Journal of Sustainable Energy & Environment

11 (2020) 113-122

Plastics, microplastics and other polymer materials – A threat to the environment

Abass A. Gazal1,2 and Shabbir H. Gheewala1,2,*
1
The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi,
Bangkok, Thailand
2
Center of Excellence on Energy Technology and Environment, PERDO, Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research
and Innovation, Bangkok, Thailand
*Corresponding author: [email protected]; Tel.: +66-2470-8309; Fax: +66-2872-9805.

Abstract: Plastics are synthesized polymer compounds mostly made from petrochemical raw materials and characterised by high
molecular mass and plasticity. They have many applications and find widespread use due to their cheapness and versatility. In this
study, global plastics production and the accumulation of plastic waste was documented. This waste has huge adverse impacts on
oceans and other ecosystems which has led to increasing scientific and public concern. It is also worthy to mention that plastic and
polymer waste are not useless as they can be recycled into new products. This article with a systematic review of the literature aims to
present the threats and the weight of evidence for plastics, microplastics pollution causing environmental harm, along with a review of
the life cycle assessment (LCA) studies which have been carried out on bioplastics and petroleum-based plastics to help
compare/contrast and shed more light on the phases contributing the most environmental burdens. The LCA studies found the
bioplastics to pose more environmental burdens in the production phase due to the use of chemicals, the weight of the bioplastics, and
also the electricity usage for cleaning, but are more sustainable in the long-term. To curb the adverse and detrimental effects and to
make plastics more environmental friendly, producers must adopt the green chemistry techniques to find alternatives to additives
responsible for health hazards. Also, a comprehensive plan should be adopted for zero tolerance against plastics/polymer waste and
people’s participation is a must to achieve the full success.

Keywords: Plastics, microplastics, Hazardous substance, Environment and Life cycle assessment.

1. Introduction 1.1 Sources of plastic material

Fossil- or petrochemical-based plastics utilize fossil feedstock
It is not only our feet that leave footprints wherever we go like petroleum and natural gas. About 7% of all petroleum is
– our excessive reliance on plastic materials is creating an converted into plastics. Examples of some of the most commonly
invisible yet damaging “plastic footprint” in the environment. used fossil-based plastics are polyethylene (PE), polypropylene
This increasing usage is generating considerable amounts of plastic (PP), polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polystyrene (PS).
waste, ultimately endangering our environment and life within it. Bio-Based Plastics/Bioplastics are another type of plastics; these
Considered a major threat to both wildlife and human wellbeing, are defined as “plastics” in which 100% of the carbon is derived
plastic pollution is now widespread in the oceans [1], causing an from agriculture, such as corn starch, rice straw, soybean protein
unprecedented environmental crisis with an estimated 10 million and cellulose, and forestry resources which makes them renewable.
tonnes of litter leaking into the marine environment every year [2]. The main origin of plastic wastes are industrial, commercial and
Its worldwide distribution is so vast that many scientists use it as municipal.
a key geological indicator of the anthropocene [3]. Plastic materials
can be used as stratigraphic markers in the archaeological field by 1.2 Industrial waste
considering them as recent and precise indicators of earth deposits. A major proportion of this waste comes in the form of
Some authors identify the period from 1945 onwards as a moment wrapping of polyethylene film that has been used as a protection
of a significant increase in plastics deposition, to the point that they covering for goods delivered to the factories and industries. Waste
have used this stratigraphic marker as an excellent indicator [4]. plastics also come from electronics, construction and demolition
Plastics, microplastics and other polymer materials offer companies as they provide waste tiles, PVC pipes and fittings, etc.
many benefits to society but unfortunately also have many Considerable amount of this waste remains uncollected or
drawbacks. The word ‘plastic’ refers to the capability of being dumped at municipal dumps.
shaped or moulded, and the noun ‘plastic’ is a colloquial term that
denotes a group of synthetic, organic, polymeric, high-molecular- 1.3 Commercial waste
weight materials. According to the International Organization for It contains a considerable amount of packaging material
Standardization (ISO), plastic is a material that contains a high- made of PE which is obtained from hotels and restaurants,
molecular weight polymer as an essential ingredient, which at supermarkets, workshops, craftsmen, shops, and wholesalers.
some stage in its processing into finished products can be shaped
by flow [5]. The International Union of Pure and Applied 1.4 Municipal waste
Chemistry (IUPAC) defines plastics as a generic term used in the Due to the littering habits of people, a large proportion of
case of “polymeric materials that may contain other substances to plastic waste is found within Municipal Solid Waste. However,
improve performance and/or reduce costs” [6]. this waste plastic could have been collected from residential areas,

