Fundamentals of computing

FUNDAMENTALS OF C PROGRAMMING

Character set

A character denotes any alphabet, digit or special symbol used to represent information. Valid
alphabets, numbers and special symbols allowed in C are The alphabets, numbers and special
symbols when properly combined form constants, variables and keywords.

The alphabets, numbers and special symbols when properly combined form constants, variables
and keywords.

Identifiers
Identifiers are user defined word used to name of entities like variables, arrays, functions,
structures etc. Rules for naming identifiers are:
1) name should only consists of alphabets (both upper and lower case), digits and underscore (_)
sign.
2) first characters should be alphabet or underscore
3) name should not be a keyword
4) since C is a case sensitive, the upper case and lower case considered differently, for example
code, Code, CODE etc. are different identifiers.
5) identifiers are generally given in some meaningful name such as value, net_salary, age, data
etc. An identifier name may be long, some implementation recognizes only first eight
characters, most recognize 31 characters. ANSI standard compiler recognize 31 characters. Some
invalid identifiers are 5cb, int, res#, avg no etc.

Keyword

There are certain words reserved for doing specific task, these words are known as reserved
word or keywords. These words are predefined and always written in lower case or small letter.
These keywords cann’t be used as a variable name as it assigned with fixed meaning. Some
examples are int, short, signed, unsigned, default, volatile, float, long, double, break,
continue, typedef, static, do, for, union, return, while, do, extern, register, enum, case, goto,
struct, char, auto, const etc.

data types

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Data types refer to an extensive system used for declaring variables or functions of different
types before its use. The type of a variable determines how much space it occupies in storage and
how the bit pattern stored is interpreted. The value of a variable can be changed any time. C has
the following 4 types of data types
basic built-in data types: int, float, double, char
Enumeration data type: enum
Derived data type: pointer, array, structure, union
Void data type: void
A variable declared to be of type int can be used to contain integral values only—that is, values
that do not contain decimal places. A variable declared to be of type float can be used for storing
floating- point numbers (values containing decimal places). The double type is the same as type
float, only with roughly twice the precision. The char data type can be used to store a single
character, such as the letter a, the digit character 6, or a semicolon similarly A variable declared
char can only store character type value.
There are two types of type qualifier in c

Size qualifier: short, long

Sign qualifier: signed, unsigned

When the qualifier unsigned is used the number is always positive, and when signed is used
number may be positive or negative. If the sign qualifier is not mentioned, then by default sign
qualifier is assumed. The range of values for signed data types is less than that of unsigned data
type. Because in signed type,
the left most bit is used to represent sign, while in unsigned type this bit is also used to represent
the value. The size and range of the different data types on a 16 bit machine is given below:

Constants
Constant is a any value that cannot be changed during program execution. In C, any number,
single character, or character string is known as a constant. A constant is an entity that doesn’t
change whereas a variable is an entity that may change. For example, the number 50 represents a
constant integer value. The character string "Programming in C is fun.\n" is an example of a
constant character string. C constants can be divided into two major categories:
 Primary Constants
 Secondary Constants

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These constants are further categorized as

 Numeric constant
 Character constant
 String constant

Numeric constant: Numeric constant consists of digits. It required minimum size of 2 bytes and
max 4 bytes. It may be positive or negative but by default sign is always positive. No comma or
space is allowed within the numeric constant and it must have at least 1 digit. The allowable
range for integer constants is -32768 to 32767. Truly speaking the range of an Integer constant
depends upon the compiler. For a 16-bit compiler like Turbo C or Turbo C++ the range is –
32768 to 32767. For a 32-bit compiler the range would be even greater. Mean by a 16-bit or a
32- bit compiler, what range of an Integer constant has to do with the type of compiler. It is
categorized a integer constant and real constant. An integer constants are whole number which
have no decimal point. Types of integer constants are:
 Decimal constant: 0-------9(base 10)
 Octal constant: 0-------7(base 8)
 Hexa decimal constant: 0----9, A------F(base 16)
In decimal constant first digit should not be zero unlike octal constant first digit must be zero(as
076, 0127) and in hexadecimal constant first two digit should be 0x/ 0X (such as 0x24, 0x87A).
By default type of integer constant is integer but if the value of integer constant is exceeds range
then value represented by integer type is taken to be unsigned integer or long integer. It can also
be explicitly
mention integer and unsigned integer type by suffix l/L and u/U.

Real constant is also called floating point constant. To construct real constant we must follow
the rule of
-real constant must have at least one digit.
-It must have a decimal point.
-It could be either positive or negative.
-Default sign is positive.

