Floral formuta

Flower
Petal

Leaf

Stigma

Stamern

Stem
Style

Corolla tube

Sepal

Ovary

Thalamus

L.S. of flower
Flowering twig
Ovule

Ovary wall

Placenta

T.S. of ovary

Stigma

Anther
Style
Connective

Filament

Ovary

Pistil Stamen Floral diagram

Petunia alba

(a flowering twig, parts of flower and floral diagram of Petunia)

Experiments 25
 -Xylern

Phioem

vascular bundle
Radial

Xylem
Xylem

Cambium

Phloem Phioem

Conjoint closed vascular bundle

Conjoint open vascular bundie
of vascular bundies
Fig. Different types

ROCEDURE material (roo/stem).

1. Take a 2-3 cm long piece of

the pith and hold it between thumb and first finger of left hand
2. Fix the material in

3. Cut the sections of thematerial quickly with the help of a sharp blade or razor and transfer themi

water.
on glass and select a thin uniform, complete section from petri dish transf
4. Put a drop of stain slide

it on to glass slide with the help of a brush. Wait for minutes. 2

5. Wash away excess stain with water.

Put a drop of glycerine over the section and cover it with coverslip.
6.

7. Observe the slide under microscope.

OBSERVATIONS
T.S. of Dicot Stem (Helianthus Stem)

T.S of Dicot stem shows following structures :

1. Epidermis Outermost layer made of parenchymatouscells without intercellular spaces.

It is covered by cuticle and nay bear multicellular hair.

2. Hypodermis Lies below the epidermis and is made of few layers of collenchyma ceus
3. Cortex cells.
Consists of thin walled, large, rounded or oval parenchymatous
4. Endodermis and surrounds
of barrel--shaped
cells
Innermost layer of cortex consisting
the stele. is also known
&s
It contains numerous starch grains and so it
starch sheath.
5. Pericycle by semi
Lies between endodermisand vascular bundles and is represented
lunar patches of sclerenchyma parenchyma.
and intervening masses of
6. Vascular bundles: arranged
Vascular bundles are open and
wedge-shaped, conjoint,collateral, and phloet.
in a ring. Each
vascular bundleis composed of xylem, cambium and wox
Xylem is endarch fibres
consisting of vessels, tracheids, wood phlen
and
parenchyma. Phloem consists of sieve tubes, companion cells
parenchyma.

34 Togetker wtk Biology LabManual11

 7. Medullary rays in between
: or radially elongated cells lying
ew layers of big polygonal
two vascular bundles constitute a medullary
cells

ray.
8. Pith
centre of stemn to store food.
and lies in
t consistsof parenchymatous cells

Identifying features:
1. Hypodermisis collenchymatous
2.
Vascular bundles are arranged in and
a ring. 3. Each vascular bundle is conjoint, collateral open.
4. Xylem is endarch.
5. Pith is well developed.

Cuticle

Epidemis

Hypodermis

Cortex

Pith

Endodermis

Pericycle
Xylem

Phloem

Vascular bundle
Cambium.

Fig. T.S. of dicot stem (Outline diagram)

(Vascular bundles open, endarch, conjoint and arranged in a ing)

Cuticle

Epidermis

Hypodermis (Collenchymatous)

Cortex (Parenchymatous)

Endodermis

Pericycle (Hard bast)

Phloem (thick walled)

Cambium

Metaxyiem (Large vessels) Vascular bundle

Wood parenchyma + Fibres
Meduliary ray

Protoxylem (Small vessels)

Pith

Fig. T.S. of dicot stem

(A part enlarged showing cellular details)

Experiments 35
 Maize Stem)
T.S. of Monocot Stem

features
:
following
Monocot stem shows parenchymatous
cells. It may
T.S. of Outermost layer
of
consist
of
surface.
1. Epidermis its outer cuticle

fewlayers of sclerenchymatous cells for

consists of
It

the stem.
mechanical sr
2. Hypodermis to
tissue
It
of parenchymatous
iscomposed
Ground tissue of vascular bundles lie scattered in
Large number the
3.
Vascular bundles bundle is oval in shape surrounded by ground
4. Each vascular tissy
Vascular bundles are collateral,
bundle sheath. sclerenchymat
conjoint,
Xylem vessels are arranged in andcose
Xylem is endarch. V-shaped
towards centre constitute
smaller vessels lying radially manner.T
laterally with small tracheids protoxylem
two bigger vessels lying and

them constitute metaxylem. A water flled cavity is lying

also
in
betwe
o
has been formed Iysigenously,
protoxylem which ie.,by
present

vessel and parenchyma

of inner protoxylem during breakoy
rapidgrowth
stem.
Phloem consists of sieve tubes and companion cell