Copyright @ 2020 By Journal of Sustainable Energy and Environment 113

 Journal of Sustainable Energy & Environment 11 (2020) 133-122

streets, parks and waste dumps before they enter the municipal Primary microplastics are hardly visible to the naked eye and
solid waste. Contamination with other hazardous waste makes it likely to flow straight from the bathroom drain into drainage
difficult for this plastic waste to be separated and cleaned easily. systems and can easily escape capture by wastewater treatment
Many a times waste starts degrading under the sunlight before it plants (preliminary sewage treatment screens [15].
is being collected. But it does not mean that the plastic waste
becomes unable to be reprocessed. The above-mentioned problem 3.2 Secondary microplastics
can be controlled to some extent by increasing the awareness among Secondary microplastics are larger plastic particulate
people about the correct disposal techniques of this plastic waste. materials mostly derived from fragmentation and degradation of
large plastic debris into tiny fragments when suffering high solar
2. Categories of Plastics UV-radiation and mechanical abrasion by a comprehensive
consequence of physical (mechanical), chemical (photolytic) and
2.1 Thermoplastics biological processes, which can be directly transported into the
These are polymers that do not change their chemical marine environments from shorelines, rivers, and sewage pipes.
composition when heated and can, therefore, undergo moulding These microplastics eventually end up in water bodies travelling
multiple times. These include the common plastics polyethylene all the way from rivers to seas or oceans.
(PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride IUPAC also defines polymers as substances composed of
(PVC) and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) with molecular weights monomers forming macromolecules, very large molecules with
in the range of 20,000 to 500,000 AMU (atomic mass unit). molecular weights ranging from a few thousand to as high as
hundreds of gram/mole. They are synthetic, made mostly of
2.2 Thermoset Plastics petrochemicals and exhibit high molecular mass, plasticity and
These are polymers that remain solid and cannot be some additive chemicals are added to increase the performance
melted nor modified. The chemical change here is irreversible, and efficiency of the products. Being easily manufactured, low
and hence these plastics are not recyclable because they have a cost, resistant to water, chemicals, temperature to a certain level
highly cross-linked structure, whereas thermoplastics are linear. and light resistance, plastics are used in a wide range of products.
Examples include phenol-formaldehyde, polyurethanes, etc. Production of plastics has increased exponentially; because of
their widespread usage, plastics constitute a large material group
2.3 Fibre plastics and non-fibre plastics with global annual production that has doubled in 15 years,
At this junction, it is worthy to state that fibre plastics are reaching 350 million tonnes in 2017 [16]. For many applications,
a category of composite plastics that specifically use fibre materials plastics can even offer lower carbon footprint alternatives compared
which are usually glass, carbon, aramid or basalt to mechanically to other materials [2]. The global production of plastics reached
enhance the strength and elasticity of plastics, e.g., polyamide, the 360 million tonnes mark in 2018 [17]. Consequently, this
polyethylene terephthalate, polyester, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) widespread use of plastics, as well as the resistance to degradation
vinyon, polyolefins, polyurethane fiber, etc. The original plastic by many plastics and all polymer materials, ultimately leads to
material without fibre reinforcement is known as the matrix or their accumulation in oceans, deeps seas, landfills and other
binding agent or non-fibre plastics, e.g., epoxy, vinyl ester, terrestrial niches therefore adversely affecting wildlife and also
polyester thermosetting plastic, phenol formaldehyde resins, etc. human health. In the oceans, plastic product debris and sediments
are ingested by and/or trapped inside marine organisms and
3. Microplastics fragmented into smaller pieces and microplastics [18]. Although
the presence of plastics pollution was mentioned for the first time
The term "microplastic" refers to plastic particles that are in 1972, there was less attention on the harmful effects of it on the
less than 5 mm in size. The term ‘microplastic’ was further refined environment. The plastic polymer is considered to be biochemically
by Cole and colleagues [7], who described ‘primary microplastics’ inert due to its large molecular size and is therefore not regarded
and ‘secondary microplastics’, dividing the particles according to as hazardous for human health or the environment [19]. However,
origin, i.e., particles that were manufactured in a microscopic size polymerisation reactions are rarely complete and, therefore, also
range (including pellets or beads) versus the degradation products unreacted residual monomers can be found in polymeric materials,
of large debris (produced via physical, biological or chemical several of which are hazardous for human health and the environment
fragmentation) [7]. Microplastics can contain two types of chemicals: and/or affect polymer properties [20]. These residual monomers
(i) additives and polymeric raw materials (e.g., monomers or contents may vary a lot depending on the type of polymer,
oligomers) originating from the plastics, and (ii) chemicals absorbed polymerisation technique and techniques for reducing residual
from the surrounding ambience. Additives are chemicals intentionally monomer content [19]. A search for research articles that uses the
added during plastic production to give plastic qualities like terms "Plastic / microplastic / polymer and effect" showed that
colour and transparency and to enhance the performance of the number of published studies now number in thousands, and
plastic products to improve both the resistance to degradation by new studies are published daily. Early publications focused on
ozone, temperature, light radiation, mould, bacteria and humidity, methods for finding and identifying plastics and microplastics in
and mechanical, thermal and electrical resistance [8]. They different matrices, but more recently, the number of effect studies
include inert or reinforcing fillers, plasticizers, antioxidants, UV that measure the consequences of exposure have increased. As the
stabilizers, lubricants, dyes and flame-retardants [8]. research field has grown, the need for a common vocabulary has
also grown. The objective of this study is to identify and compile
3.1 Primary microplastics the environmental threats, damages and health effects of the
Primary microplastics are the by-products of particulate plastics, microplastics and polymers.
emissions released from industrial production, the release of With the aim of detecting the potential threats plastics
plastics dust from plastics products. They are widely used in pose to humans and to the environment, plastics and polymers
cosmetics formulations [7, 9] such as makeup, sunscreen, nail that are in circulation in the economy were identified; some of
polish, hair colouring, eye shadow, shower gels, and personal care these polymer materials have global production exceeding 10,000
products containing scrubs and abrasives (such as toothpastes, tonnes/year and the environmental and health hazards of chemicals
facial cleansers and air-blasting) [10-13], also including fibres used in these plastic polymer are as shown in Table 1. The hazard
released from synthetic textile and clothing manufacture [14]. classifications were almost exclusively taken from the Annex VI

114 Copyright @ 2020 By Journal of Sustainable Energy and Environment

 Journal of Sustainable Energy & Environment 11 (2020) 133-122

Table 1. Ranking of global annual production versus hazard rank.

Polymer type Global production (million tonnes/year) Hazard rank for polymer
Polypropylene (PP) 45 37 (a) [21]
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 37 5, 6, 11 (a) [21-23]
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 33 36*, 36* (a) [22-23]
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) 32 36 (a) [21]
Low-density (LDPE) and linear- 39 36, 36, 36, 36**, 36** (a) [21-25]
low-density (LLDPE) polyethylene
Polystyrene (PS) (general purpose) 13 35 (a) [23]
⁎ Contains≥10 wt.% non-classified substance.
⁎⁎ Contains≥10 wt.% non-classified substance, for which ranking may be underestimated.
a The sum hazard scores derived based on harmonized CLP classifications

Source: [21]

in the EU classification, labelling and packaging (CLP) regulation production rate, these materials represent the great varieties of
which is based on the UN Globally Harmonized System (GHS) plastic and polymer types/families in circulation.
(European Parliament and Council, 2008). Classifications including Further streamlined searching was conducted when cited
the 1st Adaptation to Technical Progress have been used (European literature yielded relevant peer-reviewed articles and applicablereports
Commission, 2009). These classifications reflect the intrinsic published by government agencies that were missed by the search
hazardous properties of a substance or mixture (with some exceptions, engine. This review was also based on a literature review of the
e.g., organic peroxides), and do not take exposure into account. life cycle assessment (LCA) approach, and measurements of the
The sum hazard scores derived based on harmonized CLP harmfulness of plastics from cradle to grave, i.e., from manufacturing
classifications for environmental or human health hazards were phase, use phase to disposal. With the aim of carrying out these
used to sort the lists of chemicals. methods, identifying, analysing, and quantifying plastics in the
According to Lithner [21], the procedure for calculating environment is imperative, and these are described in the
the hazard score (sum) for the polymer is based on the classifications following sections.
of the monomer(s) that the polymer is made of. Since a substance
often has multiple classifications, e.g., is classified both as mutagenic 4.1 Methods of microplastic analysis
category 2 and acute toxic category 3, the hazard grades (1-10,000) Majority of the monitoring studies employed solely visual
for each classification were summarised to create a hazard score for identification methods (i.e., naked eye or dissecting microscopes),
the substance. In this way, a substance that is both mutagenic and with a good number of those studies published in 2016 and 2017.
acutely toxic gets a higher hazard score (i.e., 1000+100=1100), Visual identification only permits identification down to 500 mm
than a substance that is only mutagenic (i.e., 1000). If more than [26]. Although visual confirmation techniques are inexpensive in
one monomer is needed to produce the polymer, figures on each terms of time and cost, misidentification of natural particles such
monomer's average weight fraction in the polymer are multiplied as coal ash or coal fly [27] and quartz or calcium carbonate [28]
with the hazard score for each monomer. The weight fraction of is possible. A multitude of authors have therefore concluded that
a monomer is the mass of one monomer used, divided by the total the visual identification error rate for identifying natural particles
mass of all monomers used to produce the polymer. Finally, the as microplastics is unacceptably high, ranging from 33 to 70%
sum of the hazard scores for all monomers included in the [28-32]. Studies not using appropriate analytical confirmation
polymer type are calculated, and a hazard ranking of the different techniques are likely overestimating environmental concentrations
plastic polymers is made. The ranking means that the polymer is of relevant size fractions [33]. This is especially true for fibres,
made from hazardous substances (the greatest part being transformed where visual analysis alone cannot differentiate between cotton
during polymerisation). Release of these hazardous substances or or other natural fibrous materials and those of synthetic origin
degradation products may occur during production, use and end [31]. Advanced analytical confirmation methods (some form of
of life phase, and thereby there is a hazard associated with the Raman scattering or [m]-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
ranked polymer type. [FTIR]), which allow particles to be characterized in terms of their
This review aims to give a general and thorough description chemical makeup and hence to distinguish from natural particles
of the plastic pollution issue, with a focus on the quantities of and identify polymer type, a substantial number of the studies
plastic flowing into natural habitats, e.g., oceans, landfills, and were used. The use of various Raman and FTIR spectroscopy
the threats they pose to both inhabitants (living organisms) and techniques can also lower the particle size detection limit to 1 and
the habitat itself (environment). Secondly, it will discuss current 10 mm, respectively [26, 34]; however, confidence in detection is
knowledge gaps and challenges underlying plastic, polymer decreased at <131 mm [35]. In 64% of the studies involving
waste management. Lastly, the conclusion will stress on the need confirmation methods, confirmation was performed on <50% of
to act now and, remedies to plastic waste pollution. particles sampled. A further 13% used a chemical identification
technique to identify >50% of particles sampled, whereas 23%
4. Methods confirmed 100% of suspected microplastics. Confirmation of >50%
of suspect microplastics was not limited to studies with low total
A systematic review was conducted of papers published particle counts (e.g., <500) despite the additional cost and effort
up to the early of 2020, which were identified by the search engines, for sample analysis. Similar to the studies using visual techniques,
Google and Science hub. The search terms “plastics, microplastic” measured environmental concentration from any study where
and “environment” were used and 150 peer-reviewed research <50% of suspect microplastics have been confirmed, should be
articles identified. Additionally, streamlined searching was conducted treated with caution. Problems can also be encountered in microplastic
to source for recent research work on the topic within the last two detection when using appropriate analytical confirmation methods
decades which helped to scale down the initial number of research because of difficulties pertaining to particle brittleness (breaking
articles identified. A further refinement of the search was done to apart in the sample preparation stage), biofouling of particles
include only those plastic and polymer materials which have a (interfering with the signal), or the particle size being too small to
global production exceeding 10,000 tonnes/year. With such high be adequately analysed [36-37].

