Advanced level Biology Revision

study guide

Hi guys, it’s me, The General Major P, an A’ Level student. I

just compiled some summary notes of our biology syllabus
which I hope you will find very useful. As you will be reading
through, you may come across some errors, of which it won’t
be of any harm to spell it out for rectification. Thanks guys
wish you the best.

Major P aka Prosper N

8/12/2017
ADVANCED LEVEL BIOLOGY REVISION STUDY GUIDE 08/12/2017

Cells & Molecules | Cell Division

Cell division
Occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells by mitosis and meiosis
o Replacement of the entire lining of your small intestine
o Liver cells only divide for repairing
o Nerve cells do not divide

Chromosomes
Long and thin for replication and decoding
Become short and fat prior mitosis → easier to separate due to compact form

Meiosis (reduction division)

During the production of sex cells (gametes) in animals
In spore formation which precedes gamete production in plants
Haploid gametes (sperm ovum) - sexual reproduction
DNA in a cell replicates only once, but cell divides twice

The Cell Cycle

Interphase
o G1: Protein synthesis and growth (10 hours)
 Preparation for DNA replication (e.g. growths of mitochondria)
 Differentiation, only selected genes are used to perform different functions in each cell
o S: DNA Replication (9 hours)
o G2: short gap before mitosis, organelles and proteins for mitosis are made (4 hours)
G0: Resting phase (nerve cells)

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M-phase
o Mitotic division of the nucleus (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase)
o Cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm)

Interphase
Phase with highest metabolism (mitochondria have a high activity)
Muscles never complete the whole cycle

Mitosis
Process of producing 2 diploid daughter cells with the same DNA by copying their chromosomes (clones)
Chromosomes can be grouped into homologous pairs
Mitosis occurs in
o Growth
o Repair
o Replacement of cells with limiting life span (red blood, skin cells)
o Asexual replacement
Controlled process, cancers result from uncontrolled mitosis of abnormal cells
Division of the nucleus (karyokinesis) and the cytoplasm (cytokinesis) are two processes of mitosis
Division of cytoplasm after nucleus. Delayed if cells have more than one nucleus (muscle)
Active process that requires ATP

Prophase

Chromosomes become shorter and thicker by coiling themselves (condensation)

This prevents tangling with other chromosomes
Nuclear envelope disappears/breaks down
Protein fibres (spindle microtubules) form
Centrioles are moving toward opposite poles forming the spindle apparatus of microtubule

Metaphase

Centrioles at opposite poles

Chromosomes line up on the equator of the spindle
Centromeres (kinetochores) attach to spindle fibres

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Kinetochores consist of microtubules and "motor" proteins which utilise ATP to pull on the spindle

Anaphase

Spindle fibres pull copies of chromatids to spindle poles to separate them

Mitochondria around spindle provide energy for movement

Telophase

Chromatid at the pole

Sets of chromosomes form new nuclei
Chromosomes become long and thin, uncoil!
Nuclear envelopes form around the nucleus

Cells & Molecules | Cell Types

Cell Types

Cells are structural and functional units

Small cells: bigger surface area per volume → allows exchange of more nutrients/waste
Large cells: smaller surface area per volume → problems to transport waste out of cell
More nutrients → more waste

Table 1-10-1: Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Feature Prokaryotic (bacteria) Eukaryotic (plant/animal/fungi)

Size Small cells - 5µm Large cells - 50µm

Capsule (protection) Present Absent
In fungi (chitin)
Cell wall Present (peptidoglycan) In plants (cellulose)
NOT in animals
Plasma membrane Present Present
Cytoplasm
- Chloroplast Absent Only in plant cells
- Lysosomes Absent Present

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- Golgi Apparatus Absent Present

- Endoplasmic Reticulum Absent Present
- Mitochondria Absent Present
- Ribosomes Small ribosomes, always Larger ribosomes free in cytoplasm
free in the cytoplasm and attached to rough ER
Nucleus Absent Present
- Nuclear envelope \ Absent \ Present
- Nucleoli \ Absent \ Present
- Chromosomes (DNA) Single and circular Many and linear
Centriole (for mitosis) Absent Only in animal cells

Cell Ultrastructure
Magnification → increases the size of an object
Resolution/resolving power → ability to distinguish between adjacent points

Table 1-10-2: Microscopes (1)

Feature Optical microscope Electron microscope

Radiation Light Electrons

Magnification 400x (max1500) ≈500 000x
Resolution 2µm 1nm / 0,001µm
Electrons have a small wavelength
\ Higher resolution
Vacuum in microscope Absent Present
Specimen is - Alive or dead - Dead (vacuum!)
- Stained
Transmission microscope:
Electrons pass through internal
structure of specimen

Scanning microscope:

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Beams of electrons are reflected

off specimens surface. Allows a
three dimensional view

Cell wall (plant cells only)

Made up of cellulose fibres which provide strength
Cell does not burst if surrounding solutions become dilute

Nucleus (5µm)
Contains chromosomes (genes made of DNA which control cell activities)
Separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear envelope
The envelope is made of a double membrane containing small holes
These small holes are called nuclear pores (100nm)
Nuclear pores allow the transport of proteins into the nucleus

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (rough ER)

Have ribosomes attached to the cytosolic side of their membrane
Found in cells that are making proteins for export (enzymes, hormones, structural proteins, antibodies)
Thus, involved in protein synthesis
Modifies proteins by the addition of carbohydrates, removal of signal sequences
Phospholipid synthesis and assembly of polypeptides

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (smooth ER)

Have no ribosomes attached and often appear more tubular than the rough ER
Necessary for steroid synthesis, metabolism and detoxification, lipid synthesis
Numerous in the liver

Ribosomes (20-30nm)
Small organelles often attached to the ER but also found in the cytoplasm

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Large (protein) and small (rRNA) subunits form the functional ribosome
o Subunits bind with mRNA in the cytoplasm
o This starts translation of mRNA for protein synthesis (assembly of amino acids into proteins)
Free ribosomes make proteins used in the cytoplasm. Responsible for proteins that
o go into solution in cytoplasm or
o form important cytoplasmic, structural elements
Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) are made in nucleus of cell

Golgi apparatus
Stack of flattened sacs surrounded by membrane
Receives protein-filled vesicles from the rough ER (fuse with Golgi membrane)
Uses enzymes to modify these proteins (e.g. add a sugar chain, making glycoprotein)
Adds directions for destination of protein package - vesicles that leave Golgi apparatus move to different
locations in cell or proceed to plasma membrane for secretion
Involved in processing, packaging, and secretion
Other vesicles that leave Golgi apparatus are lysosomes

Vacuole and vesicles

Membranous sacs of liquid which store substances - vacuoles are storage areas

Lysosomes (0.05 to 0.5 micron)

