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Advanced Structured Materials

Jan Awrejcewicz
Anton V. Krysko
Maxim V. Zhigalov
Vadim A. Krysko

Mathematical
Modelling and
Numerical Analysis
of Size-Dependent
Structural Members
in Temperature Fields
Regular and Chaotic Dynamics of Micro/
Nano Beams, and Cylindrical Panels
Advanced Structured Materials

Volume 142

Series Editors
Andreas Öchsner, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Esslingen University of
Applied Sciences, Esslingen, Germany
Lucas F. M. da Silva, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
Holm Altenbach , Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Otto von Guericke
University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany
Common engineering materials reach in many applications their limits and new
developments are required to fulfil increasing demands on engineering materials.
The performance of materials can be increased by combining different materials to
achieve better properties than a single constituent or by shaping the material or
constituents in a specific structure. The interaction between material and structure
may arise on different length scales, such as micro-, meso- or macroscale, and offers
possible applications in quite diverse fields.
This book series addresses the fundamental relationship between materials and
their structure on the overall properties (e.g. mechanical, thermal, chemical or
magnetic etc.) and applications.
The topics of Advanced Structured Materials include but are not limited to
• classical fibre-reinforced composites (e.g. glass, carbon or Aramid reinforced
plastics)
• metal matrix composites (MMCs)
• micro porous composites
• micro channel materials
• multilayered materials
• cellular materials (e.g., metallic or polymer foams, sponges, hollow sphere
structures)
• porous materials
• truss structures
• nanocomposite materials
• biomaterials
• nanoporous metals
• concrete
• coated materials
• smart materials
Advanced Structured Materials is indexed in Google Scholar and Scopus.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8611

Jan Awrejcewicz Anton V. Krysko
• •

Maxim V. Zhigalov Vadim A. Krysko

•

Mathematical Modelling
and Numerical Analysis
of Size-Dependent Structural
Members in Temperature
Fields
Regular and Chaotic Dynamics
of Micro/Nano Beams, and Cylindrical Panels

123
Jan Awrejcewicz Anton V. Krysko
Department of Automation, Biomechanics Applied Mathematics and Systems Analysis
and Mechatronics Saratov State Technical University
Lodz University of Technology Saratov, Russia
Łódź, Poland
Vadim A. Krysko
Maxim V. Zhigalov Department of Mathematics and Modeling
Department of Mathematics and Modeling Saratov State Technical University
Saratov State Technical University Saratov, Russia
Saratov, Russia

ISSN 1869-8433 ISSN 1869-8441 (electronic)

Advanced Structured Materials
ISBN 978-3-030-55992-2 ISBN 978-3-030-55993-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55993-9
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard
to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

This book is devoted to researchers and teachers, as well as graduate students,

undergraduates and bachelors in mechanical engineering, nanomechanics, nano-
materials, nanostructures and applied mathematics. It serves as a research mono-
graph which collects the latest developments in the field of nonlinear (chaotic)
dynamics of mass distributed-parameter nanomechanical structures. It can be
helpful for scientists and specialists interested in a rigorous and comprehensive
study of modelling nonlinear phenomena governed by PDEs. The monograph has a
unique pedagogical style that is particularly suitable for independent study and
self-education for many researchers and specialists who do not have time to attend
classes and lectures on the subject of the monograph. In addition, the book contents
stand for a good balance between Western and Eastern extensive studies of the
mathematical problems of nonlinear vibrations of structural members.
The authors of the proposed book work for many years in the theoretical aspects
of nonlinear dynamics of mechanical macroscale and nanoscale structures and
mathematical methods for solving problems governed by nonlinear PDEs. In spite
of numerous published papers, the following companion books dealing with similar
problems have been recently published:
1. J. Awrejcewicz, V.A. Krysko, I.V. Papkova, A.V. Krysko, Deterministic Chaos
in One-Dimensional Continuous Systems. World Scientific, New Jersey, 2016;
2. V.A. Krysko, J. Awrejcewicz, M.V. Zhigalov, V.F. Kirichenko, A.V. Krysko,
Mathematical Models of Higher Orders: Shells in Temperature Fields. Springer,
Switzerland, 2019.
The authors employ the accumulated experience and knowledge of the long
years of their research in the proposed monograph. This book will allow readers to
obtain their own new results in the field of nonlinear dynamics of continuous mass
(distributed-parameter) mechanical nanostructures, based on employing the ideas
contained in this monograph to design novel elements of micro/nanomechanical
systems, which are challenging in development of the modern engineering world.
The book material offers guidelines for the development of many sensory and
executive algorithms/functions used throughout, from the largest cargo ships to the

v
vi Preface

smallest handheld electronic devices and from the most advanced scientific and
medical equipment to the simplest household items. This monograph is one of the
first on the mechanical engineering market because the authors analyse vibrations
of nanostructures based on various theories of elasticity of the higher order
including the modified coupled stress theory, surface theory, nonlocal theory,
gradient theory and their modifications.
The bulk of the literature on nano-objects is devoted to research in nanome-
chanics, nanocomposites, the theory of dislocation mechanics, etc. The issues of
strength, durability and time-dependent deterioration of mechanical properties,
which are the main problems for design engineers, are considered. However,
majority of the dynamical problems reported in the available literature are presented
for strongly order reduced systems, i.e. for the governing equations of one degree of
freedom systems of the Duffing type. Moreover, there are no books on nonlinear
dynamics, in particular, chaotic dynamics, for nanomechanical structures in which
systems with an infinite number of degrees of freedom are studied. The issues of the
“truth of chaos” are not analysed, and the scenarios of the transition from periodic
to chaotic vibrations exhibited by nanomechanical systems are not satisfactorily
investigated. There are also very few studies regarding dynamics of nanomechan-
ical structures based on wavelet analysis and analysis of the largest Lyapunov
exponents, while there are practically no results supported by consideration of a
spectrum of Lyapunov exponents. The literature state of the art shows that there are
no works devoted to the study of nanoeffects and the effect of temperature action,
which play a crucial role in obtaining a reliable picture of nanostructural nonlinear
dynamical systems embedded into temperature fields.
The book offers a rigorous mathematical approach and verifies numerous
theory-based modelling of structural members with an emphasis on microelec-
tromechanical structures (MEMS) and nanoelectromechanical structures (NEMS),
whose nonlinear dynamics plays an important role in current research observed in
applied physics and engineering.
There are no competing publications on the market for the book (except perhaps
the two already mentioned), and therefore the book may have a significant impact
on both theoretical- and application-oriented researchers interested in nonlinear
features of nanostructural members.
The authors of this monograph are intended to fill gaps in the above-mentioned
problems.
We would like to acknowledge that a part of the book material has been already
published in the form of papers. We have obtained permission to reuse the men-
tioned material in our book.
In the case of the papers: J. Awrejcewicz, A. V. Krysko, N. P. Erofeev,
V. Dobriyan, M. A. Barulina, V. A. Krysko, “Quantyfying chaos by various
computational methods. Part 1: Simple systems”, Entropy, 20(3), 2018, 175 and
J. Awrejcewicz, A. V. Krysko, N. P. Erofeev, V. Dobriyan, M. A. Barulina,
V. A. Krysko, “Quantyfying chaos by various computational methods. Part 2:
Vibrations of the Bernoulli-Euler beam subjected to periodic and colored noise”,
Preface vii

Entropy, 20(3), 2018, 170, the permission is not required, since they were published
under full open access (Chaps. 3 and 5).
The same holds for the paper J. Awrejcewicz, V. A. Krysko, S. Pavlov,
M. V. Zhigalov, L. A. Kalutsky, A. V. Krysko, “Thermoelastic vibrations of a
Timoshenko microbeam based on the modified couple stress theory”, Nonlinear
Dynamics, 2020, 99, 919–943, material of which has been used in Chap. 8.
Chapter 4 is based on the paper V. A. Krysko, J. Awrejcewicz, I. V. Papkova,
O. A. Saltykova, A. V. Krysko, “On reliability of chaotic dynamics of two
Euler-Bernoulli beams with a small clearance”, International Journal of
Non-Linear Mechanics, 104, 2018, 8–18 (licence 4858731296328).
Chapter 6 is based on the papers: A. V. Krysko, J. Awrejcewicz, M. V. Zhigalov,
S. P. Pavlov, V. A. Krysko, “Nonlinear behaviour of different flexible size-dependent
beams models based on the modified couple stress theory. Part 1. Governing equa-
tions and static analysis of flexible beams”, International Journal of Non-Linear
Mechanics, 93, 2017, 96–105 (licence 4858731357453) and A. V. Krysko,
J. Awrejcewicz, M. V. Zhigalov, S. P. Pavlov, V. A. Krysko, “Nonlinear behaviour of
different flexible size-dependent beams models based on the modified couple stress
theory. Part 2. Chaotic dynamics of flexible beams”, International Journal of
Non-Linear Mechanics, 93, 2017, 106–121 (licence 4858731418376).
Chapter 7 is based on the papers: J. Awrejcewicz, A. V. Krysko, S. P. Pavlov,
M. V. Zhigalov, V. A. Krysko, “Chaotic dynamics of size-dependent Timoshenko
beams with functionally graded properties along their thickness”, Mechanical
Systems and Signal Processing, 93, 2017, 415–430 (licence 4865190257673),
J. Awrejcewicz, A. V. Krysko, S. P. Pavlov, M. V. Zhigalov, V. A. Krysko,
“Stability of the size-dependent and functionally graded curvilinear Timoshenko
beams”, Journal of Computational and Nonlinear Dynamics, 12(4), 2017, 041018
(licence 1047522-1), A. V. Krysko, J. Awrejcewicz, I. E. Kutepov, V. A. Krysko,
“Stability of curvilinear Euler-Bernoulli beams in temperature fields”, International
Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics, 94, 2017, 207–215 (licence 4858620136357)
and A. V. Krysko, J. Awrejcewicz, S. P. Pavlov, M. V. Zhigalov, V. A. Krysko,
“Mathematical model of a three-layer micro- and nanobeams based on the
hypotheses of the Grigolyuk-Chulkov and the modified couple stress theory”,
International Journal of Solids and Structures, 117, 2017, 39–50 (licence
4858611485608).
Chapter 9 is based on the papers: A. V. Krysko, J. Awrejcewicz, S. P. Pavlov,
K. S. Bodyagina, V. A. Krysko, “Topological optimization of thermoelastic com-
posites with maximized stiffness and heat transfer”, Composites Part B, 2019, 158,
319–327 (licence 4860611503624) and A. V. Krysko, J. Awrejcewicz, S. P. Pavlov,
K. S. Bodyagina, M. V. Zhigalov, V.A. Krysko, “Non-linear dynamics of
size-dependent Euler-Bernoulli beams with topologically optimized microstructure
and subjected to temperature field”, International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics,
104, 2018, 75–86 (licence 4858620075449).
We greatly appreciate the help and support of the Editors Holm Altenbach and
Andreas Öchsner.
viii Preface

In addition, the help of Mr. Marek Kaźmierczak in the final book preparation is
highly appreciated.
Finally, we would like to acknowledge the support of the Russian Science
Foundation RSF No, grant and Polish National Science Centre under the grant
OPUS 14 No. 2017/27/B/ST8/01330.