Copyright @ 2020 By Journal of Sustainable Energy and Environment 115

 Journal of Sustainable Energy & Environment 11 (2020) 133-122

4.2 Accumulation of plastic waste in the natural environment and washed away into various channels. According to the U.S.
The dispersal and ill effects of large plastics have been Environmental Protection Agency, Americans recycled only
the focus of research to date. The five heaviest plastic polluters 9.1% of their plastics in 2015. Waste-to-energy facilities combusted
geographically are; China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam 15.5%. But the most likely destination for the plastics discarded
and Sri Lanka, which between them contribute 56% of the global in the U.S. is the landfill; it is the final resting place for three-
ocean plastic waste. This is mainly as a result of large populations quarters of it. The incidental presence of microplastics in aquatic
living within 50 km of the coast, and relatively poor waste habitats (surface water, the water column or sediments) facilitates
management facilities [38]. It has been estimated that more than the intake of microplastics by organisms. The spatial overlap
150 Mt of plastics have entered the world’s oceans [39], which between the microplastics distribution and the physical presence
amounts to around 2.6% of the total plastics ever produced from of biota is the major contributing factor for microplastics influx
primary plastics (5.8 billion tonnes) [40]. According to Geyer et into food webs [45]. Microplastics enter into food webs via a
al. [40], all the plastics produced from 1950 to 2015 were prey’s ingestion (trophic transfer), entanglement, respiratory
disposed by one of the following methods; Discarded (55%), intake (inhalation) or adherence of microplastics [46]. There are
Incinerated (25%) and Recycled (20%). Substantial quantities of accounts of inadvertent contamination of soils with small plastic
plastic have accumulated in the natural environment and in fragments as a consequence of spreading sewage sludge [47], and
landfills. Around 10 per cent by weight of the municipal waste of fragments of plastic and glass contaminating compost prepared
stream is plastic [18]. In agriculture, aside from industrial sludge, from municipal solid waste. Also, plastics are carried into
plastics mulch is an important source of microplastics [41]. streams, rivers and ultimately the sea with rainwater and flood
Plastics mulch has been widely adopted to increase crop yields by events [48]. A summary of worldwide microplastics contamination
reducing evaporation and increasing temperature. These products is shown in Table 2.
can also produce a high amount of microplastics when the plastics
cannot be recycled efficiently [41]. Greenhouse materials, soil 5. Decomposition of plastics
conditioners, manure, irrigation, garbage, atmospheric deposition,
and debris from the friction of plastics products are other sources Plastics tend to be exceptionally stable and durable, which
of microplastics, which primarily accumulate in agricultural soil is why they have gained popularity and a wide application in
[42], resulting in a mixture. These mixtures can result in 0.08 - society; however, these same qualities render them persistent in
6.3 kg ha-1 per year of visible plastics in arable soil, with annual the environment, and resistant to decomposition when discarded
microplastics input reaching 0.6 - 4.3×105 and 0.4 -3.0×105 tonnes [56]. In the environment, plastics may undergo degradation by
in European and North American agricultural soils, respectively, four principal mechanisms : photodegradation, thermo-oxidative
higher than that in the surface water of the ocean [43-44]. Discarded degradation, hydrolysis and biodegradation by microbes [57].
plastics also contaminate a wide range of natural terrestrial, Photodegradation by sunlight is generally the initial event, which
freshwater and marine habitats. There is also some data on primes the material for subsequent thermo- oxidative degradation
littering in the urban environment, for example compiled by [57-58]. As a result of these processes, the plastic becomes brittle
EnCams in the UK (http://www.encams.org/home). Plastics have and steadily dissociates into increasingly smaller fragments:
become a menacing pollutant in the environment because of the finally, down to the molecular level, such that they can be
very high rate of production and also their improper disposal via metabolised by microbes [57,59], which either incorporate the
indiscriminate dumping (unsanitary landfilling). When plastics carbon atoms from the polymer chains into biomolecules, or
get dumped at an unsanitary waste site, they get dispersed, blown oxidise them to CO2. The overall process of decomposition is very

Table 2. A summary of microplastic contamination in various estuarine water/sediments reported worldwide.

SI. Location Microplastics Method Particle size Sample Polymer types Reference
no. range/ave. (mm) type
1 Vembanad 252.8 particles m−2 Van Veen grab <5 mm Sediment HDPE, LDPE, Sruthy and
Lake, India (average) (25 cm2) PP, PS Ramasamy
Sieve: 5 mm [49]
2 Lake Huron, 3209 plastic pieces Grid: 2 m x 2 m 5 ± 0.5 mm Sediment
PE, PP and Zbyszewski
Canada 85 m−2 (total) Sample collector: Polyethylene and Corcoran
Stainless steel trowel terephthalate [50]
Depth: N/A (PET)
3 Pearl River 5595 ± 27,417 items Quadrat: 0.25 m2; 0.315–5 mm Sediment Expanded Fok and
Estuary, Hong m−2 (average) Depth: 4 cm; polystyrene (EPS), Cheung [51]
Kong Sieve: 0.315 & 5 mm fragments and pellets
4 Five urban 745.4 ± 129.7 Beach and Estuary 20–5000 μm Sediment & Not identified Naidoo [52]
estuaries of particles sample; Corer: 50 mm Water
KwaZulu- per 500 ml diameter
Natal, South Depth: 10 cm.
Africa. Surface water sample;
300 μm mesh of
diameter 30 cm.
5 Gulf of Mexico 5–117 items m−2 Quadrat: 0.25 m2; 2.5 ± 0.48 Sediment PP, PE, PS, polyester Wessel [53]
estuary Depth: 6 cm mm and aliphatic
polyamide
6 Lake Garda, 1108 ± 983 N/A 0.781 – 3.016 Sediment LDPE, PS, PE, PP, Imhof [54]
Italy microplastic particles mm polyamide and PVC
m−2 (average)
PE — Polyethylene, PP — Polypropylene, PS — Polystyrene, LDPE — Low-density polyethylene, HDPE — High-density polyethene, PET —
Polyethylene terephthalate, Source: Laskar & Kumar [55]