Performs intracellular digestion - more numerous in cells performing phagocytosis
Limiting membrane keeps digestive enzymes separate from the cytoplasm
Lysosomal enzymes digest particles
o They function optimally at pH 5 and are mostly inactive at cytosolic pH
o Lysosomal enzymes are synthesized on rough ER
o Transferred to the Golgi apparatus for modification and packaging
Primary lysosomes are small concentrated sacs of enzymes (no digestion process)
o Primary lysosomes fuse with a phagocytic vacuole
o Become secondary lysosomes
o Digestion begins
o Nutrients diffuse through lysosomal membrane into the cytosol

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Mitochondria (1µm in diameter and 7µm in length)

Mostly protein, but also contains some lipid, DNA and RNA
Power house of the cell
o Energy is stored in high energy phosphate bonds of ATP
o Mitochondria convert energy from the breakdown of glucose into adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
o Responsible for aerobic respiration
Metabolic activity of a cell is related to the number of cristae (larger surface area) and mitochondria
Cells with a high metabolic activity (e.g. heart muscle) have many well developed mitochondria

Chloroplast (4-6µm in diameter and 1-5µm in length)

Only in photosynthesising cells (plants)
Light energy, CO2, and H2O are converted to produce carbohydrates and O2
Inner membrane has folds, called lamellae (where chlorophyll is found), which surround a fluid, called stroma

Enzymes

All enzymes are globular proteins and round in shape

They have the suffix "-ase"
Intracellular enzymes are found inside the cell
Extracellular enzymes act outside the cell (e.g. digestive enzymes)
Enzymes are catalysts → speed up chemical reactions
o Reduce activation energy required to start a reaction between molecules
o Substrates (reactants) are converted into products
o Reaction may not take place in absence of enzymes (each enzyme has a specific catalytic action)
o Enzymes catalyse a reaction at max. rate at an optimum state
Induced fit theory
o Enzyme's shape changes when substrate binds to active site
o Amino acids are moulded into a precise form to perform catalytic reaction effectively
o Enzyme wraps around substrate to distort it
o Forms an enzyme-substrate complex → fast reaction
o E + S → ES → P + E
Enzyme is not used up in the reaction (unlike substrates)

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Changes in pH

Affect attraction between substrate and enzyme and therefore efficiency of conversion process
Ionic bonds can break and change shape / enzyme is denatured
Charges on amino acids can change, ES complex cannot form
Optimum pH
o pH 7 for intracellular enzymes
o Acidic range (pH 1-6) in the stomach for digestive enzymes (pepsin)
o Alkaline range (pH 8-14) in oral cavities (amylase)
pH measures the conc. of H+ ions - higher conc. will give a lower pH

Enzyme Conc. is proportional to rate of reaction, provided other conditions are constant. Straight line
Substrate Conc. is proportional to rate of reaction until there are more substrates than enzymes present. Curve
becomes constant.

Increased Temperature

Increases speed of molecular movement → chances of molecular collisions → more ES complexes

At 0-42 °C rate of reaction is proportional to temp
Enzymes have optimum temp. for their action (varies between different enzymes)
Above ≈42°C, enzyme is denatured due to heavy vibration that break -H bonds
o Shape is changed / active site can't be used anymore

Decreased Temperature

Enzymes become less and less active, due to reductions in speed of molecular movement
Below freezing point
o Inactivated, not denatured
o Regain their function when returning to normal temperature
Thermophilic: heat-loving
Hyperthermophilic: organisms are not able to grow below +70°C
Psychrophiles: cold-loving

Inhibitors

Slow down rate of reaction of enzyme when necessary (e.g. when temp is too high)
Molecule present in highest conc. is most likely to form an ES-complex

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Competitive Inhibitors
o Compete with substrate for active site
o Shape similar to substrates / prevents access when bonded
o Can slow down a metabolic pathway
[EXAMPLE] Methanol Poisoning
o Methanol CH3OH is a competitive inhibitor
o CH3OH can bind to dehydrogenase whose true substrate is C2H5OH
o A person who has accidentally swallowed methanol is treated by being given large doses of C2H5OH
o C2H5OH competes with CH3OH for the active site
Non-competitive Inhibitors
o Chemical does not have to resemble the substrate
o Binds to enzyme other than at active site
o This changes the enzyme's active site and prevents access to it
Irreversible Inhibition
o Chemical permanently binds to the enzyme or massively denatures the enzyme
o Nerve gas permanently blocks pathways involved in nerve message transmission, resulting in death
o Penicillin, the first of "wonder drug" antibiotics, permanently blocks pathways certain bacteria use to
assemble their cell wall component (peptidoglycan)

End-product inhibition

Metabolic reactions are multi-stepped, each controlled by a single enzyme

End-products accumulate within the cell and stop the reaction when sufficient product is made
This is achieved by non-competitive inhibition by the end-product
The enzyme early in the reaction pathway is inhibited by the end-product

The metabolic pathway contains a series of individual chemical reactions that combine to perform one or more
important functions. The product of one reaction in a pathway serves as the substrate for the following reaction.

Cells & Molecules | Gene Technology

Insulin and Genetic Engineering

Diabetes mellitus is the inability of beta cells of pancreas to produce insulin

Restriction enzymes/endonuclease cut DNA at specific recognition sites
o This produces either "sticky ends" or "blunt ends"
o DNA ligase can be used to re-join the ends

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Recombinant DNA technology combines the DNA from two different organisms
Reverse transcriptase catalyses the formation of DNA from mRNA
Vector is a gene carrier. It will carry a human gene into the cell of a bacterium or yeast that will be used to
make human protein. Produces no benefit for viruses / carrier
Plasmid, circular strand of DNA, are useful vectors to make human protein from bacteria
Transgenic organisms contain another species DNA

Integration Link

[EXAM] Remove a particular gene from the DNA of an animal cell

Locate with the use of a gene probe

Use restriction enzymes
Use endonucleases to cut at specific base sequence by hydrolysing
Breaking sugar-phosphate bonds

[EXAM] Insert this gene into the genetic material of a bacterium

Same restriction enzymes

Cut at same base sequence in bacterial DNA
Leaving sticky ends/hydrogen bonds break
Join/splice with ligase
Use of plasmid

Task to find and insert the gene into bacterium for Insulin production

Isolate human gene, e.g. insulin, by using cytoplasmic mRNA (no introns)
Reverse transcriptase, taken from a retrovirus, makes DNA from mRNA
DNA is given "sticky ends" by using the enzyme restriction endonuclease
Insert into a plasmid from a bacterium
o Dissolve cell walls using enzymes
o Centrifuge to separate bacterial chromosome ring from plasmids
o Cut open the plasmid
o Add sticky ends
Mix plasmid and DNA gene together and use DNA ligase to stick them together
Mix with bacteria //only ≈1% will take up the engineered plasmids

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Identify by using antibiotic resistance. Add gene for antibiotic resistance next to insulin gene in the plasmid.
Add antibiotic to the culture / only bacteria surviving have insulin gene
Grow transformed cells using industrial fermenters
Isolate and purify human protein made by these cells