Lodz, Poland Jan Awrejcewicz

Saratov, Russia Anton V. Krysko
Saratov, Russia Maxim V. Zhigalov
Saratov, Russia Vadim A. Krysko
Introduction

Currently, in connection with the rapid development of technology and instru-

mentation, an important issue stands for the creation of devices as small as possible.
Here, we should recall the words of the great American Nobel laureate in Physics,
Richard Feynman, who was the first to predict the fabrication of devices at the
nanolevel. He presented a lecture given at the annual American Physical Society
meeting at Caltech on December 29, 1959, entitled “There’s Plenty of Room at the
Bottom: An Invitation to Enter a New Field of Physics”. The word “bottom” in this
phrase means a world of very small sizes, which occupies the area defined by
nanometers (1 nm = 10−9 m). The mechanics of a deformable solid can describe the
elements of small-sized devices, but already here theories of higher order should be
taken into account. At this stage in the development of continuum mechanics, a
number of elasticity theories have emerged to overcome the problem. These include
the modified couple stress theory of elasticity, the surface theory of elasticity, the
nonlocal theory of elasticity, the gradient elasticity theory and their modifications.
The first chapter (Chap. 1) of this monograph gives an overview of studies on the
dynamics of nanoshells, nanoplates and nanobeams in natural/thermal/electric/
magnetic fields, obtained on the basis of some of the above-listed theories. The
review of existing papers and monographs shows that the problem of analysing the
statics and dynamics of MEMS/NEMS devices is only at the initial stage of
development. Namely, most of the research is limited to the analysis of
Duffing-type equations, which are obtained using the Bubnov-Galerkin variational
method in the first approximation, thus searching for solutions of strongly reduced
order models with one or two degrees of freedom. At present, when studying the
problems of statics and dynamics of plates and shells, kinematic models of the first
and second approximations are mainly employed. Moreover, the majority of the
approaches are based on a linear formulation and deal with a small number of
degrees of freedom. Often, in the problems under consideration, the solution is not
entirely reliable. Furthermore, since it is obtained by a limited number of methods,
their convergence is not shown or proved. Thus, the nonlinear dynamics of
nanostructures has not been sufficiently investigated, and no reliable scenarios
of the transition from periodic to chaotic vibrations have been revealed. The use of

ix
x Introduction

such a tool for studying nonlinear dynamics as wavelet analysis and the spectrum of
Lyapunov exponents is at the initial stage of its development. Furthermore, chaotic
vibrations, hyperchaotic vibrations, hyper-hyperchaotic and other types of vibra-
tions are not sufficiently studied. The critical overview of the latest nonlinear
dynamics of micro/nanostructures presented in this chapter demonstrates the need
for innovative theoretical and numerical tools to achieve reliable and validated
results.
The second chapter (Chap. 2) concerns the latest literature review devoted to
micro/nano size-dependent mathematical models of beams, plates and shells. The
review includes nonlocal theory of elasticity, surface theory of elasticity, modified
couple stress theory and modified theory of deformation gradient taking into
account higher order shear deformation theory. Particular emphasis is placed on
nonlocal models of the Euler-Bernoulli and Timoshenko beams, Kirchhoff plates
and Kirchhoff-Love shells. Both the review and the real-world vibrational beha-
viour of the size-dependent structural member imply the need to consider physical,
geometric, material and design nonlinearity. It is expected that the novel approach
based on employment of the earlier developed concepts of nonlinear dynamics like
the Fourier and wavelet spectra, phase portraits, Poincaré maps, the Lyapunov
exponents’ computation (at least the largest one), the autocorrelation functions, etc.
will improve mathematical models of partial differential equations (PDEs) to be in a
good fit with experimentally observed nonlinear phenomena exhibited by the
size-dependent structural members.
Chapter 3, since the book is devoted to study the nonlinear phenomena exhibited
by the size-dependent structural members including bifurcations and chaotic pro-
cesses, provides an overview of one of the main tools for identifying the nonlinear
dynamics of these objects. Namely, the concept of Lyapunov exponents is briefly
revisited, which allows us to distinguish between regular (periodic or
quasi-periodic) and chaotic vibrations of the size-dependent beams, plates and
shells studied in this book. In particular, the methods of Benettin, Wolf, Rosenstein
and Kantz that based on Jacobian estimation and the neural network method are
presented and discussed. As noted above, an important issue in solving problems of
nonlinear dynamics, especially at the nanolevel, is the question of the reliability of
chaotic oscillations. This problem was first identified by René Lozi in 2013. In this
monograph, in order to obtain reliable results, it is proposed to achieve a coinci-
dence not only of the basic functions during chaotic oscillations, but also of their
second derivatives with respect to time. This question was formulated by the
authors of the monograph in the book “Deterministic Chaos in One Dimensional
Continuous Systems, World Scientific, Singapore, 2016”. In addition, various types
of definitions of chaos are given, and a methodology for identifying the truth of
chaos is presented. Moreover, this chapter is devoted to the identification of truth of
chaos and the reliability of the results using various methods for determining
Lyapunov exponents. This question was investigated using numerical experiments
based on classical simple nonlinear systems: Hénon map, hyperchaotic Hénon map,
logistic map, as well as the Rössler and Lorenz systems. The case studies are
analysed using the Fourier spectrum and wavelets of various types (Morlet,
Introduction xi

Mexican hat, Haar, Daubechies and Gauss of various orders). Preference is given to
the Morlet and Gaussian wavelet 32. It was shown that when analysing Lyapunov
exponents, neural network method (this method was proposed by the authors of this
monograph) makes it possible to calculate the spectrum of Lyapunov exponents and
hence to identify phenomena such as the transition of the system into chaos,
hyper-chaos, etc. in a fast and reliable way.
The fourth chapter deals with the methodology for detecting true chaos (in terms
of nonlinear dynamics) and is developed on the example of a structure composed of
two beams with a small clearance. The Euler-Bernoulli hypothesis is employed, and
the contact interaction between beams follows the Kantor model. The complex
nonlinearity results from the von Kármán geometric nonlinearity as well as the
nonlinearity implied by the contact interaction. The governing PDEs are reduced to
ODEs by the second-order finite difference method (FDM). The obtained system of
equations is solved by Runge-Kutta methods of different accuracy. To purify the
signal from errors introduced by numerical methods, the principal component
analysis is employed and the sign of the first Lyapunov exponent is estimated by the
Kantz, Wolf and Rosenstein methods.
Analysis of nonlinear oscillations of classical systems is carried out in Chap. 5. It
is devoted to feasible methods for computation of Lyapunov exponents, since there
is no universal, verified and general method to compute their exact (in numerical
sense) values. This observation leads to the conclusion that there is a need to
employ qualitatively different methods while checking the reliability of “true
chaotic results”. Furthermore, the analysis carried out in this chapter stands for a
helpful tool for studying systems with infinite dimensions. We show that the most
perspective and useful is the modified method of neural networks. It gives excellent
convergence to the original results and, as the only one (besides the Benettin
method), allows us to compute the spectrum of all Lyapunov exponents. In addi-
tion, very good results were obtained by the Rosenstein method for all studied
systems. However, the latter approach can be used to estimate only the largest
Lyapunov exponents.
In Chap. 6, mathematical models of nonlinear micro- and nanocylindrical panels
in temperature fields are introduced and studied. First, the application of the
modified couple stress theory of thermoelastic curvilinear panels based on the
third-order hypotheses has been described. Then, a technical theory of the
Sheremetev-Pelekh, Timoshenko and Bernoulli-Euler models is presented. The
method of solving static problems is outlined in Sect. 6.4. Chaotic dynamics of the
size-dependent flexible Bernoulli-Euler, Timoshenko and Sheremetev-Pelekh
beams based on the modified couple stress theory of elasticity is investigated in
Sect. 6.5. The two last sections are devoted to the construction of the so-called
charts of vibration character with regard to amplitude and frequency of the external
excitation and their study with the use of the first, second and third kinematic
hypotheses.
Chapter 7 is devoted to the analysis of nonlinear functionally graded material
(FGM) straight and curved beams’ behaviour based on the modified couple stress
theory. Defining the deflection curve in order to simplify the governing equations,
xii Introduction

we investigate the influence of scale length parameter, and non-homogeneity

coefficient on the dynamic characteristics and the scenario of transition from
periodic to chaotic beam vibrations. First, properties of various FGM materials are
revisited (Sect. 7.2) with an emphasis on the dependence of material properties on
temperature. Then, regular and chaotic vibrations of size-dependent Timoshenko
beams with functionally graded properties along their thickness are illustrated and
analysed (Sect. 7.3). The following new properties regarding the research topic
under consideration can be derived.
(i) We have considered the dynamics of nonlinear FG Timoshenko beams on
the basis of the modified couple stress theory, using a novel concept of the
bending line.
(ii) The influence of the size-dependent coefficient and the grading parameter on
the load-deflection dependence is investigated for the static problem. In order
to get solutions for nonlinear static problem, the relaxation method was
employed. It has been shown that the minimum deflection is achieved by the
beam when the functional grading process is taken into account and the
stiffer layer is located on the upper side in both cases, i.e. with/without the
size-dependent behaviour.
(iii) The functionally graded beam with the stiffer layer on the upper side is
suitable for application to carry dynamic loads for a given frequency and
amplitude of the harmonic excitation. This conclusion coincides with that
formulated for static problems. In the case of the homogeneous beam and the
beam with the stiffer layer located on the bottom side, the essential depen-
dence of the obtained results on the size-dependent coefficient is observed.
(iv) In order to validate the reliability of the largest Lyapunov exponents (LLEs)
computed with Wolf’s algorithm, three qualitatively different methods have
been applied, i.e. Rosenstein’s, Kantz’s and the neural network one. The
analysis implies that all methods give qualitatively the same result, i.e.
positive or negative values of the LLEs, over the whole time interval studied.
(v) For the considered values of the size-dependent and material grading
parameters, the universal route to chaos, following the classical
Ruelle-Takens-Newhouse scenario, has been detected.
In Sect. 7.4, the size-dependent model based on a modified coupled stress theory
has been constructed for the geometrically nonlinear curvilinear functionally graded
Timoshenko beams. To build the model, the concept of a reference line was used.
Compared to previous models for functionally graded beams, this model is sig-
nificantly simpler. In the case of the straight-line beams, the size-dependent effect
decreases the value of the beam deflection for the same coefficient of
non-homogeneity. It has been reported that the localization of the most rigid layer
on the upper side of the beam essentially decreases the deflections of the beam for
the same value of the size-dependent coefficients. In the case of the curvature, the
most loading ability is observed for the functionally graded beam with the most
rigid layer located on the beam top. In the case of the LE computations, in all
Introduction xiii