116 Copyright @ 2020 By Journal of Sustainable Energy and Environment

 Journal of Sustainable Energy & Environment 11 (2020) 133-122

slow, however; an estimated 50 years for a foam plastic cup, 400 is not the same as the polymer being hazardous. The ranking
years for a plastic drinking cup, 450 years for a disposable nappy, means that the polymer is made from hazardous substances (the
and 600 years for a fishing line [60]. The persistence of plastics greatest part being transformed during polymerisation). Release
in the oceans is enhanced by the limited availability of oxygen, of these hazardous substances or degradation products may occur
and by the cooling effect of the water; also, rates of hydrolysis are during production, use and end of life phase, and thereby there is
too low to provide an effective route for the decomposition of a hazard associated with the ranked polymer type. These plastics
most polymer components of plastic debris [57]. To consign are made from depletable resources (fossil fuels) as mentioned
plastic waste to landfills involves rendering unavailable land that earlier on and are not sustainable as they pose more environmental
might otherwise be more productively used, such as for agriculture burdens that arise from continued production. Some of the raw
[61], and in combination with the fact that most plastics degrade material substances, intermediate substances or by-products in
but slowly, especially in landfill environments, the land is necessarily the synthesis of monomers are sometimes more toxic than the
thus occupied for a longer term. When such degradation does monomer itself. Besides the residual monomers, other polymerisation
occur, the plastic may discharge a host of secondary pollutants, impurities can also be present in a plastic product. These include
such as benzene, xylenes, and trimethylbenzene isomers, either as oligomers, low molecular weight polymer fragments, catalyst
gaseous components or via leachate [62], along with various other remnants, and polymerisation solvents, as well as a wide range of
substances, including bisphenol A (BPA) [62-64], with the risk of plastic additives including processing aids and end-product
groundwater contamination. In addition to its acknowledged role additives [71]. All these non-polymeric components are usually
as an endocrine disruptor, BPA has been demonstrated to promote of low molecular weight and may, therefore, migrate from the
the production of hydrogen sulphide by sulphate reducing plastic product [71] to air, water or other contact media (e.g., food).
bacteria that are present in soil [64]. Two very hazardous raw material substances are benzene and
butadiene, which are both classified as carcinogenic (category 1A)
6. Plastic waste handling and mutagenic (category1B). During production, the size and type
of emissions to water and air varies between different polymers
Before 1980, plastic recycling and incineration were and between different production sites, according to EU risk
negligible. Since then, only non-fibre plastics have been subject assessment reports (European Commission Joint Research Centre,
to significant recycling efforts. The following results apply to e.g., 2009, 2010, 2017). During use and end of life, many factors
non-fibre plastic only: Global recycling and incineration rates determine the type and size of emissions from plastic polymers
have slowly increased to account for 18 and 24%, respectively, of and products.
non-fibre plastic waste generated in 2014. On the basis of limited The major commercial polymers, polyethylene and
available data, the highest recycling rates in 2014 were in Europe polypropylene, are extremely resistant to biodegradation [72],
(30%) and China (25%), whereas in the United States, plastic i.e., degradation by micro-organisms. According to [73], only
recycling has remained steady at 9% since 2012 [65-69]. In 0.1% of the carbon in a polyethylene polymer will be transformed
Europe and China, incineration rates have increased over time to into CO2 per year by biodegradation, even under optimal
reach 40 and 30%, respectively, in 2014 [66, 68]. However, in the laboratory exposure conditions. Most other plastic polymer types
United States, non-fibre plastics incineration peaked at 21% in are resistant to biodegradation (non-biodegradable) (e.g. PVC,
1995 before decreasing to 16% in 2014 as recycling rates increased, polystyrene, polyacrylonitrile, and polymethyl methacrylate;
with discard rates remaining constant at 75% during that time [74]). The few biodegradable polymers only have a minor share
period [67]. Waste management information for 52 other countries in the plastics market today, but this is growing. However, not all
suggests that in 2014, the rest of the world had recycling and of them are completely biodegradable in the natural environment
incineration rates similar to those of the United States [70]. To [75]. Non-biodegradable polymers can, however, be degraded by
date, end-of-life textiles (fibre products) do not experience significant heat, oxidation, hydrolysis, and mechanical shear, but these
recycling and are thus incinerated or discarded together with other means of degradation also produce pollutants such as carbon
solid waste. monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and ozone [76].
During thermal degradation, nitrogen-containing plastics (e.g.
7. Threats, risks, and environmental burdens nylons and polyacrylonitrile) release hydrogen cyanide; chlorine-
containing materials (e.g. PVC) release hydrogen chloride &
A recent analysis by the State University of New York on dioxins; fluorine-containing polymers (e.g., polyvinylidene fluoride
plastics water bottles made a shocking report as it found twice as and PTFE) release hydrogen fluoride; and some polymers (mentioned
many microplastics in bottled water as compared to tap water on above) are depolymerised into their monomers [76-78]. Carbon
average. The samples were collected from 19 locations from dioxide and monoxide are produced from any hydrocarbon
different countries including India, Brazil, China, Kenya, Lebanon, material in fire [60]. Of these, hydrogen cyanide and hydrogen
Mexico, Thailand, USA and Indonesia. It was found that 93 percent fluoride are fatal if inhaled and carbon monoxide may damage the
of the samples collected contained microplastics particulates unborn child as reported by the Stockholm Convention on
ranging from 1 to 10,000 in a single water bottle [55]. The food Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) [21].
safety authorities of the entire advanced developed nations do not Microplastics are very much harmful to marine life as the
have any residue limit for microplastic as of now. The World pollutant travels all the way from rivers to seas or oceans. They
Health Organization started to review the potential risk of plastic are so light that they can be easily tossed around and for many
pollutants across the world to bring down the use of plastics. The water species, they look like their food and are thus consumed
environmental fate of a plastic product includes the processes by which then accumulates in their body. The sea fish sometimes
which both the plastic material and the chemicals released during consume such plastic waste and unknowingly human beings
the preproduction and production phases are moved and transformed. consume such seafood and the microplastics which contain toxins
Hazardous substances may be emitted during all phases of the life enters in the bloodstream and affects the health directly, and
cycle of a plastic product and may consist of nonpolymeric hence such contaminant poses a potential threat to the
substances (e.g., raw materials, monomers, catalysts, solvents, environment and mankind (A report on “Microplastic pollution in
by-products from production, and additives), as well as degradation oceans, a menace which is far worse than feared, says, scientists”,
products of the nonpolymeric substances and from the polymer Environment | The Guardian, 12 March 2018). Consumption of
itself. It should be emphasised that a polymer ranked as hazardous microplastics for a long period of time may change our human