Moral and ethical issues associated with recombinant DNA technology

Transgenic bacteria or viruses may mutate and may become pathogenic

Genetically modified crops could "escape"
o Forms a genetically modified population in the environment
o Genetic modification may involve the resistance to herbicides
o Escaped crops may become "superweeds" that are difficult to kill and control
Transgenic organisms could upset the balance of nature
o Population of transgenic salmon have been produced in which individuals grow rapidly
o These transgenic fish could compete for food with other fish species

Cells & Molecules | Genes, DNA, RNA

Genes, DNA, RNA

Nucleic acids carry the genetic code that determines the order of amino acids in proteins
Genetic material stores information, can be replicated, and undergoes mutations
Differs from proteins as it has phosphorus and NO sulphur

DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid

Nucleotides are smaller units of long chains of nucleic acids. Each nucleotide has
o A pentose sugar (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA)
o A phosphate group
o An organic base which fall into 2 groups,
 Purines (double rings of C and N - bigger)
 Adenine or Guanine
 Pyrimidines (single ring of C and N - smaller)
 Thymine or Cytosine
 Base pairing by weak hydrogen bonds
 Adenine-Thymine 2 H- bonds
 Cytosine-Guanine 3 H- bonds

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Chains are directional according to the attachment between sugars and phosphate group
They are antiparallel which is essential for gene coding and replication
DNA molecule has 2 separate chains of nucleotides hold together by base pairing / DNA normally twist into
a helix (coil) / forms a double helix

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Ribose instead of deoxyribose

Single chain (shorter than DNA - lower molecular mass)
Base difference: Uracil instead of Thymine. Adenine, Guanine and Cytosine are the same
o Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
 Located in the cytoplasm - ER
 Reads mRNA code and assembles amino acids in their correct sequence to make a functional
protein (translation)
o Messenger RNA (mRNA)
 Commutes between nucleus and cytoplasm
 Copies the code for a single protein from DNA (transcription)
 Carries the code to ribosomes in the cytoplasm
o Transfer RNA (tRNA)
 In the cytoplasm
 Transfer amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosomes

The Genetic Code

DNA codes for assembly of amino acids / forms a polypeptide chain (proteins - enzymes)
The code is read in a sequence of three bases called
o Triplets on DNA e.g. CAC TCA
o Codons on mRNA e.g. GUG AGU
o Anticodons on tRNA e.g. CAC UCA
o (must be complementary to the codon of mRNA)
Each triplet codes for one amino acid / single amino acid may have up to 6 different triplets for it due to the
redundancy of the code / code is degenerate. Some amino acids are coded by more than one codon
Same triplet code will give the same amino acid in virtually all organisms, universal code
We have 64 possible combinations of the 4 bases in triplets, 43
No base of one triplet contributes to part of the code next to it, non-overlapping
Few triplets code for START and STOP sequences for polypeptide chain formation

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eg START AUG and STOP UAA UAG UGA

DNA Replication (Semi-Conservative Replication)

Happens during Interphase 'S'

Separate the strands, a little at a time to form a replication fork
Events:
o Unwinding / Enzyme DNA helicase separates 2 strands of DNA by breaking hydrogen bonds
o Semi-conservative replication / each strand acts as a template for the formation of a new strand
o Free DNA molecules join up to exposed bases by complementary base pairing
 Adenine with Thymine (A=T 2 -H bonding)
 Cytosine with Guanine (CΞG 3 -H bonding)
o For the new 5' to 3' strand the enzyme DNA polymerase catalyses the joining of the separate
nucleotides
o "All in one go" → completed new strand
o For the 3' to 5' strand DNA polymerase produces short sections of strand but these sections have to
be joined by DNA ligase to make the completed new strand. Specific base pairing ensures that two
identical copies of the original DNA have been formed

Transcription: DNA to mRNA

DNA in nucleus unzips - bonds break

Single template strand of DNA used for mRNA (triplet on DNA = codon for amino acid on mRNA)
Enzyme RNA polymerase joins nucleotides together
Free RNA nucleotides are assembled according to the DNA triplets (A-U / C-G / T-A)
mRNA bases are equivalent to the non-template DNA strand
Start and stop codons are included
Introns (Non-coding) and exons (coding) DNA sequences are present in the primary mRNA transcript.
Introns are removed before the mRNA is translated so that exons are only present in the mature mRNA
transcript

[EXAM] Total number of bases in the DNA sense strand and total number of bases in the mRNA are different

mRNA moves into cytoplasm and becomes associated with ribosomes

Translation: mRNA to Protein via tRNA

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Translation is the synthesis of a polypeptide chain from amino acids by using codon sequences on mRNA
tRNA with anticodon carries amino acid to mRNA associated with ribosome
"Anticodon - codon" complementary base pairing occurs
Peptide chain is transferred from resident tRNA to incoming tRNA
tRNA departs and will soon pick up another amino acid

Requirement for Translation

Pool of amino acids / building blocks from which the polypeptides are constructed
ATP and enzymes are needed
Complementary bases are hydrogen-bonded to one another
Structure involved in translation
Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Carries the code from the DNA that will be translated into an amino acid sequence

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Transfer amino acids to their correct position on mRNA strand

Ribosomes

Provide the environment for tRNA attachment and amino acid linkage

DNA and Inheritance

Reactions in cells is referred to as cell metabolism

A sequence of chemical reactions is called a metabolic pathway
Different forms of the same gene are alleles
A gene is the length of DNA that carries the code for a protein (enzyme)
o Enzyme effect the cell's metabolism
o Visible changes are described with the phenotype
The phenotype is influenced by the metabolic pathway
Therefore
o DNA controls enzyme production
o Enzymes control metabolic pathways
o Metabolic pathways influence the phenotype of an organism

Gene Mutations

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Deletion, reading frame shifts

Substitution, one base replaced by another
Duplication, repetition of part of the sequence
Addition, Addition extra base
Change in one or more nucleotide bases in the DNA
Change in the genotype (may be inherited)

Cystic Fibrosis - Defective Gene

Mutation causes the deletion of 3 bases in DNA. One amino acid (phenylalanine) is not coded for in the
Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Regulator CFTR protein
Faulty CFTR protein cannot control the opening of chloride channels in the cell membrane
Results in production of thick sticky mucus, especially in lungs, pancreas and liver
Organs cannot function normally and infection rate increases

Phenylketonuria (PKU) - Defective Gene

Gene mutation in DNA coding for the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase

Phenylalanine hydroxylase not produced
Amino acid phenylalanine cannot be converted to the amino acid tyrosine
Tyrosine is necessary to produce the pigment melanin
Phenylalanine collects in the blood and causes retardation in young children
Managed by controlling diet to eliminate proteins containing phenylalanine
Disease is tested by drops of blood taken from the baby

Large Molecules

Monomer (-OH) + Monomer (-H) → Polymer + H2O(l)

o Condensation: monomers (e.g. amino acids) join to form polymers (e.g. proteins)
o Glycosidic bond forms when two carbohydrate monomers join together
o Hydrolysis: break down of a polymer; reverse reaction
Polymers are also called macromolecules (e.g. starch, proteins, triglyceride)