studied cases we have observed a transition from the negative to positive LE value,
which is associated with the transition from the pre-critical to post-critical beam
state. In the variants 2 and 8, there are two positive LE. It means that in these two
cases, stiffer stability loss is exhibited. In Sect. 7.5, the investigation of stability of
flexible curvilinear Euler-Bernoulli beams in a temperature field has been carried
out without any restrictions regarding the temperature field distribution. It has been
shown that the occurrence of imperfections due to either beam curvature or external
load implies a different form of beam stability loss while increasing the temperature
intensity. The type of temperature field has an essential impact on the beam stability
loss regarding the temperature intensity and external loading. Inclusion of the beam
curvature in the heat transfer equation yields an increase of the critical load
responsible for the stability loss as well as changes of the beam form regarding its
pre-critical state. Section 7.6 is devoted to the study of the mathematical model of a
three-layer micro- and nanobeams. Based on both Grigolyuk-Chulkov and modified
couple stress theories, the new model validated by both static and dynamic analyses
of the three-layer microbeams including only one scalar/length parameter has been
constructed, which takes into account the size effect. The employed Hamilton
principle yielded the governing equation of motion as well as general boundary and
initial conditions regarding displacements formulated for the microbeams. The
proposed model of the microbeam deformation is one of the most simple models,
and it includes the only one scalar length parameter. However, it allows us to take
into account the microstructural effects in both external and internal beam layers for
any boundary conditions. The finally formulated boundary value problem is of the
sixth order, and in the case of the static problem it is solved analytically. The
numerical results show that the studied beam model can explain the scale effect
exhibited by the microbeams. The obtained deflections and stresses based on the
introduced modified couple stress model are smaller compared to the classical
three-layer Grigolyuk-Chulkov beam model while increasing beam thickness.
Thermoelastic vibrations of the Timoshenko microbeams based on the modified
couple stress theory are studied in Chap. 8. In particular, the dependence of the
quality factor of nonlinear microbeam resonators under thermoelastic damping for
Timoshenko beams with regard to geometric nonlinearity is analysed. The con-
structed mathematical model is based on the modified couple stress theory which
implies prediction of size-dependent effects in microbeam resonators. The Hamilton
principle yields coupled nonlinear thermoelastic PDEs governing dynamics of the
Timoshenko microbeams for both plane stresses and plane deformations. Nonlinear
thermoelastic vibrations are investigated analytically and numerically, and quality
factors of the resonators versus geometric and material microbeam properties are
estimated. Results are presented for gold microbeams for different ambient tem-
peratures and different beam thicknesses, and they are compared with results
yielded by the classical theory of elasticity in linear/nonlinear cases. The most
important conclusions of our study are summarized in the following three points.
xiv Introduction

1. Results reported in Figs. 8.4, 8.6 and Figs. 8.5, 8.7 with size-dependent beha-
viour and in the case of linear vibrations exhibit increase of the eigenfrequencies
and increase of the quality factor of the beam resonator.
2. The occurrence of nonlinearity in both tested boundary (simple-simple) and
(clamped-clamped) conditions implies a significant increase in the frequency
of the fundamental vibration mode as well as the quality factor of the resonator
(Figs. 8.8–8.11).
3. The analysis of the obtained results shows that in the case of the thermoelastic
damping, it is necessary to take into account the nonlinear behaviour as well as
size-dependent effects of the microbeams. Both mentioned features are crucial
for the quality factor of the beam resonators.
In Chap. 9, problems associated with multifunctional requirements with respect
to effective characteristics of composites consisting of two components as well as
composites with holes or technological inclusions have been studied. In the process
of investigation, a strong dependence of the optimal topology of the distribution of
materials in the microstructure of composites on the form of the target functions has
been detected. The study of transformations of the optimal topology of the com-
posite microstructure with a change in the weight coefficient from x ¼ 0 (maxi-
mization of the heat transfer) up to x ¼ 1 (maximization of the mechanical moduli)
has been conducted. Moreover, a set of alternatives optimal in the Pareto sense has
been constructed. The considered examples clearly indicate the inability to achieve
the best/required properties simultaneously in both cases, which is caused by
conflicting criteria in the target function. In addition, nonlinear dynamics of the
size-dependent Euler-Bernoulli beams embedded into temperature field with
topologically optimized microstructure is studied. The following new results are
presented:
(i) We have developed a mathematical model of the size-dependent nonlinear
beam, taking into account the topological optimization under the criterion of
maximum stiffness. The mathematical model is based on the
Bernoulli-Euler, von Kármán and Duhamel-Newmann hypotheses. Also, an
algorithm and a computer program for numerical computations of the
optimized beam microstructure for the given boundary conditions, the form
of external load and the temperature have been developed (both static and
dynamic problems have been considered).
(ii) Reliability of the results was confirmed by investigating the convergence
along the spatial variable as well as by examining the solution to the Cauchy
problems, and investigating Lyapunov exponents and time evolution of the
frequency obtained using wavelet analysis.
(iii) The analysis of the reliability of the results obtained for different numbers of
spatial partitions was carried out based on the analysis of the power spec-
trum for chaotic system states. The reliability of chaos was validated by
computing LLEs using four different methods.
Introduction xv

(iv) The Cauchy problem was solved by numerous methods and the fourth-order
Runge-Kutta method was chosen as the most efficient. The optimal step was
chosen using the Runge principle.
(v) Based on the tests carried out for numerous wavelets (Daubechies, Gauss,
Haar and Morlet), the Morlet wavelets were chosen as the most feasible for
our problem.
(vi) The static analysis was carried out for three values of temperature and two
values of size-dependent parameter. The investigated “frequency-deflection”
dependency exhibits different results for homogeneous and non-homogeneous
(optimized) beams for all values of the length-dependent parameter.
(vii) The use of beams with the optimized microstructure allows for an increase
in the range of working loads regimes compared to homogeneous beams for
which the vibration regimes are either periodic or quasi-periodic.
(viii) The analysis of the scenarios of transition from periodic to chaotic vibra-
tions was carried out. In all cases, the transition into chaotic vibrations
followed a scenario similar to the classical Pomeau-Manneville scenario (a
few exceptions were observed for some values of temperature and the
length-dependent parameter).
Contents

1 Nanostructural Members in Various Fields: A Literature

Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Nanobeams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Nanoplates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.3 Nanoshells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2 Size-Dependent Theories of Beams, Plates and Shells . . . . . . . . .... 25
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 25
2.2 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 25
2.3 Non-classical (Size-Dependent) Models of Beams, Plates
and Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.1 Nonlocal Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.2 Modified Couple Stress Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.3 Modified Theory of a Gradient of Deformations . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.4 Surface Theory of Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.5 Size-Dependent Theory of Beams, Plates and Shells . . . . . 35
2.3.6 Size-Dependent Theory of Beams, Plates and Shells
Based on the Shear Deformations of the First Order
Under the Timoshenko Theory (TBT) . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 45
2.3.7 Size-Dependent Theory of Beams, Plates and Shells
Based on the Shear Deformation Model of the Third
Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 51
2.3.8 Nonlocal HSDT-Based Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 53
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 58
3 Lyapunov Exponents and Methods of Their Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.2 Largest Lyapunov Exponent (LLE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

xvii
xviii Contents

3.3 Spectrum of Lyapunov Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

3.4 Benettin’s Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.5 Wolf’s Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.6 Rosenstein’s Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.7 Kantz Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.8 Method Based on Jacobian Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.9 Modification of the Neural Network Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4 Reliability of Chaotic Vibrations of Euler-Bernoulli Beams
with Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.2 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.3 Mathematical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.4 Principal Component Analysis (PCA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.5 Numerical Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.6 Application of the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) . . . . . . . 108
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5 Analysis of Simple Nonlinear Dynamical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.2 Gauss Wavelets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.3 Logistic Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.4 Hénon Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.5 Hyperchaotic Generalized Hénon Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.6 Rössler Attractor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.7 Lorenz Attractor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6 Mathematical Models of Micro- and Nano-cylindrical Panels
in Temperature Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.2 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.3 Modified Couple Stress Theory of Thermoelastic Curvilinear
Panels Based on the Third-Order Sheremetev–Pelekh,
Timoshenko and Bernoulli–Euler Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.4 Technical Theory for the Sheremetev–Pelekh, Timoshenko
and Bernoulli–Euler Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.5 Static Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
6.6 Chaotic Dynamics of the Size-Dependent Flexible
Bernoulli–Euler, Timoshenko and Sheremetev–Pelekh Beams
Within the Modified Couple Stress Theory of Elasticity . . . . . . . . 169
6.6.1 Analysis of Dynamic Characteristics of the
Bernoulli–Euler, Timoshenko and Sheremetev–Pelekh
Models for the Size-Dependent Beams Versus
the Size Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Contents xix

6.7 Construction of the Charts of Vibration Characters Verusus

Amplitude and Frequency of the Exciting Load and Their
Analysis (First-, Second- and Third-Order Kinematic
Hypotheses) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.7.1 Analysis of the Charts of the Vibration Regimes for the
Euler–Bernoulli, Timoshenko and Sheremetev–Pelekh
Modes Versus k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.7.2 Comparison of the Charts of the Vibration Regimes
for One Chosen Model Versus the Relative Length k
with Account of the Size-Dependent Parameter l=h . . . . . . 190
6.8 Influence of a Type of Kinematic Models of the Zero-,
First- and Third-Order Approximations on the Scenario
of Transition from Periodic to Chaotic Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
7 Mathematical Models of Functionally Graded Beams
in Temperature Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.2 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7.3 Laws of Properties Change of FGM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
7.3.1 Properties of Material P-FGM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
7.3.2 Properties of Material E-FGM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.3.3 Properties of S-FGM Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.3.4 Properties of Porous Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.3.5 Homogenization of Properties of Graded Material
Based on Mori-Tanaka and Self-consistent Methods . . . . . 207
7.3.6 Dependence of Material Properties on Temperature . . . . . . 208
7.4 Chaotic Dynamics of Size-Dependent Timoshenko Beams
with Functionally Graded Properties Along Their Thickness . . . . . 210
7.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
7.4.2 Mathematical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
7.4.3 Derivation of the Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7.4.4 Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7.4.5 Results and Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
7.5 Stability of the Size-Dependent and Functionally Graded
Curvilinear Timoshenko Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
7.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
7.5.2 Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.5.3 Derivation of Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
7.5.4 The Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
7.5.5 Numerical Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
xx Contents