Copyright @ 2020 By Journal of Sustainable Energy and Environment 117

 Journal of Sustainable Energy & Environment 11 (2020) 133-122

chromosomes and may lead to infertility, obesity, and even cause plastic bags. The life cycle global warming impact from the raw
cancer [79]. A statement by the EU Commission, 2017 informs material acquisition to the production of the bioplastic bags was
that “Microplastics are of particular concern due to the negative higher compared to the plastic bags. The major contributor of
effects on marine and freshwater environments, aquatic life, global warming impact for bioplastic bag was PLA resin
biodiversity, and possibly to human health since their small size production, especially from the utilization of chemicals and energy.
facilitates uptake and bioaccumulation by organisms or toxic The second largest contributor was sugarcane cultivation and
effects from the complex mixture of chemicals these particles harvesting (14%) due to the production and utilization of nitrogen
consist of.” [80]. fertilizers. Meanwhile, the main contributor to global warming
impact of the conventional (HDPE) bags was ethylene production
8. Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of petroleum-based (monomer), accounting for 37%. Additionally, a research work by
plastics and bioplastics [86] employed LCA to determine the environmental impacts and
economic sustainability of bioplastics production with various end-
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a beneficial tool for of-life options. The results showed that the environmental and
assessing the environmental impacts associated with a material, economic sustainability could be enhanced with 100% mechanical
product, process or service over the entire life cycle that is cradle recycling of all kinds of studied plastics. It is also important to
to gate or cradle to grave [81]. LCA is a tool to evaluate the highlight that mechanical recycling showed a better performance
environmental aspects of the products or services over their entire in terms of environmental and economic sustainability than
life starting from the raw materials from which they are made composting of bioplastics. This result shows that the end-of-life
until the final disposal. A full LCA would serve as an appropriate of these materials must be considered before production.
tool for environmental impact evaluation. The studies reviewed Furthermore, in the United Kingdom a comparative research of
focused on the evaluation and analysis the environmental impacts carrying bags was made by the Environmental Agency in 2011
from cradle to grave of bioplastics (agro material-based) and [87]. They looked at environmental impact of the whole life cycle.
petroleum-based plastics by using packaging materials as the The results showed that the environmental impacts of carrier bags
representative product based on a life cycle approach. These are dominated by resource use and production. Another study
studies evaluated the environmental impacts in terms of global showed the Australian experience; Consulting Pty Ltd compared
warming, fossil depletion, acidification, eutrophication, land high-density plastic grocery bags with several other bags made
occupation, water depletion, and toxicity for whole life cycle of from paper, compostable plastic, cotton, and polypropylene. The
petroleum-based plastics and bioplastics. They also identified the reusable polypropylene bags had the least impact on the
stages of the product’s life cycle that contributed the most impacts environment [88].
[82-88]. As stated earlier, marine plastic littering and landfilling
Different countries have already tried to find the best of plastics can cause major impacts on ecological, social and
solution for the grocery bag by using life cycle assessment. For economic values. In the case of ecological impacts, the individual
example, the American Chemical Council Plastics Division concluded organisms like marine mammals, reptiles, birds and fish, may
a comparison of paper and plastic bags using LCA in the USA entangle or ingest floating litter. Marine litter can also damage
[89]. The result demonstrated that plastic bag manufacture demands their habitats, like coral reefs. However, the amount of literature
less energy, water and fossil fuel than paper ones. Moreover, the that quantifies the extent of plastic wastes pollution in these
amount of solid wastes and greenhouse gases are also less. Also, niches is limited. This limitation has also carried over on assessing
several LCA studies about bioplastics in the past have shown their the environmental impacts of the plastic waste in landfills and
advantage as compared to conventional plastics particularly in the marine habitats. Hence, it is worthy to state that several research
environmental impacts of global warming and fossil depletion articles [2, 84-86, 94-95] on plastic waste LCA and management
[90-91]. However, many studies have also argued that bioplastics acknowledged that impacts related to marine plastics debris, and
have a negative effect on the environment such as land use change plastic landfilling are not properly addressed in LCA. Very
[60] due to land expansion and land required for feedstock recently, in a workshop on marine littering and landfilling of
cultivation for bioplastic; ozone depletion, eutrophication, acidification plastics [96-97], it was agreed that addressing these limitations
impact due to the fertilization. [82-83, 92-93]. within LCA methodology would be meaningful and feasible;
In the first case, an LCA research work on bagasse and however, the methodology needs to be further developed. To this
PS foam carried out by Fangmongkol & Gheewala [84], the effect, a lot of works are on-going to help address these limitations
environmental life cycle impacts of bagasse lunch boxes were of the LCA methodology.
evaluated and compared to PS foam lunch boxes. The results With the help of LCA a task has been accomplished,
show that bleached bagasse pulp production has a significant which is to detect the phases of the product’s life cycle that are
contribution to almost all the impacts. The major contributor to contributing major environmental burdens. Identifying these
the global warming of bagasse lunch boxes is bleached bagasse phases will help push decision makers to find means and implement
pulp production (69% of total) due to the utilization of chemicals measures to cut down these impacts. The results of these LCA
at plant, accounting for 84% of the total global warming impact studies indicates that the bioplastics contribute more burdens in
from bleached bagasse pulp production and sodium chlorate the production phase due to the use of bleaching chemicals, resins,
production (3.9%).The major reason that makes the environmental and electricity for cleaning. Also, according to the results, the
impacts of bagasse lunch boxes larger than PS foam lunch boxes bioplastics are more sustainable in the long-run as they are mainly
is the weight of bagasse lunch boxes, which are five times that of made from renewable resources as earlier stated in the introductory
PS foam lunch boxes. The second reason is the use of chemicals section and are more environmental friendly in terms of degradation
in the bleaching process. and recycling. As a result of findings from the literature review
Similarly, an LCA research work involving Bioplastic of this study, it is imperative to raise awareness about plastic
(PLA) and conventional plastic (HDPE) by [85] showed that pollution and its adverse effects on the ecosystem. Therefore, it is
petroleum plastic bags perform better than bioplastic bags in all necessary to make recommendations to help promote cleaner and
categories and are quite similar in term of fossil depletion impact. safer production of these plastics, to promote proper plastic waste
The major stage contributing to the impacts of bioplastic bags is disposal and management. The following section will therefore
the PLA production stage which is particularly due to the higher attempt to make recommendations to sensitize every stakeholder.
resin requirement for bioplastic bag production as compared to

118 Copyright @ 2020 By Journal of Sustainable Energy and Environment

 Journal of Sustainable Energy & Environment 11 (2020) 133-122

9. Measures to control plastic, microplastic and polymer waste e.g., reducing the weight of the bioplastics, also the bleaching stage
of production for some bioplastics can be phased-out or done in a
To curb the effects of plastics (bioplastics, petroleum- more environmental friendly way to help reduce the overall
based plastics) and microplastics in the environment, effective environmental demerits of the bioplastic, with these wholesome
measures need to be adopted. This review study has identified improvements in production, processing, and proper waste
hazardous substances (monomers, additives) used in polymer and managements (composting and mechanical recycling), bioplastics
bioplastics production for which the risks ought to be evaluated would be worthy alternatives / replacements to the petroleum-based
for decisions on need for risk reduction measures, substitution, or plastics. These actions are overdue and are now required with
even phase out [21, 24]. There is also a need to assess the risks from urgent effect; there are diverse environmental hazards associated
exposure in a broader context, including plastic waste pollution, with the accumulation of plastic waste and there are growing concerns
degradation products, additives and mixture toxicity. Environmental about effects on human health, yet plastic production continues to
and human health hazard ranking models, as the one in this study, grow considerably. As a consequence, the quantity of plastics produced
can be useful tools for comparing substances, mixtures or articles in the next years of the current century will keep rising continually.
in hazard and risk assessment [7, 21, 57]. The end-of-life of these
plastics should be factored into design and production so as to aid Acknowledgement
the process of recycling [91]. In the same vein of thought, an
environment protection agency should be formed to regulate The authors would like to acknowledge the Joint Graduate
against unsanitary landfilling of plastics waste as some of these School of Energy and Environment (JGSEE), King Mongkut's
plastic wastes can be otherwise taken to recycling plants and University of Technology Thonburi and the Center of Excellence
recylcled into other useful items. Public awareness and public on Energy Technology and Environment (CEE), PERDO, Ministry
motivation must be done to judiciously use plastic items if they of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation for
must use one, to properly dispose plastics waste, to promote the financial support to complete this research work.
use of biodegradable bags and non-plastic materials through
government approach and non-governmental organizations. References