Carbohydrates

Organic molecules in which C, H and O bind together in the ratio Cx(H2O)y

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Serve as an energy source important for the brain and cellular respiration
Plants produce carbohydrates by using energy from sunlight
o 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (from sunlight) → C6H12O6(carbohydrate) + 6O2
Animals eat plant materials to obtain the produced carbohydrates
They can then be used in animal metabolism to release energy
o C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

Monosaccharides
Triose (3 carbons) Product of respiration and photosynthesis
Pentose (5 carbons) Found in RNA and DNA
- Ribose nucleic acids
- Deoxyribose
Hexose (6 carbons) Source of energy in respiration
- Glucose Main energy source in brain
- Fructose Found in sweet-tasting fruits
- Galactose

Disaccharides (two sugar residues)

Sucrose (glucose + fructose) Transport carbohydrates in plants

Maltose (glucose + glucose) Formed from digestion of starch
Lactose (glucose + galactose) Carbohydrates found in milk

Polysaccharides (many sugar residues)

Starch (alpha-glucose) Main storage of carbohydrates
- in plants
Glycogen (alpha-glucose) - in humans and animals
Cellulose (beta-glucose) Important component of the plant cell wall

Starch

Consists of amylopectin and amylose (both are made of α-glucose)

o Amylopectin is branched via 1,6-glycosidic bonds
o Amylose forms a stiff helical structure via 1,4-glycosidic bonds
o Both are compact molecules → starch can be stored in small space
The ends are easily broken down to glucose for respiration

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Does not affect water potential as it is insoluble

Readily hydrolysed by the enzyme amylase found in the gut and saliva
Major carbohydrate used in plants
o Found as granules (chloroplast)
o Each granule contains amylopectin combined by a larger amount of amylose
Commonly used sources are corn (maize), wheat, potato, rice

Glycogen

Branched, storage, polymer of glucose linked via glycosidic bonds

Found in skeletal muscle and in the liver
Chains are linked by alpha-1,4-linkage, branches are linked by alpha-1,6-linkages
Glycogen is broken down to glucose by glycogenolysis (glycogen phosphorylase)
Major site of daily glucose consumption (75%) is the brain via aerobic pathways
Most of the remainder is utilized by erythrocytes, skeletal muscle, and heart muscle
Glucose is obtained from diets or from amino acids and lactate via gluconeogenesis
Storage of glycogen in liver are considered to be main buffer of blood glucose levels

Cellulose

Polysaccharide consisting of long beta-glucose chains

Linked together by hydrogen bonds to form microfibrils
Structural function is a important component of plant cell walls
Its tensile strength helps plant cells in osmosis //cell does not burst in dilute solutions

Proteins
Structure

Proteins are polymers of amino acids

Proteins are made up by different combinations of 20 amino acids
o They have a general structure:
o The difference between different amino acids is found in the R-group
o When two amino acids join together, they release -H and -OH groups highlighted in red below
o Peptide bond is formed between alpha-carbon and nitrogen
o Condensation reaction
Primary structure of a protein

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o Sequence of amino acids

o Joined together by covalent peptide bonds
Secondary structure
o Hydrogen bonds between amino acids
o Made of a combination of alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets
o Proportion of α-helix and β-sheet depends on sequence (primary structure)
Tertiary structure
o Complex globular shape
o Folding and twisting of polypeptides (H-bond)
o Polypeptides contain many peptide bonds
Quaternary structure
o Several polypeptide chains //several tertiary structures combined
o Haemoglobin has 4 polypeptide chains
o Collagen has 3 polypeptide chains, twisted around each other
o Globular proteins are soluble and has folded chains
o Fibrous proteins are insoluble and long, thin, twisted chains
Same amino acid sequence → same shape always

Bonds Found in Proteins

Hydrogen bonds
o Between R-groups are easily broken, but are numerous
o The more bonds, the stronger the structure
Disulphide bonds
o Between sulphur-containing amino acid cystine
o Strong bonds found in skin and hair
Denaturation
o Destruction of tertiary structure, can be done by heat
o Protein structure is lost and cannot reform → dysfunctional

Absorption and Function

Absorption of proteins in the digestive tract

o Proteins are taken in as food
o They are broken down in the digestive tract into their individual amino acids
o Amino acids are recombined in the body to form different proteins

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o Good food sources include beans, milk, cheese, fish, meat

Several substances are composed of proteins with distinct functions
o Keratin, collagen are main components in hair, muscles, tendons, skin
o Enzyme amylase digests starch
o Haemoglobin transports O2 in the blood stream
o Insulin regulates glucose storage

Lipids

Easily dissolved in organic solvents but not in water

Triglycerides (fats and oils)
o Serves as an energy reserve in plant and animal cells
o Consists of 3 fatty acids linked by ester bonds to glycerol
o Excess energy available from food/photosynthesis is stored as triglycerides
o Can be broken down later to yield energy when needed
o Fats and oils contain twice as many energy stored per unit of weight as carbohydrates
o Triglycerides (TG) are also called triacylglycerides (TAG)
Saturated fatty acids
o -COOH group without double bonds in the carbohydrate chain
o May cause blockage of arteries which can lead to strokes and heart attacks
o High melting point / solid at room temperature (fats) / typical animal fats
Unsaturated fatty acids
o -COOH group with double bonds in the carbohydrate chain
o Low melting point / liquid at room temperature (oils)
o Found in plants
Phospholipids
o Formed by replacing one fatty acids in a triglyceride with a phosphate group
o Phosphate is polar / hydrophilic / does mix with H2O
o Fatty acid tails remain non-polar / hydrophobic / insoluble, does not mix with H2O
o Form a ball called a micelle when placed in a polar solution (e.g. water)

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Cells & Molecules | Plasma Membrane

Fluid-mosaic model
Plasma membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer studded with proteins, polysaccharides, lipids
The lipid bilayer is semipermeable
o Regulates passage of substances into and out of the cell
o H2O and some small, uncharged, molecules (O2, CO2) can pass through
Phospholipids have two parts
o "Head": hydrophilic → attracts and mixes with H2O
o Two "fatty acid tails": hydrophobic

Function of proteins
Carrier (change shape for different molecules) for water-soluble molecules such as glucose
Channels for ions (sodium and chloride ions)
Pumps use energy to move water-soluble molecules and ions
Adhesion molecules for holding cells to extracellular matrix
Receptors enable hormones and nerve transmitters to bind to specific cells
Recognition sites, which identify a cell as being of a particular type
Enzymes, which speed up chemical reactions at the edge of the membrane
Adhesion sites, which help some cells to stick together

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E.g. glycoprotein acts as a receptor and recognition site

Passive transport
Uses energy from moving particles (Kinetic Energy)

Diffusion

Substances move down their conc. gradient until the conc. are in equilibrium
Microvilli are extensions of the plasma membrane
o They increase the surface area of the membrane, therefore
o They accelerate the rate of diffusion
Fick's law → rate of diffusion across an exchange surfaces (e.g. membrane, epithelium) depends on
o surface area across within diffusion occurs (larger)
o thickness of surface (thinner)
o difference in concentration gradient (larger)
o Fick’s law = (surface area x difference in conc gradient) / thickness of surface
Temperature increases rate of diffusion due to increasing K.E. (kinetic energy)