7.6 Stability of Curvilinear Euler-Bernoulli Beams in Temperature

Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
7.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
7.6.2 Mathematical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
7.6.3 Numerical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
7.6.4 Influence of Imperfections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
7.7 Mathematical Model of Three-Layer Micro- and Nano-Beams
Based on the Hypotheses of the Grigolyuk-Chulkov
and the Modified Couple Stress Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
7.7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
7.7.2 Theory of Bending Including Shear Effects
and the Modified Couple Stress Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
7.7.3 Equations of Motion and Boundary Conditions
for the Three-Layer Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
7.7.4 Static Transversal Bending of the Three-Layer Beam . . . . . 276
7.7.5 Vibrations of a Three-Layer Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
7.7.6 Numerical Results and Their Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
8 Thermoelastic Vibrations of Timoshenko Microbeams
(Modified Couple Stress Theory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.2 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
8.3 Formulation of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
8.3.1 Stress and Deformation Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
8.3.2 Beam Equation of Motion Based on the Modified
Couple Stress Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
8.3.3 Coupled Problem of Thermoelasticity for Timoshenko
Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
8.4 Quality Factor of the Resonator with Thermoelastic Damping . . . . 308
8.5 Numerical and Analytical Results for a Rectangular Cross-
Sectional Beam Resonator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
8.5.1 Analytical Solution for the Linear Size-Dependent
Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
8.5.2 Analytical Solution for the Nonlinear Size-Dependent
Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
9 Vibrations of Size-Dependent Beams Under Topologic
Optimization and Temperature Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
9.2 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Contents xxi

9.3 Topological Optimization Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

9.3.1 Methods Based on Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
9.3.2 Regularization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
9.4 Applying Topological Cell Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
9.4.1 Flexibility Minimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
9.4.2 Thermoelastic Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
9.4.3 Topological Optimization of Stress State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
9.4.4 Topological Optimization in the Field
of Thermoelasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
9.4.5 Interpolating Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
9.5 Reactions on Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
9.5.1 Reaction on Boundary and Their Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . 353
9.5.2 Formulating Problems of Topological Optimization . . . . . . 354
9.6 Topological Optimization of Thermoelastic Composites
with Maximized Stiffness and Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
9.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
9.6.2 Determination of the Effective Tensor of Elastic
Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
9.6.3 Determination of the Effective Heat Transfer
Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
9.6.4 Topological Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
9.6.5 Numerical Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
9.7 Non-Linear Dynamics of Size-Dependent Euler-Bernoulli
Beams with Topologically Optimized Microstructure
and Subjected to Temperature Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
9.7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
9.7.2 Mathematical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
9.7.3 Results and Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Chapter 1
Nanostructural Members in Various
Fields: A Literature Review

1.1 Introduction

An overview of studies on the dynamics of nanoshells, nanoplates and nanobeams in

natural/thermal/electric/magnetic fields, obtained on the basis of some of the above-
listed theories of higher order, is given. The review of existing papers and monographs
shows that the problem of analysing the statics and dynamics of MEMS/NEMS
devices is only at the initial stage of development. Namely, most of the research
is limited to the analysis of Duffing-type equations, which are obtained using the
Bubnov-Galerkin variational method in the first approximation, thus searching for
solutions of strongly reduced order models with one degree of freedom. At present,
when studying the problems of statics and dynamics of plates and shells, kinematic
models of the first and second approximations are mainly employed. Moreover,
the majority of the approaches are based on a linear formulation and deal with a
small number of degrees of freedom. Often, in the problems under consideration, the
solution is not entirely reliable. Furthermore, since it is obtained by a limited number
of methods, their convergence is not shown or proved. Thus, the nonlinear dynamics
of nanostructures has not been sufficiently investigated, and no reliable scenarios
of the transition from periodic to chaotic vibrations have been revealed. The use of
such a tool for studying nonlinear dynamics as wavelet analysis and the spectrum of
Lyapunov exponents is at the initial stage of its development. Furthermore, chaotic
vibrations, hyperchaotic vibrations, hyper-hyperchaotic and other types of vibrations
are not sufficiently studied. The critical overview of the latest nonlinear dynamics of
micro/nanostructures presented in this chapter demonstrates the need for innovative
theoretical and numerical tools to achieve reliable and proven results.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer 1
Nature Switzerland AG 2021
J. Awrejcewicz et al., Mathematical Modelling and Numerical Analysis of Size-Dependent
Structural Members in Temperature Fields, Advanced Structured Materials 142,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55993-9_1
2 1 Nanostructural Members in Various Fields: A Literature Review

1.1.1 Nanobeams

1.1.1.1 Natural Environment

Guo and Zhao [1] developed a theoretical background aimed at a study of the size-
dependent bending elastic properties of nanobeams with surface effects.
Lim and Wang [2] employed the exact variational nonlocal stress modelling with
asymptotic higher order strain gradients for nanobeams.
Wang et al. [3] analysed vibrations of initially stressed micro- and nanobeams.
Challamel and Wang [4] solved a paradox associated with the small-scale effect
for a nonlocal cantilever beam. Lim et al. [5] illustrated the stiffness strengthening
effects of nonlocal stress and axial tension on free vibration of cantilever nanobeams.
Aydogdu [6] proposed a general nonlocal beam theory to analyse bending, buck-
ling and free vibration of nanobeams based on the classical Euler-Bernoulli, Timo-
shenko, Reddy and Levinson theories.
Zhang et al. [7] analysed bending and vibration of hybrid nonlocal beams.
Murmu and Adhikari [8] studied nonlocal transverse vibration of double-
nanobeam systems within the framework of Eringen’s nonlocal elasticity theory. The
following results were reported: nonlocal natural frequencies are smaller than the cor-
responding local frequencies, small-scale effects are higher with increasing values
of nonlocal parameter, whereas increase of stiffness of coupling springs reduces the
nonlocal effects.
Li et al. [9] derived a sixth-order PDE governing dynamics of simply supported
nanobeams under initial axial force based on nonlocal elasticity theory. The effects
of the nonlocal nanoscale and dimensionless axial force on the first twice mode
frequencies were presented and discussed.
Hosseini-Hashemi et al. [10] investigated the surface effects (elasticity, stress
and density) of free vibrations of the Euler-Bernoulli and Timoshenko nanobeams
employing the nonlocal elasticity theory. The governing PDEs were studied with
regard to three different boundary conditions, i.e. simple-simple, clamped-simple
and clamped-clamped. In particular, it was shown that rotary inertia and shear defor-
mation had more effects on the surface than the nonlocal parameter.
Simsek [11] proposed a novel size-dependent beam model for nonlinear free
vibration of a functionally graded nanobeam by matching the nonlocal strain gradi-
ent theory and the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory with an account of the von Kármán’s
nonlinearity. Hamilton’s principle yielded the governing PDEs and boundary con-
ditions. A few case studies were supplemented pointing out the important features
of the strain gradient length scale, the nonlocal parameters, vibration amplitude and
various material compositions.
Hashemi and Khaniki [12] studied free vibrations of a Timoshenko nanobeam
with variable cross section in frame of the nonlocal elasticity theory. The small-
scale effects were modelled by Eringen’s nonlocal elasticity theory. They derived
an analytical solution with regard to the Timoshenko nanobeams for three different
1.1 Introduction 3

boundary conditions. They also illustrated how the nanoscale effects change the
Timoshenko beam natural frequencies.
Sahmani and Aghdam [13] investigated the size-dependent nonlinear free vibra-
tion response of multi-layer functionally graded graphene platelet-reinforced com-
posite nanobeams. Both of the hardening/softening stiffness were taken into con-
siderations within the framework of the third-order shear deformation beam theory
and nonlocal strain gradient elasticity theory. The non-classical governing PDEs
were obtained, and next a perturbation technique in conjunction with the Galerkin
method yielded an explicit analytical solution for nonlocal strain gradient nonlinear
frequency of the studied nanobeams.
Jena and Chakraverty [14] studied the free vibration of nanobeams based on
nonlocal Euler-Bernoulli theory and the developed differential transform method.
The latter allowed to transform the governing differential equations to the algebraic
equations. The numerical results for different scaling parameters and four boundary
conditions were presented and discussed.
Khaniki [15] studied vibrations of nanobeams based on the modified Eringen’s
two-phase local/nonlocal integral model. Three different examples including in-
phase vibration, out-phase vibration and fixation of the under heath beam layer
were analysed. It was shown, among others, that the elastic coupling term and non-
local parameters had a significant effect on the natural frequencies of the studied
nanobeams.

1.1.1.2 Thermal Environment

Jiang et al. [16] determined the thermal extension coefficient of carbon nanotubes
using an analytical approach.
Yan and Han [17] investigated the torsional and axially compressed buckling of
multi-walled and double-walled carbon nanotubes versus temperature change.
Lee and Chang [18] found a closed-form solution while investigating the critical
buckling temperature of single-walled carbon nanotubes under a uniform temperature
rise.
Tounsi et al. [19] studied the small size effects on wave propagation in double-
walled carbon nanotube subjected to temperature.
Lim and Yang [20] employed the variational principle and integrated the strain-
ing energy density of a nanobeam under thermal field based on originally devel-
oped higher order differential equation and the corresponding boundary conditions.
The effects of the nonlocal nanoscale and temperature on the nanobeams transverse
deflection were illustrated and analysed. It was concluded that at low and room tem-
perature the nanobeams’ transverse deflection decreased with increase in temperature
difference, whereas at higher temperature the transverse deflections increased as the
temperature difference increased.
Chen et al. [21] predicted the damping behaviour of the nanobeams including
thermal fluctuations and the paddling effect.
4 1 Nanostructural Members in Various Fields: A Literature Review