Epidermis

Hypodermis
Identifyingfeatures : Vascular
(Sclerenchymato
bundle

1. Sclerenchymatous hypodermis. Ground tissue

Phloem
2. Undifferentiated ground tissue.

and scattered
3. Vascular bundles-numerous Xylem

in ground tissue. Bundle sheath

4. Each vascular bundle is conjoint,

by
collateral, closed and surrounded
bundle sheath.
5. Xylem is endarch.
Fig. T.S. of monocot stem (Outline diagram)

collateral, endarch, dosed

(Vascular bundles-many. scattered,

Epidermis

Hypodermis (Sclerenchymatous)

Ground tissue

Bundle sheath

Sclerenchyma

boe
Protophloem
Vascuiar bundle

Metaphioen
and
(Sieve tube
cels
companion

Metaxyiem

parentye
Xylem

Protophloem
Metaphloem Protoxylem
Metaxyem
fledan
Protoxylem Water
Water filled cavity

Fig. TS. of monocot stem

(Portion enlarged bundie (enlarged)
showing callular details) Fig. Single vasscular

36 hgether wtk Biology Lab Manual-11

 of Dicot Root

T.S. of Dieot Root shows following features :

cells
1. Epidermis or Epiblema of thin-walled compactly arranged
Single outermost layer
hairs.
bearing tubular outgrowths called root
2. Cortex round to polygonal,
Lies below epidermis and contains thin walled,
parenchymatous cells with intercellular spaces.
3. Endodermis : packed without
Single layer of barrel-shaped cells, closely
intercellular spaces. Radial walls are thickened as casparian
strips.
4. Pericycle with abundant
Single layer of thin-walled parenchymatous cells

protoplasm.
5. Conjunctive tissue lying between xylem and phloem bundies.
Parenchymatous cells
6. Pith
Occupies small area in the centre of root. Sometimes absent.
7. Vascular bundles : There are 2-6 alternately arranged bundles ofxylem and phloem
called radial bundles. Xylem is exarch ie., protoxylem lies
towards periphery and metaxylem towards pith. Xylem vessels
are polygonal. Phloem consists of sieve tubes,companion cells

and phloem parenchyma.

Identifying features :
1. Presence of unicellular hairs on epidermis.
2. Vascular bundles radial, 2 -6 in number.
3. Xylem exarch.
4. Pith either reduced or absent.

Root hair

Epidermis

Cortex

Root hair

Epidermis

Cortex

Endodermis Endodermis

Pericycle Penicycle

Xylem Sclerenchyma

Metaxylem (Large vessels)

Phloen
Protoxylem (Small vessels)

Pith Pith

Phloem

Fig. TS of dicot root (Outline diagram) (Vascular

Fig. T.S of dicot root
cylinder is open,exarch, radial with 2-6 xylem arches
(Portion enlarged, showing cellular details)
alternating with 2-6 phloem arches)

Experiments 37
 Root
of Monocot

features:
following
Root shows umber
T.S. of Monocot
. Epidermis or Epiblema : Singie outermost
layer with a of
unicellular
root
hairs.
layer
orPiliferous zone of rounded or oval cells
Many layered with
2. Cortex between them. intercellular
walls of cells
Innermost layer of cortex; radial thickened
3. Endodermis strips.
called

parenchymatous cells below caspara

Single layer of
endodermis,
4. Pericycle xylem
Parenchymatous cells in between and phloem
5. Conjunctive tissue packing tissue.
constitutes bundles
developed and
Centre of root occupied by well pith made of
6. Pith
cells.
parenchyat
There anre alternate bundles of xylem and
8 or more
7. Vaseular tissue phloem
(ascontains more than 6 bundles) and radial bundles called
radiü). (because polyar
Xylem exarch,
phloem are present along different xylem
lhes towards outerside and metaxylenm towards centre. iee.,
protor
Phloem
sieve tubes, companion cells and phloem parenchyma. consist

Identifying features :
1. Presence of unicellular hair on epidermis.
2. Radial vascular bundles.