Facilitate diffusion

Transmembrane proteins form a water-filled ion channel

o Allows the passage of ions (Ca2+, Na+, Cl-) down their conc. gradient //passive - no ATP required
o Some channels use a gate to regulate the flow of ions
o Selective permeability - Not all molecules can pass through selective channels
How do molecules move across the membrane?
o Substrate (molecule to move across the membrane) binds to carrier protein
o Molecule changes shape
o Release of the molecule (product) at the other side of the membrane
Example
o If you want to move a muscle a nerve impulse is sent to this muscle
o The nerve impulse triggers the release of a neurotransmitter
o Binding of the neurotransmitter to specific transmembrane proteins
o Opens channels that allow the passage of Na+ across the membrane
o In this specific case, the result is muscle contraction
o These Na+ channels can also be opened by a change in voltage

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Osmosis

Special term used for the diffusion of water through a differentially permeable cell membrane
Water is polar and able to pass through the lipid bilayer
Transmembrane proteins that form hydrophilic channels accelerate osmosis, but water is still able to get
through membrane without them
Osmosis generates pressure called osmotic pressure
o Water moves down its concentration gradient
o When pressure is equal on both sites net flow ceases (equilibrium)
o The pressure is said to be hydrostatic (water-stopping)

Water potential

Measurement of the ability or tendency of water molecules to move

Water potential of distilled water is 0, other solutions have a negative water potential
Measured in kPa - pressure
Hypotonic
o Solution is more dilute / has a lower conc. of solute / gains water by osmosis
o Cells placed in a hypotonic solution will increase in size as water moves in
o For example, red blood cells would swell and burst
o Plant cells are unable to burst as they have a strong cellulose cell wall
Hypertonic
o Solution with a higher conc. of solutes / loses water by osmosis
o Cells will shrink in hypertonic solutions
Isotonic
o Solutions being compared have equal conc. of solutes
o Cells which are in an isotonic solution will not change their shape
o The extracellular fluid of the body is isotonic
Molecules collide with membrane / creates pressure, water potential
More free water molecules, greater water potential, less negative
Solute molecules attract water molecules which form a "shell" around them
o water molecules can no longer move freely
o less "free water" which lowers water potential, more negative

Active Transport
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Movement of solute against the conc. gradient, from low to high conc.
Involves materials which will not move directly through the bilayer
Molecules bind to specific carrier proteins / intrinsic proteins
Involves ATP by cells (mitochondria) / respiration
o Direct Active Transport - transporters use hydrolysis to drive active transport
o Indirect Active Transport - transporters use energy already stored in gradient of a directly-pumped
ion
Bilayer protein transports a solute molecule by undergoing a change in shape (induced fit)
Occurs in ion uptake by a plant root; glucose uptake by gut cells

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

Substances are transported across plasma membrane in bulk via small vesicles
Endocytosis
o Part of the plasma membrane sinks into the cell
o Forms a vesicle with substances from outside
o Seals back onto the plasma membrane again
o Phagocytosis: endocytosis brings solid material into the cell
o Pinocytosis: endocytosis brings fluid materials into the cell
Exocytosis
o Vesicle is formed in the cytoplasm //May form from an edge of the Golgi apparatus
o Moves towards plasma membrane and fuses with plasma membrane
o Contents are pushed outside cell
o Insulin is secreted from cells in this way

Cells & Molecules | Respiration

Biochemistry of Respiration

Oxidative breakdown of organic molecules to store energy as ATP

Animals and plants respire; FAD and NAD are coenzymes

Aerobic respiration

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

Complete oxidation of an organic substrate to CO2 and H2O using free O2

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Production of CO2, NADH + H+ and FADH + H+, 38ATP

1) Glycolysis → cytoplasm

Glucose enters cell by facilitated diffusion

ATP activates glucose to produce 2 unstable compounds
Substrate-level phosphorylation produces 4ATP
Net yield of 2ATP and 2reducedNAD per glucose molecule

2) Link reaction → matrix of mitochondria

Pyruvate enters matrix of mitochondrion for further reaction

Net yield of 2reducedNADH per glucose

3) Krebs cycle → matrix of mitochondria

Citrate is gradually broken down to re-form oxaloacetate

Substrate-level phosphorylation forms 2ATP
Removal of hydrogen from respiratory substrate
Net yield of 2ATP, 2reducedFADH, 6reducedNADH per glucose

4) Electron Transport Chain ETC → inner membrane/cristae of mitochondria

Reduced coenzymes arrive at ETC

Split into coenzyme + 2H+ + 2e- by hydrogen carriers
2e- are transferred to electron carriers (cytochrome)
Pass down ETC by redox reaction and release energy as they go
Energy produces ATP by oxidative phosphorylation
Final electron acceptor 1/2O2 is reduced by 2H+ and 2e- to produce H2O
Net yield of 34ATP (30NADH, 4FADH) per glucose
//Cytochromes are iron-containing proteins → cytochrome a3 also contains copper and is irreversibly
damaged by cyanide

IMG 5-14-8

Anaerobic respiration (fermentation)

Substrate-level phosphorylation: 2ADP + 2Pi → 2ATP directly by enzymes in glycolysis

No O2 to accept electrons from NADH + H+ → no Krebs cycle or ETC

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NADH + H+ reduces (gives off H+ ions to) pyruvate to produce

o Lactate C3 in animal cells → can be re-oxidised
o Ethanol C2 in yeast cells → irreversible, CO2(g) lost
Regenerates NAD
NAD can be re-used to oxidise more RS/allows glycolysis to continue
Can still form ATP/release energy when O2 is in short supply

Role of ATP

Adenosine (ribose + adenine) triphosphate (3 phosphate groups)

Produced by adding Pi to ADP → phosphorylation
Breaks down to ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and Pi (inorganic phosphate ion) by hydrolysis
ATP is useful as an immediate energy source/carrier because
o Energy release only involves a single reaction
o Energy released in small quantities
o Easily moved around inside cells, but cannot pass through cell membranes
Light-dependent reaction cannot be the only source of ATP
o "Photosynthesis cannot produce ATP in the dark
o Need more ATP than can be produced in photosynthesis
o Cannot be produced in plant cells lacking chlorophyll
o ATP cannot be transported"1
Central molecule in metabolism (ATP hydrolysis)
o Muscle contraction → changes of position of myosin head relative to actin
o Protein synthesis → ATP "loads" amino acids onto tRNA
o Active transport → driven by phosphorylation of membrane-bound proteins
o Calvin Cycle → cyclic reduction of CO2 to TP
o Nitrogen fixation → involves ATP-driven reduction of molecular nitrogen
ATP in liver is used for active transport / phagocytosis / synthesise of glucose, protein, DNA, RNA, lipid,
cholesterol / urea in glycolysis / bile production / cell division