Youssef et al. [22] developed the model of vibration of gold nanobeam induced
by laser pulse heating in framework of two-temperature generalized thermoelasticity
and non-Fourier heat conduction. It was shown through numerical results the effects
of the two-temperature parameter and the laser pulse parameters on the damping of
energy accumulated inside the beams.
Leijssen and Verhagen [23] demonstrated experimentally optomechanical inter-
actions in a sliced photonic crystal nanobeam. In particular, they showed how the
large interaction enables detection of the thermal motion with detection noise below
that associated with standard quantum limit.
Hoang [24] studied thermoelastic damping depending on vibration nanobeam
modes by using the finite element method. He showed that a properly carried out
optimization of the resonant beam dimensions may essentially increase its quality
factor.
Ebrahimi and Salari [25] studied the thermal action on buckling and free vibration
characteristics of functionally graded and size-dependent Timoshenko nanobeams
under in-plane thermal loading. The scale effect was studied based on Eringen’s non-
local elasticity theory. The effects of a few parameters including thermal effect, mate-
rial distribution profile, small size effects, beam thickness and mode number on the
critical buckling temperature and normalized natural frequencies of the temperature-
dependent nanobeams were analysed.
Ebrahimi and Barati [26] derived an analytical model of inhomogeneous function-
ally graded nanobeam in thermal environment on a basis of nonlocal strain gradient
theory. The temperature across the nanobeam thickness was distributed in a nonlinear
way. The reported numerical examples allowed to observe how the characteristics
of the wave propagation of nanobeams depend on the nonlocality parameter length
scale parameter, gradient index and temperature changes.
Ghadiri et al. [27] derived the equation of motion for a rotating nanocantilever
based on the Euler-Bernoulli beam model. The effects of temperature, angular veloc-
ity and small scale were studied. Increase of the non-dimensional frequency of the
first mode was implied by an increase of the nonlocal parameter.
Ebrahimi and Barati [28] studied thermal effects on the buckling of functionally
graded nanobeams subjected to different types of thermal loading. The derived PDEs
were solved analytically. In particular, the effects of the power-law index, nonlocal
parameter slenderness ratio and thermal loading were illustrated and discussed.
Ebrahimi and Barati [29] carried out the analysis of surface and thermal effects on
the vibration characteristics of viscoelastic foundation by utilizing the nonlocal strain
gradient elasticity theory, the Euler-Bernoulli beam model and the Gurtin-Murdoch
elasticity theory. The Hamilton principle yielded the governing equations, which
were solved analytically for simple-simple and clamped-clamped boundary condi-
tions. Effects of linear, shear and viscous layers of foundation, structural damping
coefficient, surface elasticity, length scale parameter, nonlocal parameter, tempera-
ture change, and slenderness ratio of the nanobeam frequencies were exhibited.
Abouelregal and Zenkour [30] studied the vibrational response of thermoelastic
nanobeam resonators subjected to ramp-type heating and exponential decaying time-
varying load based on the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory. The small-scale effects were
1.1 Introduction 5

captured by a nonlocal parameter. The effects of nonlocal, point load and ramping-
time parameters on the nanobeam vibrations were investigated.
Shafiei et al. [31] analysed transverse vibration of rotary functionally graded
size-dependent tapered Euler-Bernoulli nanobeam in thermal environment. Nonlocal
equations of motions were yielded by Hamilton’s principle, and they were solved
by the differential quadrature method. The following important parameters influence
on the nanobeams flapwise bending vibration were considered: angular velocity,
material distribution profile, boundary conditions, small-scale parameter and rate of
cross-sectional change.
Shahabinejad et al. [32] analysed free vibrations of rotating functionally graded
nanobeams under in-plane thermal loading. The Euler-Bernoulli beam theory, Hamil-
ton’s principle and the small-scale effect based on the Eringen elasticity theory were
used. Free vibration frequencies were estimated for cantilever and proposed can-
tilever boundary conditions.
Arefi and Zenkour [33] employed the analytical approach for estimation of the
thermal stresses and deformations of a curved nanobeam resting on Pasternak’s
foundation. Influence of the following important parameters on the thermal stresses
was carried out: spring and shear parameters, thermal loads, nonlocal parameter, and
beam curvature radius.

1.1.1.3 Electric Field

McCutcheon et al. [34] demonstrated experimentally high-quality factor of dual-

polarized photonic crystal nanobeam cavities.
Hu et al. [35] studied experimentally self-heating and external strain coupling
induced phase transition in a nanobeam. They demonstrated the accompanied gigan-
tic change in resistivity and optical transmittance.
Liang and Shen [36] analysed the effect of an electrostatic force on an Euler-
Bernoulli piezoelectric nanobeam dynamics. Influence of the electrostatic force on
the first four natural frequencies was demonstrated, and a possibility of adjusting the
natural frequency of a nanobeam by using voltage control was shown.
Stabile et al. [37] presented experimental results of the equilibrium/non-
equilibrium transport properties of vanadium oxide nanobeams near the metal-
insulator transition. It was shown a crucial role of both temperature and electric
fields in the transitional process, and that both fields can be separated.
Wang et al. [38] investigated vibration of nanowires based on the Timoshenko
beam model embedded in electric field via molecular dynamics simulation. It was
demonstrated an increase/decrease of the natural frequencies by increasing of posi-
tive/negative electric field in polarization direction. The vibration frequencies of the
cantilever Timoshenko beam with axial force were estimated versus the employed
electric field.
Phunpeng et al. [39] studied piezoelectric and flexoelectric effects of nanobeam
by using finite element method.
6 1 Nanostructural Members in Various Fields: A Literature Review

Arefi et al. [40] investigated free vibration responses of piezoelectric sandwich

curved nanobeams resting on Winkler-Pasternak foundation in the framework of the
nonlocal elastic theory and higher order shear deformation theories. The Hamilton
principle yielded the governing equations of motion and boundary conditions. The
carried out numerical analysis allowed to study the influence of important param-
eters like nonlocal parameter, the volume fraction, different boundary conditions,
the external electric field and dimensionless geometric parameters of the dynamic
characterizes of the nanobeams.
Jasulaneca et al. [41] reviewed research devoted to switch architectures and struc-
tural elements in the field of electrostatically actuated nanobeam-based nanoelec-
tromechanical structures. Experimental results overview was presented focused on
reliability issues and of the operating environment.
Arefi et al. [42] considered nonlocal magneto-electro-thermo-elastic behaviour of
the functionally graded nanobeams subjected to magneto-electro-elastic loads. The
governing equations were derived based on the third-order shear deformation theory
of beams, the principle of virtual work and the nonlocal magneto-electro-thermo-
elastic relations. The nanobeams were under transverse loads and electric/magnetic
potentials. They reported electric and magnetic potential distributions through the
nanobeam thickness as well as the influence of the chosen parameters including
inhomogeneous parameter, electric and magnetic potential, nonlocal parameter and
thermal load.
Arefi [43] analysed the thickness stretching effect in the framework on the shear
and normal deformation for magneto-electro-elastic vibrations of a three-layered
curved nanobeam with nanocore and two piezomagnetic layers. Eringen’s nonlocal
elasticity theory was utilized to emphasize the size dependency in the governing
PDEs. Both analytical and numerical studies were employed. In particular, the influ-
ence of the following parameters was investigated, electro-magneto-mechanical load,
size-dependent parameter, opening angle, Pasternak’s foundation parameter and core
thickness.

1.1.1.4 Magnetic Field

Firouz-Abadi and Hosseinian [44] analysed the resonance frequency and stability of
the nanobeams embedded into a longitudinal magnetic field with an account of the
small-scale effect. The study includes the Lorentz forces and thermal stress effects.
The governing equations were solved using the Galerkin method.
Karlicić et al. [45] studied vibration of a cracked nanobeam in an elastic Winkler-
type medium with an account of the effects of longitudinal magnetic field and temper-
ature change. The considerations were based on the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory and
the nonlocal elasticity as well as on the Maxwell classical equation. The influence of
the nonlocal parameter, stiffness of rotational spring, temperature change and mag-
netic field on the vibration frequencies were investigated. The crack position versus
boundary conditions was also analysed.
1.1 Introduction 7

Baghani et al. [46] illustrated and discussed the effects of magnetic field, surface
energy and compressive axial load on the nanobeam dynamics and stability. The
vibration frequencies and critical buckling loads of the nanobeam were estimated
using the differential quadrature method. It was demonstrated that the magnetic
field, surface energy and angular velocity play an important role in the dynamic and
stability analysis of the nanobeams.
Du et al. [47] reported the design, fabrication and characterization of a reso-
nant Lorentz force magnetic field sensor based on dual-coupled photonic crystal
nanobeam cavities. The resonance wavelength shift of a selected supermode of the
coupled cavities caused by the Lorentz force-induced displacement was employed
to achieve the optical transmission variation.
Alibeigi et al. [48] investigated the buckling response of nanobeams based on the
Euler-Bernoulli model, the von Kármán geometric nonlinearity, and the modified
couple stress theory under action of thermal, electric and magnetic loadings. The
governing equation and boundary conditions were obtained by using the minimum
potential energy principle. The problem was solved using the Galerkin approach
with an account of size effect as well as length and thickness influence on the critical
buckling temperature.
Kerid et al. [49] investigated the magnetic field, thermal loads and small-scale
effects on vibrations of a nanobeam structure using the Euler-Bernoulli and Timo-
shenko beam theories. The resonance frequency change, the magnetic field intensity,
the thermal load and small-scale effects were presented and discussed.

1.1.2 Nanoplates

1.1.2.1 Natural Environment

Alibeigloo [50] analysed dynamics of a nanoplate by employing 3D theory of elas-

ticity and nonlocal continuum mechanics. A closed-form solution was proposed
based on the state-space method in the thickness direction and Fourier series in the
nanoplate directions. In particular, the effects of the nonlocal parameter, aspect ratio,
thickness-to-length ratio and half wavenumbers on the frequencies were illustrated
and discussed.
Yan and Jiang [51] investigated the surface effects on the vibration and buckling
of a simply supported piezoelectric nanoplate employing a modified Kirchhoff plate
model. The effects of the applied electric potential, the mode number, the plate aspect
ratio and the plate thickness on the vibration frequencies were illustrated numerically.
The authors detected a critical transition point where the combined surface effects
on the critical electric voltage may disappear.
The vibration response of a double-piezoelectric-nanoplate system subjected
to external electric voltage was studied by Asemi and Farajpour [52] where two
nanoplates were coupled by a polymer matrix. The governing PDEs were derived
8 1 Nanostructural Members in Various Fields: A Literature Review