10. Conclusion of review results [1] Ryberg, M.W., Hauschild, M.Z., Wang, F., Averous-Monnery,
S. and Laurent, A. 2019. Global environmental losses of
There is no simple solution to this complex and global issue. plastics across their value chains, Resources, Conservation
Plastics and microplastics are growing contaminants affecting the and Recycling, 151, 104459, Available online:
whole world. Plastics offer considerable benefits for the future, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.104459.
but it is evident that our current approaches to production, use, [2] Boucher, J. and Friot, D. 2017. Primary Microplastics in the
and disposal are not sustainable and present concerns for wildlife Oceans: A Global Evaluation of Sources (pp. 2017-002).
and human health. We have considerable knowledge about many Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
of the environmental hazards, and information on human health [3] Zalasiewicz, J., Waters, C.N., do Sul, J.A.I., Corcoran, P.L.,
effects is growing, but many concerns and uncertainties remain. Barnosky, A.D., Cearreta, A. and McNeill, J.R. 2016. The
There are several solutions, but these can only be achieved by geological cycle of plastics and their use as a stratigraphic
combined actions. There is a role for individuals, via appropriate use indicator of the Anthropocene, Anthropocene, 13, 4-17.
and disposal, particularly recycling; for industry by adopting green [4] Brandon, J.A., Jones, W. and Ohman, M.D. 2019. Multidecadal
chemistry, material reduction and by designing products for reuse increase in plastic particles in coastal ocean sediments,
and/or end-of-life recyclability, and for governments and policymakers Science Advances, 5(9), eaax0587.
by setting standards and targets, by defining appropriate product [5] International organisation for Standardization. 2013. ISO
labelling to inform and incentivize change and by funding relevant 472: Plastics-vocabulary. Available online:
academic research and technological developments. Going by the https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:472:ed-4:vl:en
ever-increasing volume of plastic production year in year out, [Accessed on: July 23, 2017].
combined with the low percentage of recycling which translates [6] Vert, M., Doi, Y., Hellwich, K.H., Hess, M., Hodge, P.,
to a high percentage of landfilling and most importantly the non- Kubisa, P. and Schué, F. 2012. Terminology for biorelated
biodegradable property of the plastics, it is apparent that plastics polymers and applications (IUPAC Recommendations 2012),
are not sustainable in the long-run, hence, the need to explore Pure and Applied Chemistry, 84(2), 377-410.
alternatives (e.g., bioplastics). These measures must be considered [7] Cole, M., Lindeque, P., Halsband, C. and Galloway, T.S.
within a framework of lifecycle analysis and this should incorporate 2011. Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment:
all of the key stages in plastic production, including synthesis of a review. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 62(12), 2588-2597.
the chemicals that are used in production, together with usage and [8] Hahladakis, J.N., Velis, C.A., Weber, R., Iacovidou, E. and
disposal. From the results of the above mentioned LCA analyses Purnell, P. 2018. An overview of chemical additives present
from different countries, it is valid to say that according to short- in plastics: migration, release, fate and environmental impact
term environmental impact, petroleum-based plastics have a during their use, disposal and recycling, Journal of Hazardous
lower impact compared to bioplastics. Although if we are looking Materials, 344, 179-199.
at landfilling, marine deposition and long-term harmfulness, [9] Castañeda, R.A., Avlijas, S., Simard, M.A. and Ricciardi, A.
biodegradable bags have less impact as they can decompose. Such 2014. Microplastic pollution in St. Lawrence river sediments,
results are not always apparent, therefore, measuring the impact on Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 71(12),
environment and human health is necessary and important. In 1767-1771.
addition, resource extraction and manufacturing processes create [10] Napper, I.E., Bakir, A., Rowland, S.J. and Thompson, R.C.
the biggest environmental impact among all the stages of production. 2015. Characterisation, quantity and sorptive properties of
Additives chemicals used in the production of bioplastics and microplastics extracted from cosmetics, Marine Pollution
petroleum-based plastics have been found to be potentially harmful Bulletin, 99(1-2), 178-185.
to human health and the environment. Whilst staying conscious [11] Chang, M. 2015. Reducing microplastics from facial exfoliating
of the fact that bioplastics pose more environmental burdens, cleansers in wastewater through treatment versus consumer
there is a lot of scope for improvement in production and processing, product decisions, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 101(1), 330-333.