Brown fat

White fat insulates the body and reduces heat loss

Brown fat cells in mitochondrial membrane produce heat
Mitochondria in other tissue / chemiosmosis
o H+ ions pass back from space between two mitochondrial membranes into matrix

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o Through pores which are associated with the enzyme ATP synthetase
o Energy from the ETC will be used to produce ATP
Mitochondria in brown fat
o H+ ions flow back through channels not associated with ATP synthetase
o Energy produces heat instead of ATP
o Found in chest, larger arteries for heat distribution round the body or in hibernating mammals

Diseases | Bacteria

Bacteria (single celled, prokaryotic)

Only small number are pathogens

Asexually reproduction by binary fission / 2 identical daughter cells
Grow best at optimum conditions (human body)
o Constant temperature
o Neutral pH
o Constant supply of food, H2O, O2
o Mechanism removing waste
Most bacteria are aerobic / obligated aerobes
Aerobic bacteria growing with absent oxygen / facultative anaerobes
Bacteria which find oxygen toxic / obligate anaerobes

Sigmoid growth curve shows the number of bacteria plotted against time

Bacteria MUST grow in closed system and nutrient medium → BACTERIAL CULTURE
o 1) Population grows slowly - LAG PHASE
o 2) Rapid increase of population growth - LOG PHASE
o 3) Reaches equilibrium when number remains constant - STATIONARY PHASE
Lag Phase → initial phase
o Low number of reproducing organisms
o Bacteria increase in size before division
o This requires nutrients which need to be digested
o Digestion requires enzymes, proteins → activation of genes → time consuming process
Log Phase → exponential phase; max growth rate; steep curve
o Optimum conditions: no limiting factors, waste does not accumulate to a toxic level
o Bacteria most susceptible due to production of new cells

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 Antibiotics inhibit cell wall formation

 Antibiotics inhibit DNA replication
 Antibiotics inhibit protein synthesis
Stationary Phase → reduced growth rate
o New cell production balanced by death of cells
o Limiting factors, declining nutrients, accumulating waste influence population size
Decline Phase → bacteria stop dividing
o Death rate increases; numbers may fall to zero
o Lack of nutrients, build up of toxic waste products
Aseptic conditions
o Sterilise equipment, instruments, thus, to prevent contamination with the culture.
o Use high temp and disinfectants

Total cell count

Number of cells whether living or dead

Count cells with haemocytometer
Stop bacteria entering the flask with a stopper. Important as bacteria would have been caused reduced
growth rate of yeast/killed yeast and competed for space/nutrients
Culture is shaken to achieve a uniform distribution of yeast cells/spread out yeast
Larger number is taken to avoid anomalies/produce an average

Measurement of growth
Generation time: time taken for a bacterial population to double

Rate of population
o = increase in number of yeast cells/time
o = number larger - number less/(time larger - time less)
Suppose the number of cells in one square are 6 8 9 5 7
The sum of the cells in 5 squares is 35
The mean for one type B square is 7
Therefore 25 squares have 25 x 7 = 175 in 0.1mm3
In 1mm3 there will be 1750 cells or 1,8 x 103

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Viable cell count

Only living cells since these are the only ones capable of dividing
1cm3 original sample is diluted in 9cm3 distilled H2O
Mix 1cm3 from last dilution with 9cm3 distilled H2O - serial dilution
1cm3 of each dilution is put on an agar plate and counted. Number is multiplied by the dilution factor

Measurement of growth

Number of colonies on the 10-3 dilution plate = 35

Number of viable colonies in 1cm3 of 10-4 dilution of milk
o 35 x 1/0.1 = 350
Sample was diluted by 10-3
Number of bacteria in 1cm3 of the original sample = 350 x 103

Biological factors

Bacteria are effected in growing by nutrients: C, H, N, P, S

Temp: low → low speed of enzyme reactions; high → denaturisation of enzymes
pH → tolerate a wider range of pH than plant and animal cells
O2 → some grow better in presence, but some grow in absence

Koch's Postulates1

A list of postulates (criteria) must be fulfilled to proof an infective cause for a disease
o "Organism must be sufficiently abundant in every case to account for the disease
o Organism associated with the disease can be cultivated artificially in pure culture
o Cultivated organism produces the disease upon inoculation into another member of the same
species
o Antibodies to the organism appear during the course of the disease"1
Exceptions are possible
o Number of organism causing disease might be very low (eg tuberculosis)
o Cultivation might be difficult
o Animals must be used as it is unethical to infect a human with a causative organism
o Antibodies may not appear if the immune system is inhibited

Entry of Microorganisms (Pathogens) into the Body

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Damaged skin
o Skin acts as a barrier to infections
o Tetanus occurs when the bacterium Clostridium tetani enters a wound
Mucus membrane of respiratory tract
o Air containing droplet of infectious material are breathed in
o Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes tuberculosis
Digestive track
o Vibrio cholerae causes cholera when drinking water infected with faeces
o Salmonella enteritis causes food poisoning when eating undercooked food
o These organisms are resistant to acidic conditions in the stomach
o Acid protects against microorganisms by providing a hostile environment
Others
o Transmission by vectors (e.g. malaria via Plasmodium parasite when mosquito vector takes blood)
o Direct entry through the intact skin (e.g. Schistosomiasis where the larval stage schistosome burrows
through the skin of the feet)

Pathogenesis: How Microorganisms Cause Disease

Damage or destroy host cells - e.g. HIV, Salmonella

o Organism is taken up by epithelial cells in the intestine
 HOST SPECIFIC: ligand on pathogen must fit onto receptor proteins on host
 Some hosts are more susceptible than others because proteins depend on gene coding
o Destroy brush border of microvilli
o Host creates a ruffled surface / Invaded cells detach from intestinal wall, creating inflamed lesions /
Secretion of large amounts of watery fluid into the lumen of the gut → diarrhoea
Produce toxic waste - e.g. Vibrio cholerae
o Are harmless but produce harmful "exotoxins" - toxins released from the cell
o Causes loss of chloride and hydrogencarbonate ions from the intestinal cells
o Osmotic loss of up to 10 litres of water per day
o Impaired absorption of water and salt from the gut
o This explains severe watery diarrhoea and death from dehydration
Body's own immune response to the presence of microorganisms which produce the symptom
o e.g. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
o Body tries do destroy the invading bacteria
o This causes inflammation and damage to the surrounding cells occur

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o Lesions may become hard or spongy, leaving "holes" in the lungs, sometimes damaging blood
vessels
Some bacteria will cause all of the 3 ways above; Some require a large number of bacteria for a disease;
Some will only a few number of bacteria
Microorganisms may enter the lymphatic system via tissue fluid and are carried around the body in this way
Ability of bacteria to cause disease relies on
o Location - what tissue is colonised
o Infectivity - how easily a bacterium can enter the host cell
o Invasiveness - how easily a bacterium or its toxin spreads within the body
o Pathogenicity - how a bacterium cause disease

Tuberculosis (Myobacterium tuberculosis)