based on the Hamilton principle, and both natural frequencies and critical electric
voltages were estimated.
Salehipour et al. [53] used converted couple stress and three-dimensional elas-
ticity conception to derive a model for static and vibration of functionally graded
microplates and nanoplates. Developed model included small size effect. Hamil-
ton’s principle was used to create the equations of motion and boundary conditions.
For in-plane and out-of-plane free vibrations of simply supported plates, analytical
closed-form solutions were described. In order to achieve the analytical solutions,
the elasticity modulus and mass density were assumed to differ exponentially by the
thickness of the plate.
Jafari et al. [54] used nonclassical constitutive equations consisting of the
first/second-order strain gradients. Navier and Galerkin methods were employed to
solve the governing PDEs and obtain the approximate system outputs, respectively.
The author studied the influence of different parameters, boundary conditions and
the plate size on the natural frequencies of the nanoplates.
Ghassabi et al. [55] derived governing PDEs and the associated boundary condi-
tions with an account of a nonlocal parameter based on Hamilton’s principle. The
Kirchhoff, Mindlin and the third-order shear deformation theories were employed.
The analysed case studies included simply supported and cantilever nanoplates with
an emphasis put to demonstrate a role of the dimensionless plate length, plate theory,
power-low index and nonlocal parameter ratio on the vibration of the functionally
graded rectangular nanoplates.
Mehdi Zarei et al. [56] studied free vibration and buckling of a round tapered
nanoplate subjected to in-plane forces. Assumption of nonlocal resilience was used to
demonstrate effects depending on the size. In order to obtain frequency equations for
simply supported and clamped nanoplates, the Raleigh-Ritz method and differential
transformation approach were used. The final results showed that incrementing the
parameter of taper yielded rise of the buckling load and natural frequencies.
Shahrbabaki [57] employed the Ritz and Galerkin methods to study 3D nonlo-
cal elasticity of rectangular nanoplate. Two simple cases of 3D free vibrations of
simply supported nanoplate and wave propagation in 3D infinite nonlocal solid were
studied. In particular, the author utilized novel trigonometric series as approximating
functions while using Galerkin approach. Effects of length to thickness ratio, aspect
ratio, nonlocal parameter and different boundary conditions influence on the natural
frequencies of the nanoplate vibrations were analysed.
Despotovic [58] investigated the problem of stability and vibrations of square
single-layer graphene sheet employing Eringen’s approach. Natural frequencies of
transverse vibrations versus the body length and nonlocality features were estimated
based on the Galerkin method and the classical and nonlocal elasticity theories.
Critical values of the body load parameter and the mode shapes were determined.
Singh et al. [59] carried out the vibration study of a nanoplate supported by
Winkler foundations in the framework of the classical/ Eringen’s elasticity theory.
Effects of various nanoplates’ parameters on the non-dimensional frequencies were
illustrated.
Another Random Scribd Document
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far as the public is concerned, the thing is then finished. Fortunately,
this form of magic often works—but unfortunately, it does not work
so often as it used to.[65]
What has been said indicates that magic may be regarded as a
form of thought characteristic of, but not confined to, primitive—or
what Professor Ellsworth Faris has called preliterate—man. It
suggests, also, that primitive thought and primitive mentality are
ordinarily associated with a definite organization of life and
experience, perhaps even a definite economic organization of society.
We all are disposed to think in magical terms in those regions of our
experience that have not been rationalized, and where our control is
uncertain and incomplete. The stock exchange and the golf course,
where success is uncertain and fortuitous, all tend to breed their own
superstition.
“Magic,” as Thorndyke says, “implies a mental state, and so may
be viewed from the standpoint of the history of thought.” But magic,
if it is a form of thought, is not science; neither is it art. The arts may
be said to begin with the lower animals. But in the art with which the
beaver constructs a dam and the bird builds a nest there is neither
magic nor science.
We can best understand magic and its relation to science if we
recall that thought is itself an interrupted act, “a delayed response” to
use the language of the behaviorists. There is the impulse to act,
which is interrupted by reflection, but eventually the impulse
completes itself in action. Magic has the character of thought in so
far as it is an impulse that is interrupted and so becomes conscious.
But it is not rational thought because it does not foresee and seek to
define the relation between the end it seeks and the means necessary
to achieve that end. Between ends and means there is always a hiatus
in which there is feeling but not clear intuition of how that end is to
be achieved.
All human activities tend to assume the character of magic in so
far as they become purely traditional and conventional, defined in
some sacred formula piously transmitted. It is peculiarly
characteristic of modern life, however, that all our inherited forms of
behavior tend to become rationalized. It is characteristic of modern
life that nothing is accepted merely on authority, every tradition is
subject to criticism.
 It is only in very recent years that we have achieved scientific
agriculture and scientific cooking. On the other hand we have already
scientific advertising and scientific “cheering.” “Yelling” at ball
games, once so spontaneous, has now become an art, if not a duty.[66]
 III. MENTALITY AND CITY LIFE
The reason the modern man is a more rational animal than his
more primitive ancestor is possibly because he lives in a city, where
most of the interests and values of life have been rationalized,
reduced to measurable units, and even made objects of barter and
sale. In the city—and particularly in great cities—the external
conditions of existence are so evidently contrived to meet man’s
clearly recognized needs that the least intellectual of peoples are
inevitably led to think in deterministic and mechanistic terms.
The embodiment of rational thought is the tool, the machine, in
which all the parts are manifestly designed to achieve a perfectly
intelligible end. The primitive man lives in a vastly different world,
where all the forces about him are mysterious and uncontrollable,
and where nature seems as wild, as romantic, and as unpredictable
as his own changing moods. The primitive man has almost no
machinery, and relatively few tools.
The mentality of the modern man, on the other hand, is based
upon the machine and upon the application of science to all the
interests of life—to education, to advertising, and, presently,
perhaps, to politics. The culture of the modern man is
characteristically urban, as distinguished from the folk culture,
which rests on personal relations and direct participation in the
common life of the family, the tribe, and the village community.
In fact, if we define them strictly, as Lévy-Bruhl seems to do, we
may say that reason and reflective thinking were born in the city.
They came, if not into existence, at least into vogue, in Athens, in the
time of Socrates and the Sophists. The Sophists were, in fact, a
distinctly urban phenomenon, and we owe to Socrates—who was one
of them—the first clear recognition of conceptional, as distinguished
from perceptional, knowledge. We owe to Plato, Socrates’ disciple,
the definition of the most fundamental tool of modern scientific
thought, namely, the concept, i.e., the Platonic idea.
Magic may be regarded, therefore, as an index, in a rough way,
not merely of the mentality, but of the general cultural level of races,
peoples, and classes. It is even possible that a more thoroughgoing
analysis of the mental processes involved in magic and rational
thought will permit us to measure the mentalities of social groups
with as much precision, at least, as we now measure and grade—with
the aid of the Binet-Simon tests—the intelligence of individuals. At
least we should know in this case what we were measuring, namely,
the extent and degree to which a given group or class had acquired
the ability and the habit of thinking in rational rather than magical
terms.
With a more precise conception of the nature of magic and of the
mechanisms of pre-logical thinking, we shall, no doubt, be able not
merely to compare and perhaps measure with a certain degree of
accuracy and objectivity the mentality and cultural levels of different
cultural groups, but we shall be able also to describe the process by
which races and peoples make the transition from one cultural level
to another. This transition, which Thorndyke has described in his
history of magic, is everywhere in progress. These changes in a
contemporary and living society are open and accessible to
investigation, now that history has enabled us to see them, as they
can never see them later, when they have become history.
In a recent paper in the American Journal of Sociology,
Professor U. G. Weatherly has called attention to the advantages of
the West Indies as a sociological laboratory.
Islands are peculiarly interesting sociologically, provided, of
course, that they are inhabited. For one thing, they are physically
defined. The island community is, for this reason, invariably isolated,
geographically and socially, and because the means of
communication are known, the extent of isolation can be reduced to
relatively measurable terms.
This isolation tends to give to each separate island community
an individuality that one rarely finds elsewhere. Because islands are
geographically limited and isolated, the influence of climate and
physiographic characteristics, as well as of economic organization, in
defining cultural traits, can be estimated and assessed with greater
accuracy than elsewhere. Until one has visited some of the Lesser
Antilles, he is not likely to understand or appreciate Frederick A.
Ober’s rather drastic summary of their history—“Discovered by the
Spaniards, appropriated by the Dutch, Danish, or English, and finally
abandoned to the semi-barbarous blacks from Africa, this has been
the usual succession in the islands.”[67]
 The rather bitter note of this statement probably reflects the
tone of the white planters, whose position in the islands has
gradually declined since the emancipation of the slaves.
It directs attention, however, to what is, from the point of view
of the student of human nature and of society, the most interesting
and unique feature of the islands, namely, the racial situation. As
Professor Weatherly has said, “Perhaps nowhere else is there a better
opportunity for securing definite evidence bearing on the opposing
theories of race and contact as factors in cultural growth.” Every
island, in fact, is a separate racial melting-pot in which the mingled
cultures and races of Europe, Africa, and Asia seem to be gradually,
very gradually, simmering down to a single cultural, and eventually,
also, to a single racial, blend.
 IV. OBEAH: THE MAGIC OF THE BLACK
MAN
Outside the Spanish Islands, Negroes are the dominant race in
the West Indies. In regions where they have not been replaced by
Hindus, as they have been in Trinidad and Demerara, British
Guiana, they constitute 90 per cent of the population. They are, in
fact, the only people who regard themselves as natives. The Asiatics
and the Europeans are, for the most part, mere sojourners.
So far as the islands now have a native culture it is the culture of
the Negro folk. It is, at the same time, the most characteristic
manifestation of the mentality of the West Indian black man, so far
as he has preserved what Lévy-Bruhl describes as the mentality of
primitive man.
What is more interesting about obeah is that while as a practice
and a belief it is universal among the uneducated classes of the black
population in the islands, it is everywhere different, and everywhere
in process of change. Practices that were originally imported from
Africa tend to assimilate and fuse with related practices and traits of
the European and Hindu cultures wherever the Africans have come
into contact with them.
This is evident, in the first place, from the fact that the obeah
man is not always a Negro; he may be, and not infrequently is, a
Hindu. In the second place, the ritual of obeah may include anything
from patent medicine to Guinea pepper. Among the instruments of
obeah in the possession of the police of Trinidad recently were a
stone image, evidently of Hindu origin, and a book of magic ritual
published in Chicago, which pretended to be, and no doubt had been,
translated originally from the writings of Albertus Magnus, the great
medieval writer on magic. A book called Le Petit Albert is said to be
extremely popular among obeah men in the French Islands.
The favorite decoctions in use among witch doctors consist of
bones, ashes, “grave dirt,” human nail parings—mixed, perhaps, with
asafetida or any other substance having a pungent odor. But in
addition to these, obeah men in the West Indies use the candles, the
little shrines, or “chapels,” as they call them, and various other
portions of the ritual of the Catholic church.
In January, 1917, a woman known as Valentine Sims, a native of
St. Lucia, was convicted, in Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, of obtaining
money by the assumption of supernatural powers. The testimony in
the case showed that, among other things, she attended the Roman
Catholic church, and, on pretense of receiving holy communion, took
the altar bread distributed to the worshipers during the communion,
and used it in practicing obeah.
All this suggests that obeah, as one finds it in the West Indies, is
not so much a tradition and a cultural inheritance as it is an innate
predisposition, like a sense of humor, or “the will to believe,” as
James describes it. Behind these practices, and supporting them, are
all sorts of fears and a general sense of insecurity in regard to the
physical and spiritual environment that more cultivated persons
either do not feel, or they find escape from in quite different
practices.
This is clearly indicated in the letters found among the papers of
obeah adepts which have been confiscated from time to time by the
police. From these letters one gains an insight into the nature and
extent of the terrors, anxieties, and perils of the soul which trouble
the dreams and imaginations of the black man, whom we ordinarily
think of as roaming, cheerful, care-free, and unconcerned in a
worried and troubled world.
The black man in the West Indies is greatly troubled about a
great many things. He has more than the usual number of obscure
pains and aches, which he worries about a great deal, and for which
he, like most of us, is in search of some sovereign remedy. He is
disturbed about his relations with his employer. Not that, like the
workingman we know, he talks or thinks about his rights and the
rights of labor. He is not class-conscious. Quite the contrary, he is
constantly worried because he is not in favor with his employer. If he
is scolded or scowled at, he is troubled. His first assumption, in such
circumstances, is that some fellow-employee in some dark way is
influencing his employer against him, and he seeks the obeah charm
which will discover and circumvent his enemy and win back his
employer’s good will.
 If he gets into a quarrel with the family next door, if his
sweetheart looks coldly upon him, if his wife deserts him, he
inevitably assumes that there are personal and magical influences at
work, seeking to undermine otherwise sweet and happy relations.
Frequently he is right. At any rate the obeah man exploits these
suspicions, and that is the reason strenuous efforts are being made in
the British Islands to stamp the superstition out.
Visiting the police courts in the English islands, one is
profoundly impressed by the patient efforts of most of the judges to
discover and apply the rules of law to the petty personal and
neighborhood difficulties that the natives are so fond of airing in the
courts. One gets the impression that the most difficult thing for the
primitive mind to conceive and administer for himself is justice. On
the other hand, the Negro, at least, knows and appreciates justice
when he meets it. That is probably one reason why he likes to take
his troubles to court.
 V. FASHIONS IN OBEAH
One gets the impression that there are fashions in obeah.
Dominica, for example, is noted for its use of love-philters; in
Montserrat, obeah is mainly a protection against evil spirits and a
means of communication with the dead; in Antigua, obeah is most
generally a form of medicine. Amulets, “guards,” as they are
popularly called, intended to ward off evil spirits or protect one
against the ill-will of an evil-minded neighbor are also popular. Nevis
has a reputation for “black magic.”
The older generation of obeah men were supposed to have a
knowledge of vegetable poisons the effects of which cannot be
detected on postmortem. In Nevis the older tradition has apparently
lingered longer than elsewhere. At any rate, magical practices seem
to have assumed a more malignant form in Nevis than in some of the
other islands.
In 1916 an old woman, Rose Eudelle, deaf and bedridden, was
convicted of practicing obeah. She seems to have been one of the few
witch doctors who believed sincerely in the efficacy of their own
practices. She had a great reputation, and boasted that she had killed
one man and sent another to the asylum. Curiously enough, she
practiced obeah mainly through correspondence, and when she was
finally arrested, some fifty letters from clients in various islands, one
of them in New York City, were discovered. There was great
excitement in Nevis when she was arrested. As she had solemnly
threatened the colored police sergeant who arrested her, the whole
black population was confidently expecting that some dramatic
misfortune would overtake him. Here there seemed to be something
more nearly approaching primitive and African magic than in any of
the other thirty-eight cases of which I obtained some sort of record.
Not only is the fashion in obeah different in the different islands,
but interest in magic, which is said to be declining everywhere, is less
modified in some islands than in others. In Barbados, though the
practices still persist, prosecutions for obeah have almost entirely
ceased. In the police station at Castries, St. Lucia, on the other hand,
there are still preserved the heart and hand of a Negro boy who was
killed some years ago to furnish an obeah man with the instruments
of magic to enable him to open the vaults of the local bank and rob it
of the treasure which was supposed to be amassed there.
The fact is, then, that the mentality of the black population of
the West Indies, as that of Africa, is changing under the influence of
contact with the white man’s culture, and particularly under the
influence of the very energetic prosecutions which not only have
made the profession less profitable, but by undermining faith in his
supernatural powers, have robbed the obeah man of the terror which
he at one time inspired.
Aside from the superficial changes in the original superstition
and the gradual decline of interest and belief in magic, it seems as if
certain more fundamental changes, reflected in these practices, were
taking place. First, the obeah man tends to become, on the one hand,
a sort of unlicensed physician, as in the case of Percival Duval, an
obeah man who maintained regular office hours, wrote prescriptions,
and prescribed medicines. Actually, Duval seems to have used a little
less medicine and a little more hocus pocus than the average medical
practitioner in our own country did a few years ago. But he was
convicted, and upon appeal to the higher court his conviction was
confirmed. Another obeah man in St. John’s, Antigua, was found to
be dealing, along with the other instruments of obeah, very largely in
patent medicines and homely household remedies. Among the
instruments of obeah taken from his office when it was raided were
the following: (1) Exhibit labeled “ground bones and ashes.” The
sample consisted of a mixture of a calcium compound and probably
lime, wood-ashes, and incense. The incense content was 26.3 per
cent. (2) Exhibit labeled “ground glass and smith coal.” This sample
consisted of a coarse commercial oxygen mixture. (3) Yellow powder.
This consisted of a cheap, scented starch powder. (4) Supposed dog’s
tongue. This consisted entirely of vegetable matter composed
principally of starch cells. (5) Exhibit labeled “ashes and incense.”
The sample consisted of incense, wood-ashes, and charcoal, earth,
and small pebbles, with a small proportion of oxygen mixture. It
contained 17.3 per cent of incense in lump and powdered form. (6)
Exhibit “vial with yellow liquid.” The sample consisted of ordinary
commercial oil of anise. (7) Vial with brownish liquid. The sample
consisted of a solution of iodine in potassium iodine of
approximately 15 per cent strength.
The fact is, the obeah man in the West Indies is in a way to
become a quack doctor. This represents one direction in which
change is taking place.
On the other hand, there is a disposition of the obeah man to
become a sort of confessor and privy counselor in all the intimate
and personal affairs of the common people. The black people—and
not only black, but occasionally Portuguese, who are the traders in
the smaller islands—go to him with affairs of business and of the
heart. They write him long personal letters, and he sends them a
magical prayer or incantation to cure them of bodily ailments, to
protect them from dangers of travel, and to insure general good
fortune. In an affair of the heart, the witch doctor frequently
prescribed a magic powder, sweetly scented, to accompany and lend
a delicate and stimulating fragrance to a love letter. In principle, this
aspect of the obeah man’s practice is like Mr. Coué’s—“Every day, in
every way, I am better and better”—only that the uses of obeah are
more specific. In any case, there is here a very evident tendency of
the practice to assume a form in which the ritual of obeah is merely a
device, like the prayers of primitive folk, for magically re-enforcing
the expression of a wish. So closely are the magical practices of the
obeah man connected—in the mind of the ordinary black man—with
religion that in one case, at any rate, he pretended to cure a boy of
insanity by making believe that he was operating as the agent or
proxy of the priest.
This, then, represents a second tendency to change in the
practices of magic by the black man. If obeah in some instances
seems to be taking the form of popular medicine, in others it tends to
assume the form of a pagan religious ceremony, adapting itself to the
forms and the ritual of the local church.
 VI. THE PROBLEM STATED
In a recent volume, Studies in Human Nature, Mr. J. B. Baillie
has suggested that the disposition and the ability to think abstractly,
disinterestedly, and scientifically is not only a relatively recent
acquisition of the human race, but at the same time is a local
phenomenon.