3. Xylem phloem bundles more than 6. Root hair

4. Xylem exarch.
5. Large pith present in centre.
Epidermis

Cortex

Root hair
Epidermis

Cortex

Endodemis Endodemis

Pericycle
Perioycle

Xylem Metaxylem (larger vesses

Phioem
Phloem

Pith
Pith

Protoxylem (smallerveses

Fia TS. of monocot root (Outine diagram) (Vascular

cylinder is closed,
exarch, radial with 8(more than 6)
xylem monocot
arches altemating with 8 phloem arches)
Fig. T.S. of root (Portion enlarged showing

cellular details)

38 ogther wick Biology Lab Manual11

 EXPERIMENT 3
AIM
osmometer or osmoscope.
Tostudyosmosisby
potato

REQUIREMENTS
10-20% sucrose solution, petri dish, beaker, water, pins or
Lange potato; knife/peeler,
dissecting
te
THEQRY
or free energy of water denoted by v
Water potentiatrefers to potential energy (Psi).
v, of pure water is zero. When
from its higher potentia to Hawer potential. solutes are Water
the free energy. added
v, of a solution becomes negative asselute particles reduce
Osmosis Net movement of water from a region of their high
motecles
concentration
solution)to a region low concentration (ie., concentrated
of their

semipermeable
a
membranetill state of equilibriumis Teached. solution)
a
A thry

membrane permits the movement of solvent molecules only semiperne

Types ofOsqosis
Depending on the movement of water intoor outward of cell, 0smosis is of two types:
Endosmosis OsKoticinflow of water into a cell when placed ina solution whose solute
is han cell
less sap. For example, swelling of raisins when conCEntr

Exosmosis Osmotic outtox of water from a cell when placed in a

placed in s
solution
concentration is moe than cell sap. For example, shrinkage of
whose s
grapes when
in strong sugar solution.

Importance of Osmosis for Plants

(i) Absorption of water from soil. (ii) Cell to cell movement of water in plants. (üi) Helps tomaintain s
of plant organs. (iv) Resistance of plants to drought and frost brought by osmotic pressure of th
(0) Involved in many types of plant movements.

PROCEDURE
1. Peel off the outer skin of potato and cut one end flat.
2. With the help of peeler or scooper, make a cavity in the
centre of the potato.
3. Fill half of the cavity of potatowith sugarsolution and
mark the level of sugar solution in the cat
with the help of a pin or dissecting needle. It
functions as osmometer.

Potato
Potato

Final pin
Initial
pin
Sucrose solution Initial pin

ANS Suorose soltY

Water

Beaker Water

Beaker

fnitial level of suCrose in

a cavity of potato Increase in level of sucrose in
cavity of potato due
Fig. Potato
to osmosis
Osmometer
4. Leave the osmometer
undisturbed for an hour in a beaker
the level of sugar mark the r
solution in the
potato with
illed with water and then
another pin.
40 Together utk Biology Lab Manual 11
 2. Take out onion peels or leaf peels from Tradescantia lenves and nut them on slide A contamms"
drop of 0.9% NaCl solution,other peel on slide
peel on slide C containing a drop of
B containing a drop of 0.3% NaCl solution nu
10% NaCl solution.
3. Wait for 5-7 minutes.
4. Cover the slides with coverslip and observe them under
microscope.
5. Remove the coverslip from C.Add distilled water and leavye it
then again cover
slide undisturbed for 5 minutes ana
it with coverslip and observe under the
microscope.

Cell wall
Cell wall

Cell mermbrane
Cell membrane
Vacuole
Shrinking vacuole
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Nucleus

Normal turgid cell and deplasmolysed cell

Incipient plasnolysis

Cell walI

Cell membrane
Shrinking vacuole
Cytoplasm
Nucleus

Plasmolysed cell

Fig. Experiment showing turgid cell, deplasmolysed cell, incipient plasmolysis and plasmolysed cell

OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION

SlideA Shows normal cells as 0.9% NaCl solution is a isotonic solution,so there is no net
movement of water across the cells.