Lung most common infected organ

Inhaling droplets exhaled from a carrier during coughing causes the infection
Latent period: bacteria may lie inactive for up to 30 years and become active as primary tuberculosis (TB)
Symptoms are fever, loss of weight and persistent coughing
Bacteria destroy lung tissue and cause accumulation of fluid in the pleural cavity
Coughing up blood is common because bacteria destroy lung tissue
Treatment
o Antibiotics for a six-month period to ensure eradication
o Combinations of drugs prevent development of resistant strains
o Vaccine is a live attenuated strain of TB

Salmonella

Symptoms: typhoid fever, intestinal infections

Food poisoning caused from uncooked poultry, beef, and eggs
"Salmonella enters the body in contaminated food/drink
The bacterium passes from the esophagus, through the stomach, into the intestine
It enters cells lining the small intestine to multiply population increases
Some bacteria die and release an endotoxin
This causes (symptoms) diarrhoea, vomiting, nausea, abdominal pain (food poisoning)"1

Lung cancer

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Tar in smoke contains several carcinogens (cancer causing agents)

o Cause mutations in the genes which control cell division (oncogenes)
o Divide uncontrollably to produce a mass of cells - tumour
Tumour cells do not respond to signals from nerves and hormones
o Continue to grow
o No programmed cell death occurs
A small group of tumour cells is called a primary growth. It may be
o Benign - does not spread from its origin
o Malignant - spread throughout the body invading other tissues and destroying them
Cells breaking off malignant tumours from secondary growth cause cancer to spread - metastasis
o Hard to find and remove them in this state
Tumour may take many years to develop with few or no real symptoms
o Well advanced when discovered
o If the respiratory system is involved:
o Symptoms like coughing up blood and blocked airways leading to diseases like pneumonia are
common
o Removing a whole or part lung may be effective provided metastasis is not well advanced

Smoking and lung cancer risk

Risk increases if
o Smokers start young
o Inhale deeply
o More cigarettes are smoked per day
o The cigarettes are high tar
o Smoking goes on over a long period of time
Risk decreases if smoking stops
Smokers 18x more likely to develop lung cancer than non-smokers
One third of all deaths from cancer can be attributed to smoking

Genes and Cancer

3 types of evidence support a link

o Tendency to develop cancer seems to be inherited
o Tumour cells in some cancers have abnormal chromosomes
o There is a positive correlation between mutations and carcinogens

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Genes causing cells to become cancerous are called oncogenes (oncology = study of cancer)
o They are found when proto-oncogenes, normal versions of genes, mutate and become overactive
o The RAS proto-oncogene codes for plasma membrane proteins called G-proteins
o G-proteins enable cells to respond to growth factors
o These G-proteins are normally activated by one of their own enzymes GTPase
o The mutant ras gene produces GTPase deficient G-proteins / they remain active longer causing
tumours
Myc oncogenes (chromosome 8)
o Myc proto-oncogenes produce proteins needed for transcribing genes required for normal cell
division
o Common mutation switches the myc proto-oncogenes to chromosome 14 where it acts as an
oncogene / abnormal cell division / tumour
o When both ras and myc oncogenes are present together, malignant cells will result
Tumour suppressor genes
o Associated with cell division
o Converted to oncogenes by mutation and reduce normal activity by inhibiting cell division
o Might inhibit transcription of the proto-oncogenes like myc
o May become overactive → tumour

Coronary Heart Disease

Arteries supplying the heart become narrowed and the blood supply to cardiac tissues is reduced
Heart has to work harder to force blood through narrowed vessels / blood pressure increases
Angina
o Chest pain due to severe shortage of blood to the heart muscle - cells do not die
o Pain only occurs during activity but not at rest
o Caused by narrowing of coronary arteries (atherosclerosis)
Heart attack (myocardial infarction)
o When a coronary artery is totally blocked by a thrombus/embolus
o No blood supply to heart muscle and cells die - often fatal
Heart failure
o Blockage leads to damage of heart muscle and to gradual weakening of muscle
o Less efficient pumping
o Often accumulation of blood on right side → enlargement of heart

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Causes of Coronary Heart Disease

The main cause is atherosclerosis

Often called hardening of the arteries
Inner layer of artery wall thickens with deposits of
o Cholesterol
o Fibrous (scar) tissue
o Dead muscle cells
o Blood platelets
Fats, in the form of lipoproteins, accumulate beneath the endothelium
o Form plaque on the wall of arteries, also called atheroma
o Arteries become less elastic and partially narrowed
o Accelerated by high blood pressure
o Arterial endothelium damage is more likely but also leads to further weakening
Aneurysm: weak walls may burst leading to severe loss of blood (haemorrhaging)
o Brain aneurysm is called a stroke
Atheroma increases the risk of blood clotting
o Thrombus (blood clot) may break away and lodge elsewhere in the circulation (e.g. brain, heart)
o Circulating thrombus is called an embolus

Cholesterol and Atherosclerosis

Cholesterol has important functions and is needed for

o Vitamin D production in skin
o Sex hormone production in gonads and adrenal glands
o Making cell membranes
o Make bile acid (salts)
Cholesterol is an alcohol, not a fat but has properties similar to fats - soft, waxy, and insoluble (difficult to
remove if deposits form)
Cholesterol is transported in the blood stream from the liver to tissues
o Safe transport is needed due to its insolubility
o This is achieved by lipoproteins, which are soluble fatty proteins
o These are wrapped around the cholesterol
o Usually, only small amounts of free cholesterol escape
Fatty streaks adhere to wall of arteries - Atheroma/atherosclerosis/plaque forms

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o Narrows lumen of artery

o Damages endothelium
o Can lead to formation of thrombus/blood clot

Lipo-Proteins
Low density lipo-proteins LDL's

Carry cholesterol from the liver to the tissues

Normal levels: some cholesterol 'leaks' from the lipoprotein and is absorbed to build cell membranes
High levels: too much cholesterol leaks out
o Cholesterol is deposited on the arterial walls
o White blood cells are trapped within the cholesterol
o Free radicals are released by white blood cells and react with cholesterol
o This damages artery wall which allows further cholesterol deposits (i.e. Atherosclerosis)
o Blood platelets are activated and stick to damaged areas releasing clotting factors (thromboxanes)
o Healthy arteries produce anti-clotting factors (prostaglandins)
o Normally a balance between these two. Healthy vessels do not form clots

High density lipo-protein HDL's

Carry cholesterol away from tissues, including artery walls

Travels to liver, is broken down and removed with bile

Smoking

Reduces levels of antitoxidants (vitamins), more damage due to release of free radials by phagocytes
Nicotine constricts arteries causes platelets to stick together → vasoconstriction → heart must work harder
to force blood through → increases blood pressure [EXAM]
Raises conc. of fibrinogen (in blood) → increased risk of clotting
Higher blood pressure causes damage to blood vessel lining/endothelium/collagen [EXAM]
o Leads to rise on blood platelets and makes them more sticky/form a plug/adhere to collagen fibres
o Release of thromboplastin/thrombokinase
o Fibrinogen converted to insoluble fibrin
o Platelet plug trapped by fibrin mesh
Raises blood cholesterol by causing a rise in LDLs in blood
Carbon monoxide reduces the efficiency of the blood in terms of carrying oxygen