This geographical limitation of science is indeed a remarkable fact, the

importance of which our familiarity with the scientific mood and our insularity of
mind constantly tend to obscure.... We should not forget that millions of human
beings have no interest in the scientific mood at all, and seem by constitution to
have no capacity for it.... Some individuals among these nonscientific peoples may,
and do, assimilate the science of the West. But experience seems to show that such
acquisition is at best a mere accomplishment, and leaves the racial structure and
composition of their minds unaffected.... The nonscientific peoples take up science
as they put on Western clothes. One may change one’s clothes, but there is no
changing the skin. The fact is that the scientific mood arises from a peculiar
attitude of the mind to the world found amongst certain peoples of the globe; and
without this attitude science will always appear a curiosity or an irrelevance.[68]

The author assumes that the disposition to think rationally and

to cultivate abstract and scientific thought is a racial attribute.
Perhaps a more accurate statement of the matter would take account
of the fact that even within the comparatively limited area where
science is in vogue, there are large numbers of people who still—even
while using the language of science—think in the more elementary
forms of folk-thought. This seems to be true wherever large masses
of the population are still illiterate, or where, for any reason, even
when able to read, they habitually think in terms of the spoken
language, rather than in the language of the printed page. Literacy
itself is very largely a product of modern city life. Books and reading
which used to be, and to a certain extent are yet, a luxury in the
country, become a necessity in the city.
The Negroes migrating in such large numbers from the West
Indies to the United States are bringing with them habits of thought
which have largely disappeared among the Negro population native
to this country. The obeah men of the West Indies have many clients
in the United States, and a recent issue of the New York Age
announced that the Negro quarter around 135th Street, New York,
was overrun with fortune tellers and witch doctors, many or most of
them from the West Indies.
Within a few years, however, most of these superstitions will
have disappeared, or at any rate will have assumed those more
conventional forms with which we are familiar and have learned to
tolerate. This is certainly true of the city population.
Great changes are taking place, with the introduction of modern
methods of education, in our own insular possessions. Mr. Axel
Holst, of the National Bank of the Danish West Indies, who has been
a close and assiduous student of Negro folklore in the Virgin Islands,
says that the effect of the American system of education will within a
few years totally change the mental habits of the natives of St.
Thomas. Since the younger generation have begun to read books,
they are not so interested as they were in the Nansi stories, which
correspond to the Bre’r Rabbit stories of the States. Since the
introduction of American rule, newspapers have come into vogue,
and the young men have taken to political discussion.
The changes in the “mentality” of the Negro population are, Mr.
Holst says, going on visibly, and at a surprising rate. These changes,
if they are actually taking place, should be made the subject of
further investigation. Such study should enable us to determine,
among other things, more precisely than we have been able to
determine hitherto, the rôle which cultural contacts, social heritages,
and racial temperament play in the whole cultural process.
It is evident that we are not to assume, as otherwise we might,
that there is no area of the experience in which primitive or
preliterate people think realistically and rationally. On the other
hand, in contrasting primitive mentality with that of civilized man,
we need not assume—except for the sake of the contrast—that the
thinking of civilized man is always and everywhere either rational or
scientific. As a matter of fact, there are still wide areas of our
experience that have not as yet been fully rationalized, notably the
fields of medicine and religion. In medicine, at least—if we are to
believe a recent medical critic of what, in imitation of Lévy-Bruhl, we
might call “medical mentality”—the majority of practitioners still
think of diseases as morbid entities instead of convenient labels for
groups of symptoms.
The following paragraph from a recent writer states the matter
from the point of view of a critic of “medical mentality.”

It is not to be thought that any educated medical man indeed believes “a

disease” to be a material thing, although the phraseology in current use lends
colour to such supposition. Nevertheless, in hospital jargon, “diseases” are “morbid
entities,” and medical students fondly believe that these “entities” somehow exist
in rebus Naturae and were discovered by their teachers, much as was America by
Columbus.... In fact, for these gentlemen “diseases” are Platonic realities;
universals ante rem. This unavowed belief, which might be condoned were it
frankly admitted, is an inheritance from Galen, and carries with it the corollary
that our notions concerning this, that, or the other “diseases” are either absolutely
right or absolutely wrong, and are not merely matters of mental convenience.