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-No commas or blanks are allowed within a real constant. Ex.: +325.34426.0-32.76
To express small/large real constant exponent(scientific) form is used where number is written in
mantissa and exponent form separated by e/E. Exponent can be positive or negative integer but
mantissa can be real/integer type, for example 3.6*105=3.6e+5. By default type of floating point
constant is double, it can also be explicitly defined it by suffix of f/F.

Character constant
Character constant represented as a single character enclosed within a single quote. These can be
single digit, single special symbol or white spaces such as ‘9’,’c’,’$’, ‘ ’ etc. Every character
constant has a unique integer like value in machine’s character code as if machine using ASCII
(American standard code for information interchange). Some numeric value associated with each
upper and lower case alphabets and decimal integers are as:
A------------ Z ASCII value (65-90)
a-------------z ASCII value (97-122)
0-------------9 ASCII value (48-59)
; ASCII value (59)

String constant
Set of characters are called string and when sequence of characters are enclosed within a double
quote (it may be combination of all kind of symbols) is a string constant. String constant has
zero, one or more than one character and at the end of the string null character(\0) is
automatically placed by compiler. Some examples are “,sarathina” , “908”, “3”,” ”, “A” etc. In C
although same characters are enclosed within single and double quotes it represents different
meaning such as “A” and ‘A’ are different because first one is string attached with null character
at the end but second one is character constant with its corresponding ASCII value is 65.
Symbolic constant is a name that substitute for a sequence of characters and, characters may be
numeric, character or string constant. These constant are generally defined at the beginning of
the program as
#define name value , here name generally written in upper case for example
#define MAX 10
#define CH ‘b’
#define NAME “sony”

Variables
Variable is a data name which is used to store some data value or symbolic names for storing
program
computations and results. The value of the variable can be change during the execution. The rule
for naming the variables is same as the naming identifier. Before used in the program it must be
declared. Declaration of variables specify its name, data types and range of the value that
variables can store depends upon its data types.
Syntax:
int a;
char c;
float f;
Variable initialization

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When we assign any initial value to variable during the declaration, is called initialization of
variables. When variable is declared but contain undefined value then it is called garbage value.
The variable is initialized with the assignment operator such as
Data type variable name=constant;
Example: int a=20;

Or int a;

a=20;

Expressions
An expression is a combination of variables, constants, operators and function call. It can be
arithmetic, logical and relational for example:
-int z= x+y // arithmatic expression
a>b //relational
a==b // logical
func(a, b) // function call
Expressions consisting entirely of constant values are called constant expressions. So, the
expression
121 + 17 - 110
is a constant expression because each of the terms of the expression is a constant value. But if i
were declared to be an integer variable, the expression
180 + 2 – j
would not represent a constant expression.

Operator
This is a symbol use to perform some operation on variables, operands or with the constant.
Some operator required 2 operand to perform operation or Some required single operation.
Several operators are there those are, arithmetic operator, assignment, increment , decrement,
logical, conditional, comma, size of , bitwise and others.

1. Arithmatic Operator
This operator used for numeric calculation. These are of either Unary arithmetic operator, Binary
arithmetic operator. Where Unary arithmetic operator required 25 *Under revision only one
operand such as +,-, ++, --,!, tiled. And these operators are addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division. Binary arithmetic operator on other hand required two operand and its operators are +
(addition), -(subtraction),
*(multiplication), /(division), %(modulus). But modulus cannot applied with floating point
operand as well as there are no exponent operator in c. Unary (+) and Unary (-) is different from
addition and subtraction. When both the operand are integer then it is called integer arithmetic
and the result is always integer. When both the operand are floating point then it is called
floating arithmetic and when operand is of integer and floating point then it is called mix type or
mixed mode arithmetic . And the result is in float type.
2.Assignment Operator
A value can be stored in a variable with the use of assignment operator. The assignment
operator(=) is used in assignment statement and assignment expression. Operand on the left hand
side should be variable and the operand on the right hand side should be variable or constant or