Copyright @ 2020 By Journal of Sustainable Energy and Environment 119

 Journal of Sustainable Energy & Environment 11 (2020) 133-122

[12] Fendall, L.S. and Sewell, M.A. 2009. Contributing to marine Canadian Lake Ontario nearshore, tributary and beach
pollution by washing your face: microplastics in facial sediments, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 110(1), 383-395.
cleansers, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 58(8), 1225-1228. [29] Hidalgo-Ruz, V., Gutow, L., Thompson, R.C. and Thiel, M.
[13] Lei, K., Qiao, F., Liu, Q., Wei, Z., Qi, H., Cui, S., Yue, X., 2012. Microplastics in the marine environment: a review of
Deng, Y. and An, L. 2017. Microplastics releasing from the methods used for identification and quantification,
personal care and cosmetic products in China, Marine Environmental Science and Technology, 46(6), 3060-3075.
Pollution Bulletin, 123(1-2), 122-126. [30] Dekiff, J.H., Remy, D., Klasmeier, J. and Fries, E. 2014.
[14] Waller, C.L., Griffiths, H.J., Waluda, C.M., Thorpe, S.E., Occurrence and spatial distribution of microplastics in sediments
Loaiza, I., Moreno, B. and Hughes, K.A. 2017. Microplastics from Norderney, Environmental Pollution, 186, 248-256.
in the Antarctic marine system: an emerging area of [31] Fischer, E.K., Paglialonga, L., Czech, E. and Tamminga, M.
research, Science of the Total Environment, 598, 220-227. 2016. Microplastic pollution in lakes and lake shoreline
[15] Cesa, F.S., Turra, A. and Baruque-Ramos, J. 2017. Synthetic sediments–a case study on Lake Bolsena and Lake Chiusi
fibres as microplastics in the marine environment: a review (central Italy), Environmental Pollution, 213, 648-657.
from textile perspective with a focus on domestic [32] La Daana, K.K., Officer, R., Lyashevska, O., Thompson, R.C.
washings, Science of The Total Environment, 598, 1116-1129. and O'Connor, I. 2017. Microplastic abundance, distribution
[16] Vesilind, P. (Ed.). 2003. Wastewater Treatment Plant Design and composition along a latitudinal gradient in the Atlantic
(Vol. 2). IWA publishing. Ocean, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 115(1-2), 307-314.
[17] PlasticsEurope. 2018. Plastics -the Facts 2018: An Analysis [33] Lusher, A.L., Welden, N.A., Sobral, P. and Cole, M. 2017.
of European Plastics Production, Demand and Waste Data Sampling, isolating and identifying microplastics ingested
for 2017 (14.10.2018). Available online: by fish and invertebrates, Analytical Methods, 9(9), 1346-1360.
https://www.plasticseurope.org/application/files/6315/4510 [34] Duis, K. and Coors, A. 2016. Microplastics in the aquatic
/9658/Plastics_the_facts_2018_AF_web.pdf. and terrestrial environment: sources (with a specific focus
[18] PlasticsEurope. 2019. Plastics – the Facts 2019. An Analysis on personal care products), fate and effects, Environmental
of European Plastics Production, Demand and Waste Data Sciences Europe, 28(1), 2, Available online:
for 2018 (14.10.2019). Available online: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-015-0069-y.
https://www.plasticseurope.org/application/files/9715/7129 [35] Frere, L., Paul-Pont, I., Rinnert, E., Petton, S., Jaffré, J.,
/9584/FINAL_web_version_Plastics_the_facts2019_14102 Bihannic, I. and Huvet, A. 2017. Influence of environmental
019.pdf. and anthropogenic factors on the composition, concentration
[19] Matlack, A. 2010. Introduction to green chemistry. CRC Press. and spatial distribution of microplastics: a case study of the
[20] Browne, M.A., Crump, P., Niven, S.J., Teuten, E., Tonkin, Bay of Brest (Brittany, France), Environmental Pollution, 225,
A., Galloway, T. and Thompson, R. 2011. Accumulation of 211-222.
microplastic on shorelines worldwide: sources and sinks, [36] Leslie, H.A., Brandsma, S.H., Van Velzen, M.J.M. and Vethaak,
Environmental Science and Technology, 45(21), 9175-9179. A.D. 2017. Microplastics en route: Field measurements in
[21] Lithner, D., Larsson, Å. and Dave, G. 2011. Environmental the Dutch river delta and Amsterdam canals, wastewater
and health hazard ranking and assessment of plastic polymers treatment plants, North Sea sediments and biota, Environment
based on chemical composition, Science of the Total International, 101, 133-142.
Environment, 409(18), 3309-3324. [37] Shim, W.J., Hong, S.H. and Eo, S.E. 2017. Identification
[22] United Nations. 2015. Globally Harmonized System of methods in microplastic analysis: a review, Analytical
Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS). United Nations, Methods, 9(9), 1384-1391.
New York and Geneva, 6th revised edition, Available online: [38] Jambeck, J.R., Geyer, R., Wilcox, C., Siegler, T.R., Perryman,
https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/danger/publi/ M., Andrady, A., Narayan, R. and Law, K.L. 2015. Plastic
ghs/ghs_rev06/English/ST-SG-AC10-30-Rev6e.pdf [29 waste inputs from land into the ocean, Science, 347(6223),
November 2020]. 768-771.
[23] European Chemicals Agency. Table of harmonised entries [39] World Economic Forum and Ellen MacArthur Foundation.
in Annex VI to CLP - ECHA. (n.d.). Echa.Europa.Eu., 2017. The New Plastics Economy: Catalysing action.
Available online: https://echa.europa.eu/information-on- [40] Geyer, R., Jambeck, J.R. and Law, K.L. 2017. Production,
chemicals/annex-vi-to-clp [29 November 2020]. use, and fate of all plastics ever made, Science Advances, 3(7),
[24] Lithner, D., Damberg, J., Dave, G. and Larsson, Å. 2009. e1700782.
Leachates from plastic consumer products – Screening for [41] Yan, C.R., He, W.Q., Liu, S. and Cao, S.L. 2015. Application
toxicity with Daphnia magna, Chemosphere, 74(9), 1195-1200, of mulch films and prevention of its residual pollution in
Available online: China, Beijing: Science Press, 43-52 (in Chinese).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.11.022. [42] Song, Y.K., Hong, S.H., Jang, M., Han, G.M., Jung, S.W.
[25] Gensch, C.-O., Zangl, S., Groß, R., Weber, A.K. and Deubzer, and Shim, W.J. 2017. Combined effects of UV exposure
O. 2009. Final Report: Adaptation to Scientific and Technical duration and mechanical abrasion on microplastic fragmentation
Progress under Directive 2002/95/EC, Available online: by polymer type, Environmental Science and Technology,
https://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/weee/pdf/report_20 51(8), 4368-4376.
09.pdf. [43] Nizzetto, L., Futter, M. and Langaas, S. 2016. Are agricultural
[26] Löder, M.G. and Gerdts, G. 2015. Methodology used for the soils dumps for microplastics of urban origin?, Environmental
detection and identification of microplastics-A critical appraisal. Science and Technology, 50, 10777-10779.
In Bergmann M., Gutow L., Klages M. (eds); Marine [44] Van Sebille, E. 2015. The oceans’ accumulating plastic garbage.
Anthropogenic Litter (pp. 201-227). Springer, Cham. [45] Setälä, O., Lehtiniemi, M., Coppock, R. and Cole, M. 2018.
[27] Eriksen, M., Mason, S., Wilson, S., Box, C., Zellers, A., Microplastics in marine food webs. In Microplastic Contamination
Edwards, W. and Amato, S. 2013. Microplastic pollution in in Aquatic Environments (pp. 339-363). Elsevier.
the surface waters of the Laurentian Great Lakes, Marine [46] Watts, A.J., Urbina, M.A., Corr, S., Lewis, C. and Galloway,
Pollution Bulletin, 77(1-2), 177-182. T.S. 2015. Ingestion of plastic microfibers by the crab Carcinus
[28] Ballent, A., Corcoran, P.L., Madden, O., Helm, P.A. and maenas and its effect on food consumption and energy balance,
Longstaffe, F.J. 2016. Sources and sinks of microplastics in Environmental Science and Technology, 49(24), 14597-14604.