Slide B Shows turgid cells as 0.3% NaCl solution is a hypotonic solution, so water moves
into the cells due to endosmosis.

Slide C Contains 10% NaCl solution which is a hypertonic solution so due to exosmosis
the become plasmolysed. When hypertonic solution of slide C is
cells
replaced by
normalwater or isotonic solution,deplasmolysis takes place due to
endosmosis and
cell membrane regains its original position.

PRECAULONS
1. Leave the cells undisturbed for 5-10minutes in hypertonic solution for sufficient exosmosis to take
place.
2. Peel size should be goad enough, i.e., neither too big nor to0 small.

3. Keep extra pieces of peel igater to avoid entry of air bubbles.

4. Transfer peels with the help of a rush.

5. Handle the microscope carefully.

6. Wash excess solution after putting the coverslip with blotting paper before observing under the microscope.

Experiments 43
 Epidermal cell

Guard cell
Stomatal opening
Nucleus
Chloroplast

Fig. Epidermal peel showing stornata

Epidermal cells

Chloroplast

Guard celis

Stomatal pore

Nucleus

Closed stoma
Open stoma

Fig. Open stoma and Closed stoma

OBSERVATION TABLE

S.No. SurfaceofLeaf No. ofStomata No. of Epidermal cells StomatalIndex

1. Upper Surface

2. Lower Surface

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Monocot leaves have almost equal number of stomataon both the surfaces. Dicot leaves have more number
stomata on the lower surface.
.
of

The plant has more/less stomata on upperlower surface.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Do not let the peel dry. Either transfer it to water or to the slide containing drop of water or safranin

2. Always use brush to transfer peel from watch glass to slide.

3. Remove excess stain and glycerine with the help of blotting paper.

4. If the peel is too big, cut it into smallsize,

5. Do not let the peel fold.

6.Count the number of stomata and epidermalcells in the same microscopie field.

46 Together utk Biology Lab Manual-11

 nosepiece
tothe
attached
Usually
there are
the lenses (OilLmmersion Lens.
- These are and 100x
Objectives dow),
45x (high) which an object ia viewed. It can be
10x through
of body tube
at thetop
magnifications

() Eyepiece
10x or l5x.
- Lens

pattern.
The objective lenses
Objeetive
Lenses in a definite are
many lenses marked with blue band
LP. and
made of with
systenm as
It is a lens as
Objective:
Abbreviated Abbrevinted HP. and markedagnutyg
) Low Power or High Dry Objective:
objective because it is used
Objective high dry
w High Power 40x. It is also
called
power and objective.
magnifying
and specimen with black band
as O.IL, marked
medium between
Auid in the and
Abbreviated lens and
between the
Objective: front
magtyg
(a) Oil Immersion
drop of oil is
added in the
medium
is Cedar wood
oil
which
coverslip
has
Ol a |
100s and a oil
Immerion refractive
index as the
glass.
no air is there
between coverslip and oil
sanse refractive lens sothat
the objective
Oil is to touch over it.
and bring objective
of ail on coverslip od because:
is used as inmersion
Cedar woed oil
It is chear ike water.
index asglass. ie,1.5.
It has same refractive
does not evaporate.
• It isnon-volatie and hence
will evaporate.
of oil because water
Water cannot be used in place the basic purpose isto
should be same because get all the
of glass and oil
index inecde
Refractive
hitting
rays from light source,
through the mirrar, condensers
of
and fall onspecimen and details
rays
specümen are possible if light
In
do not deviate from their path
case of oil immersian, light passing
of specimen will Revcing
throgh a point
nosepiece
not deviate and pass through
and reach our eyes and so even
High power
minute details of specimea are
bjective lens oars

seen, as throughout it is denser

medium and air is absent In Low power

bjectve lens
high dry
specimenand
objeetive, air is between
objective
change in density of medium,as
and so Stage -Fne u
glass is a denser medium and air
isa rarer medium, so few points of
specimens will not be observed due Iis diaphrag
to deviation oflight rays frora their
path and hence all light will not
Condenser
reach eyepiece, so minute details
will not be cdearly visible.