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any expression. When variable on the left hand side is occur on the right hand side then we can
avoid by writing the compound statement.
For example,
int x= y;
int Sum=x+y+z;
3.Increment and Decrement
The Unary operator ++, --, is used as increment and decrement which acts upon single operand.
Increment operator increases the value of variable by one .Similarly decrement operator decrease
the value of the variable by one. And these operator can only used with the variable, but cann't
use with expression and
constant as ++6 or ++(x+y+z). It again categories into prefix post fix . In the prefix the value of
the variable is incremented 1st, then the new value is used, where as in postfix the operator is
written after the operand(such as m++,m--).
EXAMPLE
let y=12;
z= ++y;
y= y+1;
z= y;
Similarly in the postfix increment and decrement operator is used in the operation .
And then increment and decrement is perform.
EXAMPLE
let x= 5;
y= x++;
y=x;
x= x+1;
4.Relational Operator
It is use to compared value of two expressions depending on their relation. Expression that
contain relational operator is called relational expression. Here the value is assign according to
true or false value.
a.(a>=b) || (b>20)
b.(b>a) && (e>b)
c. 0(b!=7)
5. Conditional Operator
It sometimes called as ternary operator. Since it required three expressions as operand and it is
represented as (? , :).
SYNTAX
exp1 ? exp2 :exp3
Here exp1 is first evaluated. It is true then value return will be exp2 . If false then exp3.
EXAMPLE
void main()
{
int a=10, b=2
int s= (a>b) ? a:b;
printf(“value is:%d”);
}
Output:

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Value is:10
6. Comma Operator
Comma operator is use to permit different expression to be appear in a situation where only one
expression would be used. All the expression are separator by comma and are evaluated from left
to right.
EXAMPLE
int i, j, k, l;
for(i=1,j=2;i<=5;j<=10;i++;j++)
28 *Under revision
7. Sizeof Operator
Size of operator is a Unary operator, which gives size of operand in terms of byte that occupied
in the memory. An operand may be variable, constant or data type qualifier. Generally it is used
make portable program(program that can be run on different machine) . It determines the length
of entities, arrays and structures when their size are not known to the programmer. It is also use
to allocate size of memory dynamically during execution of the program.
EXAMPLE
main( )
{
int sum;
float f;
printf( "%d%d" ,size of(f), size of (sum) );
printf("%d%d", size of(235 L), size of(A));
}

8. Bitwise Operator
Bitwise operator permit programmer to access and manipulate of data at bit level. Various
bitwise operator enlisted are
one's complement (~)
bitwise AND (&)
bitwise OR (|)
bitwise XOR (^)
left shift (<<)
right shift (>>)
These operator can operate on integer and character value but not on float and double. In bitwise
operator the function showbits( ) function is used to display the binary representation of any
integer or character value. In one's complement all 0 changes to 1 and all 1 changes to 0. In the
bitwise OR its value would obtaining by 0 to 2 bits. As the bitwise OR operator is used to set on
a particular bit in a number. Bitwise
AND the logical AND. It operate on 2operands and operands are compared on bit by bit basic.
And hence
both the operands are of same type.
Logical or Boolean Operator
Operator used with one or more operand and return either value zero (for false) or one (for true).
The operand may be constant, variables or expressions. And the expression that combines two or
more expressions is termed as logical expression. C has three logical operators :

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Operator Meaning
&& AND
|| OR
! NOT
Where logical NOT is a unary operator and other two are binary operator. Logical AND gives
result true if both the conditions are true, otherwise result is false. And logial OR gives result
false if both the condition false, otherwise result is true.
Precedence and associativity of operators

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Control Statement
Generally C program statement is executed in a order in which they appear
in the program. But sometimes we use decision making condition for execution
only a part of program, that is called control statement. Control statement defined how the
control is transferred from one part to the other part of the program. There
are several control statement like if...else, switch, while, do....while, for loop,
break, continue, goto etc.

Loops in C
Loop:-it is a block of statement that performs set of instructions. In loops Repeating particular
portion of the program either a specified number of time or until a particular no of condition is
being satisfied. There are three types of loops in c
1.While loop

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2.do while loop

3.for loop

While loop
Syntax:-

while(condition)
{
Statement 1;
Statement 2;
}
Or while(test condition)
Statement;

The test condition may be any expression .when we want to do something a fixed no of times but
not known about the number of iteration, in a program then while loop is used. Here first
condition is checked if, it is true body of the loop is executed else, If condition is false control
will be come out of loop.
Example:-

/* wap to print 5 times welcome to C” */

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int p=1;
While(p<=5)
{
printf(“Welcome to C\n”);
P=p+1;
}
}

So as long as condition remains true statements within the body of while loop will get executed
repeatedly.
do while loop
This (do while loop) statement is also used for looping. The body of this loop may contain single
statement or block of statement. The syntax for writing this statement is:
Syntax:-

Do
{
Statement;
}
while(condition);

Example:-
#include<stdio.h>

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void main()
{
int X=4;
do
{
Printf(“%d”,X);
X=X+1;