120 Copyright @ 2020 By Journal of Sustainable Energy and Environment

 Journal of Sustainable Energy & Environment 11 (2020) 133-122

[47] Zubris, K.A.V. and Richards, B.K. 2005. Synthetic fibres as [66] PlasticsEurope and EPRO. 2016. Plastics—the facts 2016.
an indicator of land application of sludge, Environmental An Analysis of European Plastics Production, Demand and
Pollution, 138(2), 201-211. Waste Data. Plastics Europe.
[48] Thompson, R.C., Moore, C.J., Vom Saal, F.S. and Swan, S.H. [67] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2014. Municipal
2009. Plastics, the environment and human health: current Solid Waste Generation, Recycling, and Disposal in the
consensus and future trends, Philosophical Transactions of the United States: Tables and Figures for 2012. Office of
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1526), 2153-2166. Resource Conservation and Recovery, USEPA.
[49] Sruthy, S. and Ramasamy, E.V. 2017. Microplastic pollution [68] National Bureau of Statics of China, Annual Data, China
in Vembanad Lake, Kerala, India: the first report of microplastics Statistical Yearbook, 1996-2016. Available online:
in lake and estuarine sediments in India, Environmental www.stats.gov.cn/ENGLISH/Statisticaldata/AnnualData/.
Pollution, 222, 315-322. [69] Ma, Z.F. and Zhang, B. 2009. China plastics recycling
[50] Zbyszewski, M. and Corcoran, P.L. 2011. Distribution and industry in 2008, China Plast, 23, 1-5.
degradation of freshwater plastic particles along the beaches [70] Hoornweg, D. and Bhada-Tata, P. 2012. What a Waste: A
of Lake Huron, Canada, Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 220(1- Global Review of Solid Waste Management. World Bank.
4), 365-372. [71] Crompton, T.R. 2007. Additive Migration from Plastics into
[51] Fok, L. and Cheung, P.K. 2015. Hong Kong at the Pearl Foods: A Guide for Analytical Chemists. iSmithers Rapra
River Estuary: A hotspot of microplastic pollution, Marine Publishing.
Pollution Bulletin, 99(1-2), 112-118. [72] Nicholson, J.W. 2020. The Chemistry of Medical and
[52] Naidoo, T., Glassom, D. and Smit, A.J. 2015. Plastic Dental Materials. Biomaterials Science Series No. 7. Royal
pollution in five urban estuaries of KwaZulu-Natal, South Society of Chemistry, 2nd Edition, , UK.
Africa, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 101(1), 473-480. [73] Andrady, A.L. 1998. Biodegradation of plastics: monitoring
[53] Wessel, C.C., Lockridge, G.R., Battiste, D. and Cebrian, J. what happens. In Plastics Additives (pp. 32-40). Springer,
2016. Abundance and characteristics of microplastics in Dordrecht.
beach sediments: insights into microplastic accumulation in [74] Allsopp, D., Seal, K.J. and Gaylarde, C.C. 2004. Introduction
northern Gulf of Mexico estuaries, Marine Pollution Bulletin, to Biodeterioration. Cambridge University Press.
109(1), 178-183. [75] Rudnik, E. 2019. Compostable Polymer Materials. Newnes.
[54] Imhof, H.K., Ivleva, N.P., Schmid, J., Niessner, R. and [76] Ravve, A. 2000. Naturally occurring polymers. In Principles
Laforsch, C. 2013. Contamination of beach sediments of a of Polymer Chemistry (pp. 449-475). Springer, Boston, MA.
subalpine lake with microplastic particles, Curr. Biol., 23, [77] Richardson, T.L. and Lokensgard, E. 2004. Industrial
867-868. Plastics: Theory and Applications. Cengage Learning.
[55] Laskar, N. and Kumar, U. 2019. Plastics and microplastics: [78] Fardell, P.J. 1993. Toxicity of Plastics and Rubber in Fire.
A threat to environment, Environmental Technology & Rapra Review Report 69, Vol. 6, No. 9, iSmithers Rapra
Innovation, 14, 100352, doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2019.100352. Publishing, UK.
[56] Webb, H.K., Arnott, J., Crawford, R.J. and Ivanova, E.P. [79] GESAMP. 2015. Sources, Fate and Effects of Microplastics
2013. Plastic degradation and its environmental implications in the Marine Environment: A Global Assessment. Kershaw,
with special reference to poly (ethylene terephthalate), P.J. (Ed.), Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects
Polymers, 5(1), 1-18, doi:10.3390/polym5010001. of Marine Environmental Protection. Rep Stud GESAMP,
[57] Andrady, A.L. 2011. Microplastics in the marine environment, No. 90, 96 p.
Marine Pollution Bulletin, 62(8), 1596-1605. [80] Backhaus, T. and Wagner, M. 2020. Microplastics in the
[58] Raquez, J.M., Bourgeois, A., Jacobs, H., Degée, P., Alexandre, environment: Much ado about nothing? A debate, Global
M. and Dubois, P. 2011. Oxidative degradations of oxodegradable Challenges, 4(6), 1900022, doi: 10.1002/gch2.201900022.
LDPE enhanced with thermoplastic pea starch: Thermo‐ [81] International Organization for Standardization. 2006. ISO
mechanical properties, morphology, and UV‐ageing studies, 14040:2006 Environmental Management–Life Cycle
Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 122(1), 489-496. Assessment– Principles and Framework. International
[59] Zheng, Y., Yanful, E.K. and Bassi, A.S. 2005. A review of Organization for Standardization, Geneva, 1-28.
plastic waste biodegradation, Critical Reviews in Biotechnology, [82] Taengwathananukool, S., Chidthaisong, A., Gheewala, S.H.,
25(4), 243-250. Chiarakorn, S. and Theinsathid, P. 2013. Environmental impact
[60] Le Guern, C. 2018. When the Mermaids Cry: The Great assessment of bioplastic and melamine-based coffee cup
Plastic Tide. Santa Anguila Foundation. production, Journal of Sustainable Energy & Environment,
[61] Zhang, J., Wang, X., Gong, J. and Gu, Z. 2004. A study on 4(3), 103-111.
the biodegradability of polyethylene terephthalate fibre and [83] Madival, S., Auras, R., Singh, S.P. and Narayan, R. 2009.
diethylene glycol terephthalate, Journal of Applied Polymer Assessment of the environmental profile of PLA, PET and
Science, 93(3), 1089-1096. PS clamshell containers using LCA methodology, Journal
[62] Xu, S.Y., Zhang, H., He, P.J. and Shao, L.M. 2011. Leaching of Cleaner Production, 17(13), 1183-1194.
behaviour of bisphenol, A from municipal solid waste under [84] Fangmongkol, K. and Gheewala, S.H. 2020. Life cycle
landfill environment, Environmental Technology, 32(11), assessment of biodegradable food container from bagasse in
1269-1277. Thailand, Journal of Sustainable Energy & Environment,
[63] Svenson, A., Sjöholm, S., Allard, A.S. and Kaj, L. 2011. 11, 61-69.
Antiestrogenicity and estrogenicity in leachates from solid [85] Rattana, S. and Gheewala, S.H. 2019. Environment impacts
waste deposits, Environmental Toxicology, 26(3), 233-239. assessment of petroleum plastic and bioplastic carrier bags
[64] Tsuchida, D., Kajihara, Y., Shimidzu, N., Hamamura, K. and in Thailand, Journal of Sustainable Energy & Environment, 10,
Nagase, M. 2011. Hydrogen sulphide production by sulphate- 9-17.
reducing bacteria utilizing additives eluted from plastic [86] Changwichan, K., Silalertruksa, T. and Gheewala, S.H. 2018.
resins, Waste Management and Research, 29(6), 594-601. Eco-efficiency assessment of bioplastics production systems
[65] PlasticsEurope, EuPC, EPRO and EuPR. 2008. The Compelling and end-of-life options, Sustainability, 10(4), 952.
Facts about Plastics. An Analysis of Plastics Production, [87] Environmental Agency. 2011. Evidence Life Cycle Assessment
Demand and Recovery for 2006 in Europe. of Supermarket Carrier Bags. Report: SC030148.

Copyright @ 2020 By Journal of Sustainable Energy and Environment 121

 Journal of Sustainable Energy & Environment 11 (2020) 133-122

[88] ExcelPlas Australia, Centre for Design at RMIT and Nolan- [93] Weiss, M., Haufe, J., Carus, M., Brandão, M., Bringezu, S.,
ITU. 2004. The Impacts of Degradable Plastic Bags in Hermann, B. and Patel, M.K. 2012. A review of the
Australia, Final Report to Department of the Environment and environmental impacts of biobased materials, Journal of
Heritage. Commonwealth Government of Australia, Canberra. Industrial Ecology, 16, S169-S181.
[89] Greene, J. 2011. Life Cycle Assessment of Reusable and [94] UNEP. 2018. Legal Limits on Single-Use Plastics and
Single-use Plastic Bags in California. California State Microplastics: A Global Review of National Laws and
University. Regulations. UNEP: Nairobi, Kenya.
[90] PlasticsEurope. 2008. Compelling Facts about Plastics. An [95] UNEP. 2016. Marine Plastic Debris and Microplastics –
Analysis of European Plastics Production, Demand and Recovery Global Lessons and Research to Inspire Action and Guide
for 2008. Brussels: Plastics Europe; 2009, Available online: Policy Change. United Nations Environment Programme,
http://www.plasticseurope.org/Documents/Document/2010 Nairobi.
0225141556Brochure_UK_FactsFigures_2009_22sept_6_ [96] Steensgaard, I.M., Syberg, K., Rist, S., Hartmann, N.B.,
Final-20090930-001-EN-v1.pdf [Accessed on: 3 January Boldrin, A. and Hansen, S.F. 2017. From macro-to microplastics-
2011]. Analysis of EU regulation along the life cycle of plastic
[91] Suwanmanee, U., Leejarkpai, T., Rudeekit, Y. and bags, Environmental Pollution, 224, 289-299.
Mungcharoen, T. 2010. Life cycle energy consumption and [97] Strothmann, P., Sonnemann, G., Vázquez-Rowe, I. and
greenhouse gas emissions of polylactic acid (PLA) and Fava, J. 2018. Connecting Expert Communities to Address
polystyrene (PS) trays, Natural Science, 44(4), 703-716. Marine Litter in Life Cycle Assessment Connecting Expert
[92] Gironi, F. and Piemonte, V. 2010. Bioplastics disposal: how Communities to Address Marine Litter in Life Cycle
to manage it, WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Assessment. Workshop Report.
Environment, 140, 261-271.

122 Copyright @ 2020 By Journal of Sustainable Energy and Environment