But if the practitioners think of diseases in pre-logical terms

what can we expect of the layman, whose medical education has been
largely confined to the reading of patent medical advertisements?
What has been said suggests a problem which may be perhaps stated
in this way: How far is the existence of magic and magical mode of
thought a measure of the mentality of a racial or cultural group in
which it is found to persist? How far is what Ballie calls “the
scientific mood” an effect of the urban environment?

Robert E. Park
 CHAPTER VIII
CAN NEIGHBORHOOD WORK HAVE A
SCIENTIFIC BASIS?

Neighborhood work at present and as now practiced cannot, for

two reasons, be said to be based upon science. First, the social
sciences—and I refer to sociology in particular—have at present little
to offer as a scientific basis for social work; secondly, what
knowledge the social sciences have accumulated has been used little,
or not at all, by neighborhood workers.
The trend of neighborhood work to a scientific basis.—But if
neighborhood work has not had a scientific basis, it has had, from its
inception, as one of its conscious or unconscious motives, the search
after knowledge as the basis of human relations. Settlement work,
especially, represents not only the most devoted and the most
idealistic, but also the most intelligent, phase of social work of the
past generation. The settlement in its origin was an extension of the
university. It carried over into a new environment the love of truth
and, it may be added, the spirit of science. The residents of the
settlement were brought at once into touch with social reality; that is,
with the concrete facts of human life.
This early venture into intimate contact with social reality may
accordingly be called the first stage in the trend of neighborhood
work toward a scientific basis. But settlement workers soon found
that sympathetic understanding and intimate contacts failed to solve
many of the actual problems of neighborhood work. The
recalcitrancy of the boys’ gang, the opposition and manipulations of
the ward boss, the competition of commercialized recreation, the
unsolvable cultural conflict between immigrant parents and
Americanized children are only a few of the many perplexing
conditions of neighborhood life in immigrant areas which resisted
the spirit of good will of settlement workers. They therefore began to
study their communities in the attempt to state the factors at work by
an analysis of the elements in the situation. Hull House Maps and
Papers, The City Wilderness, and Americans in Process are
illustrations of the careful study and keen observation of these very
early efforts to determine and to take account of the many and
different conditions affecting neighborhood work. This interest in
the discovery of factors in the social situation may therefore be called
the second stage in the trend of neighborhood work toward a
scientific basis.
Science, however, is concerned not with factors, but with forces.
The distinction is not always clearly drawn between a factor and a
force. “Factors are the elements that co-operate to make a given
situation. Forces are type-factors operative in typical situations.”[69]
A factor is thought of as a concrete cause for an individual event; a
force is conceived to be an abstract cause for events in general so far
as they are similar. A particular gang of boys, the Torpedo gang, of
which Tony is the leader—and which is made up of eight street Arabs
—is a factor in the situation which a certain settlement in an Italian
colony in Chicago faces. But as soon as the attention shifts from this
one gang and this particular settlement to settlements in general and
to gangs in general the transition is made from a factor to a force. A
gang is a factor to a given settlement; the gang is a force from the
standpoint of all settlements.
The study of social forces in the community.—If neighborhood
work can have a scientific basis, it is because there are social forces in
community life—forces like geographical conditions, human wishes,
community consciousness—that can be studied, described, analyzed,
and ultimately measured. In a series of research projects now in
progress in the Department of Sociology in the University of Chicago,
studies are being made of the social forces of community life. While
the city of Chicago is used as the laboratory for this investigation, it is
assumed that the processes of urban life in one community are in
certain ways typical of city life throughout the United States.
The term “community” is widely used by sociologists,
neighborhood workers, and others, but often with widely divergent
meanings. In research in any field it is necessary to define our
concepts and to make relevant distinctions. In the literature of the
subject there is a growing disposition to emphasize as one of the
fundamental aspects of the community its geographical setting.
Whatever else the community may be, it signifies individuals,
families, groups, or institutions located upon an area and some or all
of the relationships which grow out of this common location.
“‘Community’ is the term which is applied to societies and social
groups where they are considered from the point of view of the
geographical distribution of the individuals and institutions of which
they are composed.”[70]
Upon reflection it is evident that markedly different social
relationships may have their roots in the conditions of a common
territorial location. Indeed, it is just these outstanding differences in
communal activities, viewed in relation to their geographic
background, which have caused much of the confusion in the use of
the term “community.” For community life, as conditioned by the
distribution of individuals and institutions over an area, has at least
three quite different aspects.
First of all, there is the community viewed almost exclusively in
terms of location and movement. How far has the area itself, by its
very topography and by all its other external and physical
characteristics, as railroads, parks, types of housing, conditioned
community formation and exerted a determining influence upon the
distribution of its inhabitants and upon their movements and life? To
what extent has it had a selective effect in sifting and sorting families
over the area by occupation, nationality, and economic or social
class? To what extent is the work of neighborhood or community
institutions promoted or impeded by favorable or unfavorable
location? How far do geographical distances within or without the
community symbolize social distances? This apparently “natural”
organization of the human community, so similar in the formation of
plant and animal communities, may be called the “ecological
community.”
No comprehensive study of the human community from this
standpoint has yet been made. A prospectus for such a study is
outlined in an earlier chapter by Professor R. D. McKenzie, in this
volume, under the title, “The Ecological Approach to the Study of the
Human Community.”[71] Yet there are several systematic treatises
and a rapidly growing literature of scientific research in the two
analogous fields of plant ecology and animal ecology. The processes
of competition, invasion, succession, and segregation described in
elaborate detail for plant and animal communities seem to be
strikingly similar to the operation of these same processes in the
human community. The assertion might even be defended that the
student of community life or the community organization worker
might secure at present a more adequate understanding of the basic
factors in the natural organization of the community from
Warming’s Oecology of Plants or from Adams’s Guide to the Study
of Animal Ecology than from any other source.
In the second place, the community may be conceived in terms
of the effects of communal life in a given area upon the formation or
the maintenance of a local culture. Local culture includes those
sentiments, forms of conduct, attachments, and ceremonies which
are characteristic of a locality, which have either originated in the
area or have become identified with it. This aspect of local life may be
called “the cultural community.” This relationship of cultural
patterns to territorial areas has not yet been adequately studied
unless in the phenomena of language. What, for example, are studies
in dialect but one illustration of how local areas with their entailed
isolation differentially affect customs of speech? Concrete materials
for a wider study of culture in relation to location are increasing,
notably upon preliterate peoples and upon retarded groups
geographically isolated, as the southern mountaineers or the remote
inhabitants of Pitcairn Island.
The immigrant colony in an American city possesses a culture
unmistakably not indigenous but transplanted from the Old World.
The telling fact, however, is not that the immigrant colony maintains
its old-world cultural organization, but that in its new environment it
mediates a cultural adjustment to its new situation. How basically
culture is dependent upon place is suggested by the following
expressions, “New England conscience,” “southern hospitality,”
“Scottish thrift,” “Kansas is not a geographical location so much as a
state of mind.” Neighborhood institutions like the church, the school,
and the settlement are essentially cultural institutions, and
recognition of this fact has far-reaching implications for the policies
and programs of these local centers.
 There remains a third standpoint from which the relation of a
local area to group life may be stated. In what ways and to what
extent does the fact of common residence in a locality compel or
invite its inhabitants to act together? Is there, or may there be
developed upon a geographical basis, a community consciousness?
Does contiguity by residence insure or predispose to co-operation in
at least those conditions of life inherent in geographic location, as
transportation, water supply, playgrounds, etc.? Finally, what degree
of social and political action can be secured on the basis of local
areas? This is the community of the community organization worker
and of the politician, and may be described as “the political
community.” It is upon this concept of the community as a local area
that American political organization has been founded.
These three definitions of the community are not perhaps
altogether mutually exclusive. They do, however, represent three
distinctly different aspects of community life that will have to be
recognized in any basic study of the community and of community
organization. A given local area, like Hyde Park in Chicago, may at
the same time constitute an ecological, cultural, and political
community, while another area like the lower North Side in the same
city, which forms a distinct ecological unit, falls apart into several
cultural communities and cannot, at any rate from the standpoint of
a common and effective public opinion, be said to constitute a going
political community. The Black Belt in Chicago comprises one
cultural community but overflows several ecological areas and has no
means of common political action except through ward lines
arbitrarily drawn.
It follows that the boundaries of local areas determined
ecologically, culturally, and politically seldom, if ever, exactly
coincide. In fact, for American cities it is generally true that political
boundaries are drawn most arbitrarily, without regard either to
ecological or cultural lines, as is notoriously the case in the familiar
instance of the gerrymander. Therefore it is fair to raise the question:
How far are the deficiencies in political action through our
governmental bodies and welfare action through our social agencies
the result of the failure to base administrative districts upon
ecological or cultural communities?[72]
 This analysis of the community into its threefold aspects
suggests that the study of social forces in a local area should assume
that the neighborhood or the community is the resultant of three
main types of determining influences: first, ecological forces; second,
cultural forces; and third, political forces.
Ecological forces.—The ecological forces are those which have to
do with the process of competition and the consequent distribution
and segregation by residence and occupation. Through competition
and the factors which affect it, as trade centers, etc., every
neighborhood in the city becomes a component and integral part of
the larger community, with a destiny bound up by its relation to it. In
the study of the growth of the city it is found that the life of any
neighborhood is determined, in the long run, not altogether by the
forces within itself, but even more by the total course of city life. To
think of the neighborhood or the community in isolation from the
city is to disregard the biggest fact about the neighborhood.
Studies of urban growth reveal that the city grows outward from
its central business district (1) in a series of expanding zones.[73]
There is a “zone of transition” (2) encircling the downtown area. This
is the area of deterioration, the so-called “slum”, created in large part
by the invasion of business and light manufacture. A third area (3) is
inhabited by workers in industry who have escaped from the area of
deterioration (2) and who desire to live within easy access of their
work. Beyond this zone is the “residential area” (4) of high-class
apartment buildings or of exclusive “restricted” districts of single
family dwellings. Still farther, out beyond the city limits, is the
“commuters’ zone” (5) of suburban areas or satellite cities within a
sixty-minute ride of the central business district.
Within these zones of urban growth are to be found local
districts or communities, and these in turn subdivide into smaller
areas called neighborhoods. In the long run, geographical factors and
the process of competition fix the boundaries and the centers of
these areas. It is important that neighborhood work be in accordance
with, rather than in opposition to, these silent but continuous
influences. A map of local communities was prepared to show the
way in which rivers, railroads, large industrial establishments, parks,
and boulevards divide the city into its constituent local communities
—residential and industrial.
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