}whie(X<=10);
Printf(“ ”);
}
Output: 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Here firstly statement inside body is executed then condition is checked. If the condition is true
again body of loop is executed and this process continue until the condition becomes false.
Unlike while loop semicolon is placed at the end of while.
There is minor difference between while and do while loop, while loop test the condition before
executing any of the statement of loop. Whereas do while loop test condition after having
executed the statement at least one within the loop. If initial condition is false while loop would
not executed it’s statement on other hand do while loop executed it’s statement at least once even
If condition fails for first time. It means do while loop always executes at least once.
Notes:
Do while loop used rarely when we want to execute a loop at least once.

for loop
In a program, for loop is generally used when number of iteration are known in advance. The
body of the loop can be single statement or multiple statements. Its syntax for writing is:
Syntax:-

for(exp1;exp2;exp3)
{
Statement;
}

or

for(initialized counter; test counter; update counter)

{
Statement;
}

Here exp1 is an initialization expression, exp2 is test expression or condition and exp3 is an
update expression. Expression 1 is executed only once when loop started and used to initialize
the loop variables. Condition expression generally uses relational and logical operators. And
updation part executed only when after body of the loop is executed.
Example:-
void main()
{

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int i;
for(i=1;i<10;i++)
{
Printf(“ %d ”, i);
}
}
Output:-1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Nesting of loop
When a loop written inside the body of another loop then, it is known as nesting of loop. Any
type of loop can be nested in any type such as while, do while, for. For example nesting of for
loop can be represented as :
void main()
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
for(j=0;j<5; j++)
printf(“%d %d”, i, j);
}
Output: i=0
j=0 1 2 3 4
i=1
j=0 1 2 3 4
Break statement(break)
Sometimes it becomes necessary to come out of the loop even before loop condition becomes
false then break statement is used. Break statement is used inside loop and switch statements. It
cause immediate exit from that loop in which it appears and it is generally written with
condition. It is written with the keyword as break. When break statement is encountered loop is
terminated and control is transferred to the statement, immediately after loop or situation where
we want to jump out of the loop instantly without waiting to get back to conditional state. When
break is encountered inside any loop, control automatically passes to the first statement after the
loop. This break statement is usually associated with if statement.
Example :
void main()
{
int j=0;
for(;j<6;j++)
if(j==4)
break;
}
Output:
0123
Continue statement (key word continue)
Continue statement is used for continuing next iteration of loop after skipping some statement of
loop. When it encountered control automatically passes through the beginning of the loop. It is
usually associated with the if statement. It is useful when we want to continue the program
without executing any part of the program.

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The difference between break and continue is, when the break encountered loop is terminated
and it transfer to the next statement and when continue is encounter control come back to the
beginning position. In while and do while loop after continue statement control transfer to the
test condition and then loop continue where as in, for loop after continue control transferred to
the updating expression and condition is tested.
Example:-
void main()
{
int n;
for(n=2; n<=9; n++)
{
if(n==4)
continue;
printf(“%d”, n);
}
}
Printf(“out of loop”);
}
Output: 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 out of loop
if statement
Statement execute set of command like when condition is true and its syntax is

If (condition)
Statement;

The statement is executed only when condition is true. If the if statement body is consists of
several statement then better to use pair of curly braces. Here in case condition is false then
compiler skip the line within the if block.
void main()
{
int n;
printf (“ enter a number:”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
If (n>10)
Printf(“ number is grater”);
}
Output:
Enter a number:12
Number is greater
if…..else ... Statement
it is bidirectional conditional control statement that contains one condition & two possible action.
Condition may be true or false, where non-zero value regarded as true & zero value regarded as
false. If condition are satisfy true, then a single or block of statement executed otherwise another
single or block of statement is executed.
Its syntax is:-
if (condition)

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{
Statement1;
Statement2;
}
else
{
Statement1;
Statement2;
}
Else statement cannot be used without if or no multiple else statement are allowed within one if
statement. It means there must be a if statement with in an else statement.
Example:-
/* To check a number is eve or odd */
void main()
{
int n;
printf (“enter a number:”);
sacnf (“%d”, &n);
If (n%2==0)
printf (“even number”);
else
printf(“odd number”);
}
Output: enter a number:121
odd number
Nesting of if …else
When there are another if else statement in if-block or else-block, then it is called nesting of if-
else statement.
Syntax is :-
if (condition)
{
If (condition)
Statement1;
else
statement2;
}
Statement3;
If….else LADDER
In this type of nesting there is an if else statement in every else part except the last part. If
condition is false control pass to block where condition is again checked with its if statement.
Syntax is :-
if (condition)
Statement1;
else if (condition)
statement2;
else if (condition)

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statement3;
else
statement4;
This process continue until there is no if statement in the last block. if one of the condition is
satisfy the condition other nested “else if” would not executed But it has disadvantage over if
else statement that, in if else statement whenever the condition is true, other condition are not
checked. While in this case, all condition are checked.

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