Eyepiece Mior
Eyepiece conasists of two lenses
but it should not be opened as
once opened, ali magnifications
are disturbed.
Eyepieces are of
Huygenian type, ie, move the f
slide towards the left,
the image
will move towards the right and
Fig.Compoand microscope

70 Tagether anctkBiology Lah

Mansak11
 (Monera)
1. Bacteria

Classification Monera
Kingdom Eubacteria
arganism. organelles like
even membrane-bound
Group microscopic
unicellular.
(2 Prokaryotic, with nuclear membrane: DNA called nucleoid
nucles areabsent
( Lacks double-stranded
reticuíum
endoplasmic form of circular,
Baciilus (rod-shaped, Spirillum
is in the

() Gernetic

ie) Bacteria
material
could be
- Coccus (spherical-shaped,
(spjir

Vibrio (oomma-shaped) or heterotrophic. -ve based on thheir stairing ability.

could be
autotrophic
+ve and Gram
() Bacteria
are ciassified
into Gram
ot Bacteria
by binary fission
(oit)Reproduces Le., everywhere.
Ubiqustous
(eu) Occurrence: -Cfupi

da

escson

Nucenic

-Fagelu

Lod sar
-Chomatgo

-Rioosome
-Plus

Fig. Structural details of a bacterium

(C)
e)
Bacil Soinla
Cocci Spirilum Vibrios

Fig. Diferent forms of bacteria

2. Oscillatoria (Aga)
Classifieation

Kingdom Plantae
Division
Cyanophyta
Class
Genus Cyanophyceae(Bluegreen alga)
Oscillatoria
Species tenuis

76 gchr wtk Biology Lab Manual11

 n Flamentous,
unbranchedblue green
(ü) Filaments algae.

i)Each has enveloped in

cell
mucilage sheath,
a
consist of a row
prokaryotic of cylindrical cells, more broad than long.
Cytoplasm organization lacking
(iv) is
differentiated into true nucleus.
contains peripheral
pigmented thylakoid
(n) lamellae and chromoplasm and central centroplasm. Chromoplasm
Centroplasm contains reserve food as
circular, double cyanophycean granules.
(vi) Occurrence:Found in stranded DNA.
stagnant water, ponds
and pools as bluish
green Scum on water surface.

Dead cell

Chromoplasm
-(periphery)
-Cell wall
Cell wal

-Centroplasm (centre)
-DNA
(a) Thylakoid lamellae
(b)
Fig. Oscillatoria: (a) Filaments
(b) A magnified part of the
filament
3. Spirogyra (Alga)
Classification

Kingdom Plantae
Division
Chlorophyta (Green algae)
Class
Chlorophyceae Cell wall
Genus
Spirogyra Cytoplasm
() Multicellular, filamentous,
unbranched green algae Cytoplasmic strand
covered by mucilagenoussheath.
Ribbon-shaped
(üi) Each filament consists of chloroplast
cylindrical cells placed end to end.
Nucleus
(ui) Cell wall-two layered (of cellulose and pectin).
(iv) Cytoplasm Pyrenoid
lies in periphery of cell enclosing vacuole in centre.
(o) Ribbon-shaped spirally arranged
chloroplasts present Vacuole
in cytoplasm. Chloroplast contains
pyrenoids.
(vi) Single nucleus held in centre of vacuole by cytoplasmic
strands.

(vii) Asexual by fragmentation and sexual

reproduction
by conjugation.
reproduction Fig. Spirogyra: Detailed structure of a cell
(uii)Occurrence:Found in fresh water ponds,
ditches, lakes.
4. Rhizopus (Fungus)
Classification

Kingdom Fungi
Class
Zygomycetes
Genus Rhizopus
Species
stolonifer

Yegetative body called mycelium consists of interwoven mass of whitecottony threads called hyphae.
W Hyphae- branched,aseptate and multinucleate (coenocytic).

