stationary for part of the rotation. This results in
an accuracy of 0.001 cm (or 0.000001 m, which is where
divisions on its circular scale. faulty readings. To avoid the backlash error, it is important
its name ‘micrometer < 10-6 is derived).
1 𝑚𝑚 that the screw is rotated in one direction only. If the screw
L.C. of Screw Gauge = = 0.01 mm or 0.001 cm
Principle of a Screw: The principle of a screw is based on 100 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 must be rotated in the other direction, pause between
the pitch of a screw, which is basically the distance moved NOTE: Increasing the number of divisions on the screw gauge rotations.
by the screw on turning it by one complete rotation. increases its accuracy. ZERO ERROR: Due to wear and tear and incorrect use, the
Generally, a screw has a pitch of 1 mm or 0.5 mm.
MEASUREMENT USING SCREW GAUGE zero mark of the circular scale does not coincide with the
Pitch = distance moved in one rotation = distance between zero mark of the main scale, when the spindle and stud are
two successive divisions Ex. Take an object, like a wire. Place it between the spindle and brought together (no object is clamped between them). The
the anvil or stud, and slowly turn the ratchet such that it is two types of zero errors are –
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
LC of a Screw = gently clamped between the spindle the stud. Read the main
scale reading that is closest whole number. Then read the • Positive zero error: when the circular scale zero is below
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤

circular scale reading of the division coinciding with the base the base line. This implies that the circular scale is reading
line of the main scale (p). an additional value that has to be deducted from the total
reading to correct it.
• Negative Zero Error: when the circular scale above the base
line. This means that the screw gauge appears to be reading
lesser value which needs to be added to the total reading
to correct the overall reading.

PARTS & FUNCTION ZERO CORRECTION: Sometimes the positive zero error is
marked with plus (+) sign while the negative zero error is
denoted with a minus (-) sign. When this convention is used,
the formula to obtain proper reading is Correct reading =
TYPES OF ERRORS IN SCREW GAUGE: There are two types of observed reading – zero error (with sign)
errors that occur in screw gauge.

Zero error Backlash error

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SIMPLE PENDULUM: A simple pendulum is a heavy point MEASUREMENT OF TIME PERIOD OF A FACTORS AFFECTING TIME PERIOD OF A PENDULUM
mass (commonly known as the bob) suspended from a SIMPLE PENDULUM
1. Length of The Pendulum: Time period of the pendulum is
rigid support by a massless and inextensible string.
1. Slightly displace the bob from its directly proportional to the square root of the length of the
mean position O and release it. The pendulum (T ∝ √𝑙)).
bob begins to move to and fro about
its mean position O in a vertical plane - Due to seasonal change in temperature, the effective
along with its string. length of pendulums made of metals like brass or steel
2. Measure the time taken for 20 oscillations using a stop changes due to thermal expansion. In summer, the length
watch. increases increasing the time period of oscillation making
3. Divide the time taken (t) by 20 to calculate time period (T) of the clock go slower; whereas in winter, the length
the pendulum. contracts, making the clock go faster, as time period is
4. Repeat the above steps for different lengths of the pendulum decreased.
TERMS RELATED TO SIMPLE PENDULUM and record the observations. - When we stand on a swing, the centre of gravity rises;
• Oscillation: One complete to and fro motion of the bob INFERENCE: It is experimentally observed that the time period the time period decreases making the swing move faster.
of the pendulum is called one oscillation. (T) is directly proportional to the square root of the length (l) or When we compare time periods of two pendulums of
• Period of oscillation / Time Period (T): Time taken to the pendulum. T  √𝑙 or T2  l or l/T2 is a constant 𝑇1 𝑙
complete one oscillation. Measured in second (s). different lengths l1 and l2, we use = √ 1 ; 𝑎𝑠 𝑇 ∝ √𝑙
𝑇2 𝑙2
GRAPH: The slope of the graph is found to be a constant at a
• Frequency of oscillation (f or n): Number of oscillations
place is equal to 4π2/g where g is the acceleration due to gravity
made in one second. The unit of measuring frequency is
at the place. Thus local gravity (g) of a place can be calculated
per second (s-1) or hertz (Hz).
by the relation: g = 4π2/slope of the T2 Vs l graph
• Amplitude (a or A): Maximum displacement of the bob
from its mean position on either side.
• Effective length of the pendulum (l): Distance of the
point of oscillation (i.e., the centre of gravity of the bob)
from the point of suspension.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERIOD & FREQUENCY RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FREQUENCY & EFFECTIVE LENGTH

f = 1/T or T = 1/f Since frequency is the inverse of time period, frequency is

1
inversely proportional to the root of length (f ∝ ).
√𝑙
EXPRESSION FOR CALCULATING TIME PERIOD:
Thus, a pendulum having longer length makes fewer number
𝒍
T = 2π√ of oscillations compared to a shorter pendulum.
𝒈

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2. GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION: Time period is SECOND’S PENDULUM: The pendulum of a clock which we use CHAPTER 1 FORMULA RECKONER
inversely proportional to the square root of acceleration to note time in our house is a second’s pendulum.
1 1. 1 nm = 10 Å
due to gravity; i.e., T 
√𝑔 It takes one second (1 s) to move from one extreme to another. 2. Least count of VC =
1 𝑀𝑆𝐷
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
Thus its time period is two seconds (2 s).
- The clock goes slower (time period increases) when 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤
3. Least count of SG =
taken to mountains / mines due to decrease in the 𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
The effective length of a second’s pendulum at a place on earth
value of g. g value is maximum on earth’s surface. It 4. ZE = Division# aligning with main scale × L.C.
(g = 9.8 m s-2) is nearly 1 metre (1 m)
decreases when we go above or below the ground a. Assign positive sign for positive ZE
level. Verification: b. Assign negative sign for negative ZE
5. ZC = Observed Reading – ZE
When we compare time periods of two pendulums of 𝑙
T = 2π√ 6. Frequency, f = 1/Time period (T)
𝑔
same length but in gravity g1 and g2 respectively, we use
𝑙
Squaring both sides 7. T = 2π√
𝑔
𝑇1 𝑔2 1
= √ ; 𝑎𝑠 𝑇 ∝ 𝑙 𝑇1 𝑙
𝑇2 𝑔1 √𝑔 T2 = 4 π2 8. = √ 1 ; 𝑎𝑠 𝑇 ∝ √𝑙
𝑔 𝑇2 𝑙2

𝑇1 𝑔2 1
TIME PERIOD DOES NOT DEPEND ON – Substituting T = 2 s, g = 9.8 m/s2 in the above equation 9. = √ ; 𝑎𝑠 𝑇 ∝
𝑇2 𝑔 1 √𝑔
4π2
o Mass or material of the bob: Thus, if we take two bobs 10. Local gravity, g =
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇 2 𝑉𝑠 𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
of the same effective length but different mass or 𝑙 11. Time period of second’s pendulum = 2 s
different materials, time period remains the same. 22 = 4 π2
9.8
o Amplitude of the pendulum (provided the swing is not
π2 is approximately 9.8
too large)
Thus, 4l = 4 or l = 1 m

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