Experiments 77
 Yeast (Saccharomyces) - Fungus
Classification

Kingdom Fungi
Class Bud
Ascomycetes
Genus
Saccharomyces
Species cerevisiae
(6)Unicellular fungus. -Nuclei

(6) May form

pseudomycelium by repeated Cell wal
budding.
Vacuole
ia Cell wall made of chitin;
eukaryotic Mitochondrion
cell
structure.
Cytoplasm
(iu)Cytoplasm has large central vacuole -Glycogen
with
nucleus on periphery. granule

(p) Reserve food Endoplasmic

material –
Volutin granules reticulum
and glycogen granules. Fig. Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Yeast)

(ni) Asexual reproduction

by budding and sexual
(nii) Occurrence: Saprophytic fungus reproduction by ascospores.
growing on fruit surfaces, cane juices.
7. Lichen
)
Lichens are a group of
plants representing symbiotic
(i) Alga constitutes association between a fungus
phycobiont and carries out and an alga.
and absorbs water and photosynthesis whereas fungus
minerals for the alga. constitutes mycobiont
(ün) It occurs in three forms
of thalli:
(a) Crustose
-
lichens thin, membranous
thallus attached to
(6) Foliose lichens -
leaf-like thallus.
substratum like a crust.
(c) Fruticose lichens branched, - bushy thallus.
(iv) Occurrence: They are found on tree barks,
rocks and walls.

Crustose lichen
Foliose lichen
Fruticose lichen
Fig. Forms of lichens

8.
Liverwort(Bryophyte)
Classification

Kingdom
Plantae
Division
Bryophyta
Class
Hepaticae or Hepaticopsida (Liverworts)
Genus

)Species

Liverworts have a thallus

Riccia

discolor

body with repeated dichotomous branching.

Experiments 79
 wit
flattened called
dorsiventrally
()Thallus midrib

2
side.
ridge on
ventral rhizoids.
scales and
surface contains apex;
(m)Ventral
moisture and
protect the growing
Scales retain and anchorage.
help in absorption
whereas rhizoids
Archegonia.
Antheridia and
- and
(ie) Sex organs grow on moist, damp
Liverworts
(u) Oceurrence:
of hills.
humid places
Marchantia.
eg, Riccia, the thallus
sexorgans embedded in
(oi) Riccia contains capsule also
embedded
called
body and sporophyte
in the thallus.
on
bears antheridia
and archegonia
fviyMarchantia and
called antheridiophores
erect gametophores but on separate
respectively
archegoniophores seta and capsule
foot,contains
thalli. Sporophyte
Fig.
Riccia
on the archegoniophore. discolor

Female receptacle
(Containing archegonia)

Gemma cup

Archegoniophore
.Anthenp
-Thalus
Midrib with.

longitudinal furrow

Apical notch Gemma

Rhizoic
c
Rhizoid+

(a) A female plant with archegoniophores (b)A male plant with

antheridiophores
Fig. Marchantia

9. Moss (Funaria) -Bryophyte

Classification

Kingdom Plantae
Division
Bryophyta Sporophyte
Class Musci
Genus Funaria
Species hygrometrica
(i) Plant body gametophyte bearing stem
like axis with
tuft of leaves and
rhizoids. Gametophyte is green,
2-3 em long.
(i) Rhizoids help in absorption and fixation the plant
of
body and are multicellular with oblique septa.
(iü) Leaves are sessile, spirally Male
arranged with a midrib. branch
(iv)Main axis is called
male shoot as it bears
antheridia whereas the Female
lateral shoots are called branch
female shoots as they bear archegonia.
(u)After fertilization sporophyte is formed which
consists of foot, seta
and capsule. Capsule -Rhn
contains spores which
again produce
(vi) Occurrence: gametophyte.
Found on wet,
moist and damp soils
terrestrial habitats, (Moss)
hygrometrica
and crevices of rocks. Fig. Funaria

80 Together witk Biology Lab Manual-11

 1. Amaeba
Classiication Protista

Kingdocn Protozoa
Phylues Sarcodina
Class Amoeba
Gesus
proteus
Species shaped
irregular
microscopic,
Unicellular,
Fig.
Amoeba proteus
body.
into ectoplasm
diferentiated
)Pretoplasa (inrner
fouteri and
endoplasm and nucleus
contractile vacuoles
food vacuoles,
ia) Endoplasm contains
outgrowths
called pseudopodia
dué to finger-like
)
Body shape changes
and food capturing.
(pseudu=false, pu

which help in locomotion bacteria, algae

asAmoeba feeds on diatoms,
(e)Holozoic nutrition
by fission.
(ei)Asexual reproduction ditches with plenty of organic
in ponds, lakes, strearns, matter.
Found
ívu) Occurrence:

2 Hydra
Classification
Animalia
Kingdom
Cnidaria
Phylum
Class Hydrozoa
Genus Hydra

Species vulgaris

of elongated tube with closed base but

D Soft body consists
end mouth.
single opening at oral called

) Hypostome ie., region around nouth; contains 6 to 10

finger-like hollow projections called tentacles.

() Tentacleshelp in locomotion and capturing food.

tie) Body wall diploblastic Le, made of two layers

epidermis (outer) and gastrodermis (inner) lining the
central cavity. Between epidermis and gastrodermis is a Fig. Hydra vulgans
non-cellular layer of mesoglea.

te) Reproduction by budding.

(o) Occurrence: Fresh water lakes, ponds, streams, may be found attached to substratum or eg
or found moving by somersaulting and
floating.
-Mouth

3 Fasciala hepatica (Liverftuke)

-Oral sucker

Classification poe
-Common gental
sucker (A
Kingdom Animalia Ventral

Phylum
Platyhelminthes
Class
Trematoda
Genus
Fasciola

Species
)Triangular, flat,
hepatica
leaf-like
parasite,2.5 cm
(ü)Anterior mouth length.
surrounded by oral or
() Another sucker called
anterior sucker.
pore
surface of body. acetabulum present on -Excretory
Sucker helps to ventral
attach to the hepatica
host. Fig. Fasciola
88 agethes wtk Biology Lab
Manual-11
 Body covered by cuticle
with spinules.
(e) Ventral body surface
contains a single
Oceurrence: genital opening
(ei) called
Endoparasite, found in gonopore near acetabulum.
disease called liver rot bile
duct of
vertebrates like cow,
sheep, Koat, man and causes
4. Asearis lumbricoides
(Roundworm)
Classification
Mouth
Kingdom Animalia Excretory pore

Phylum
Nemathelminthes Mouth

Class Excretory
Phasmidia pore Fermale genital
aperture
(Ascaroidea) Lateral line

Genus Ascaris Lateral line

Species lumbricoides
0 Cylindrical body, tapering at
both ends.
n Dorsal,ventral and two
lateral lines extend -Cloacal aperture
lengthwise.
(t) Penial setae Anus
Mouth-terminal,triradiate, i.e. has Curvedtail
three lips.
(ip) Excretory pore present Tait
little behind the anterior end. Male
Female
(p) Animal shows
sexual dimorphism, with Fig. Ascaris
lumbricoides
male and femaleindividuals. separate

wi)Males with
curved tail end and two needle-like
penial or
(ei) Females longer copulatorysetae.
than males and have
separate genital opening and anus.
(u)Occurrence: Intestinal
parasite of man, particularly
monkey. Infection occurs of small children and
through contaminated even pigs, cattle and
food and water.
5. Hirudinaria granulosa (Cattle Leech)
Classification
Anterior sucker
Mouth
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Annelida
Class Malegenital pore
Hirudinea
Genus Female genital pore
Hirudinaria
Species
granulosa
) Dorsiventrally flattened body about 30 cn long.
Segmental receptor
organs
) Olive greento brown or black in colour.
u) Body contains small anterior and a large posterior sucker for
locornotion and attaching to host surface.
Posterior sucker
w) Mouth present on Anus
ventral side enclosed by anterior sucker and
anus on dorsal side. Fig. Hirudinaria granulosa

t0) Body divided into 33 segments and each segment is superficially subdivided into 3 to 5 annuli or rings.
) 5 pairs of eyes on dorsal surface.
bi)
Hermaphrodite.
Oceurrence:Fresh water ponds, tanks,streams, rivers, rice fields, it is also an ectoparasite on cattle
andother mammals and sucksblood from host.

Experiments 89
 (Earthworm)
posthuma Mouth
6. Pheretina
Perstori
Classiication
Animalia
etmalo
Kingdom Annelida gera
Citelun(14
Phylum
Oligochaeta Anus
Class
Pheretima
Genus

)
paplae(17
posthuma ang t
Species cylindrical,
bilaterally
symmetrical,
and 3-5 mm
Elongated,
body, 10-15 cm in length Annulus
segmented Setae
in width.
brown in colour.
and pinkish
ui) Simy to touch median line
by dark
side recognised the
ii) Dorsal vessel beneath
dorsal blood
that represents by genital
recognised
ventral surface is darker
skin and Dorsal surface Fig. Pheretima
papillae. posthuma
apertures and (Earthwom
surface.
than ventral metameres.
segments called
divided into 100-120 mouth. fleshy lobe
(iv) Body as it encloses
A called

is called
peristomium prostomium
(w) First segment
from dorsal side. 14th, 15th and 16th
over mouth present in
segments
(= cingulum)
band called clitellum and it eo
(vi)Glandular
cocoons to lay eggs. to release ova.
14th segment
pore present in
(uii) Single
female genital
ventral surface to release sperms.
18th segmenton
pores present in
(v) Two male genital
genital or copulatory
papillae.
segments contain has
(ix)17th and 19th each segment a ring of tiny curved, chitinous
and clitellar segments, strata

() Except first, last

called setae embedded
in the skin that help in locomotion

called nephridiopores
and
are scattered all
sexual reproduction
over the body surface a,
(xi) Many minute
openings
nitrogenous waste.
Begments to expel waste.
excrete undigested
contains anus to
(xii) Last segment

(ii) Hermaphrodite. matter. Comes out of burrows during rainy s

in moist soils with lots of organic

(riv) Occurrence: Burrows

7. Palaemon serratus (Prawn)

Classifieation
Animalia
Kingdom

Phylum Arthropoda

Class Crustacea

Genus Palaemon

)Species

Elongated,
()Head
bilaterally

and thorax are fused

serratus

symmetrical body divided

to form cephalothorax.
intohead, thorax and abdomen.

produced into
saw-like
rostru

(i) Cephalothorax dorsally covered by hard carapace and anteriorly

legs.
of walking
5 pairs are
(iv) Cephalothorax bears 8 pairs of segmented legs, out of which
swimming
which help in
(o) Abdomenconsists of 6 segments with 1 pair of
pleopods each,
(ui) Eyes are stalked and present in orbital notch.

(vii) There is conical telson at the end of abdomen.

(o)Prawns are unisexual.

(ir)Occurrence:Fresh water ponds, lakes
and river8.

90 Together witk Biology Lab Manual11

 Soft body inside the shell is
differentiatedinto head,
Head bears two pairs of
tentacles and one
foot, visceral
mass.
tu) pair of eyes.
muscular, flat for
Foot
(v) ereeping.
(vw Sexes separate.
Occurrence: Fresh water ponds,
lakes, streams,
etc.

Asterias (Starfish)
JL.

Classification

Kingdom Animalia
Division Echinodermata
Class Asteroidea
Genus Asterias

Species rubens

Marginal Arms
spines

Mouth

Madreporite
Ambulacral
Central disc
grooves
Anus
Birium Spine

Tube feet

Aboral surface

Oral surface
Fig. Asterias (Sea star or Starfish)

(i) Star-shaped, pentamerous(five radiating arms) with central disc.

(iü) Body distinguished into oral
surface(directed downward) and aboral
surface (directed upward).
() Whole body covered by ossicles.
(iv) Ventral surface contains
ambulacral groove extending from mouth to
ambulacral groove contains on mid line of each arm. Each
either side, two rows of tubular
locomotion. projections called tube feet for

(0) Mouth present on oral surface and anus on aboral

surface.
(ui)In between two arms,near the anus,there is a
perforated circularplate called
to water vascular system of madreporite connected
body.
(viü) Occurrence:Marine, rocky sea floor.
12. Scoliodon –
(Dogfish/Shark) Cartilaginousfish
Classification

Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Sub-phylum Vertebrata
Class
Chondrichthyes
Genus Scoliodon
Species laticaudus

Experiments 93