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o Haemoglobin combines with CO more readily than with oxygen → forms carboxyheamoglobin
o Associated with plaque formation
Principle CHD = heart muscle receives inadequate amount of blood or oxygen/(coronary) blood supply
reduced

Treatment

Lower blood pressure

o Drugs which regulate heart rate/beat - prevent abnormal rhythms (beta blockers)
o Drugs which prevent blood clotting making thrombosis less likely (warfarin)
Heart by-pass
o Vein from the leg is used to by-pass the blocked region of the coronary artery
o Involves open heart surgery
Angioplasty
o Deflated balloon-like device is passed up to the heart via the aorta
o Guided into damaged coronary artery and inflated to stretch the artery
Transplant
o Need to find a suitable donor
o Need to prevent rejection → drugs that suppress immune system needed for rest of life

Prevention is more cost effective then treatment

1. Screen the population for

o High blood pressure
o High cholesterol
o Stop smoking, healthier diet, more exercises
o Men over 35 are at highest risk
2. Monitor the behaviour of the heart during exercise
o Difficult but encouraging the population to adopt a more healthy lifestyle from an early age is
important
o Often leads to changes in diet and weight management
3. Giving up smoking and reducing alcohol intake
o Reduces blood pressure
o Many people do not heed the advice until it is too late
o Coronary heart disease is a long-term degenerative disease, starts at birth

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Genetic screening detects particular genes or chromosome mutations (e.g. cystic fibrosis,
…)

DNA extraction (e.g. white blood cells, gametes)

Cut the DNA at gene loci with restriction enzymes
Split DNA fragments up on the basis of their size with electrophoresis gel
Southern blotting and use of radioactive DNA probe to locate the fragments of DNA
Autoradiography to create an image of the DNA pattern

Stage 1 - DNA extraction

Small sample of tissue (e.g. blood) is mixed with water-saturated phenol and chloroform
Causes proteins to precipitate out leaving DNA in the water layer
DNA can now be extracted from the water layer and purified

Stage 2 - Restriction enzymes

Each restriction enzyme is specific to one base sequence

Cut the DNA (cleavage) after enzymes have attached to all recognition sites
Fragments produced are called restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs)
Some produce blunt ends, some sticky ends (more useful)

Stage 3 - Electrophoresis

Electrophoresis separates DNA fragments according to their size and electrical charge
DNA mixture is placed in a well at one end of a gel (made of agarose)
Electrical current will move the DNA fragments to the positively charged electrode
Phosphate is highly positive, making nucleotide negative

Stage 4 - Southern Blotting and DNA probes

Heat DNA on the gel to unwind and make single stranded DNA
A nylon membrane placed over the gel is covered with absorbent paper / single stranded fragments are
transferred to membrane by capillary action
Fix fragments on membrane with UV light
Put membrane into solution containing the DNA probe
DNA probe attaches to complementary base sequences of the disease-causing gene / fragment is labelled
radioactive

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Stage 5 - Autoradiography

Radioactive solution is washed off and an X-Ray plate is placed over the membrane
Radioactive probes (32p) will give off radiation causing a pattern of bands on the X-ray plate, conforming
the presence of the disease causing gene
Mutant gene is missing a restriction site which is present at normal genes
o Mutant gene will travel shorter distances than normal DNA

Using enzymes to diagnose pancreatitis

Pancreas is found under the stomach and produces

o Hormones to regulate blood sugar levels and
o Digestive enzymes like amylase, lipase and trypsin that break down starch, lipids, and proteins
respectively
Insulin-dependent diabetics are unable to secrete insulin from pancreatic cells
Pancreatitis is a disease of the pancreas
o Trypsin becomes active before released from the pancreas
o Pancreas is made of proteins
o Trypsin is active and digests/hydrolyses proteins
o Cell wall breaks down, amylase escapes into the blood
Results of Successful Treatment
o Trypsin not activated early/enters the gut/does not enter blood
o Higher levels of trypsin in faeces since it passes through the gut (unaffected)
Acute pancreatitis occurs suddenly. Diagnosed by the presence of amylase/lipase
Chronic pancreatitis is a long-term condition
o Pancreas gradually loses its ability to produce enzymes
o There are low levels of pancreatic enzymes in faeces
o Fats pass through the intestine without being digested / fat is present in the faeces

Using enzymes in biosensors

Biosensors are made up of 2 enzymes and a colourless hydrogen-donor fixed on a strip

o The strip is dipped into a test solution (urine)
o Colour develops which indicates that glucose is present
o This method is used by diabetics to monitor their blood glucose levels

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Biosensors are easier than Benedict's reagent in detecting reducing sugars because biosensors work with
two enzymes: glucose oxidase and perioxidase
Glucose oxidase
o Highly sensitive to low conc. of glucose
o Highly specific because it only reacts with one specific substrate (glucose)
o Catalyses the conversion of glucose to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
Peroxidase
o Catalyzes reaction between colourless hydrogen-donor molecule and H2O2
o A coloured molecule is formed

Defense System

Skin is composed of dead cells containing the indigestible protein keratin

Sebum produced by the skin lowers the pH to inhibit growth of pathogens
Lysozymes in salvia, sweat and tears are anti-bacterial enzymes
Many ingested bacteria in the stomach are destroyed by acid (HCl)
A sticky substance, mucus, traps pathogens in the respiratory tract
Cilia moves away mucus towards the throat to protect gas exchange surfaces
The immune system targets foreign materials and pathogens

Inflammatory response

Histamine is released into the wound by white cells

This increases vasodilation and increases vascular permeability
Vasodilation increases the local blood flow → area becomes red, warm
Increased permeability allows escape of tissue fluid into the tissues
Tissue fluid contains plasma proteins (antibodies) and may cause swelling

Phagocytosis

White cells (phagocytes) contain digestive enzymes within lysosomes

o Neutrophils primarily engulf bacteria
o Macrophages engulf larger particles; including old and infected red blood cells
Found in blood, lymph systems and tissues
Squeeze through gaps in the walls of venules to enter tissues
This allows them to move faster to tissues infected with pathogens

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Phagocytes are attracted by chemotaxis

Opsonisation by antibodies (bacteria becomes coated with antibody)
As a result, binding between bacteria and phagocytes is improved
Phagocytes form pseudopodia around the particle
This positions the particle into a phagocytic vacuole (also called phagosome)
Lysosome fuses with the phagosome
Intracellular killing by digestive enzymes from the lysosome
Pus if formed at the site of infection if no extensive vasculature is present

Antigen

Molecule that stimulates an immune response

Usually proteins (polysaccharides, nucleic acid, lipids can also act as antigens) and other inorganic molecules
important forself-recognition
Self-antigen
o Only found on the host's own cells and does not trigger an immune response
o As these are proteins, their structure depends on the amino acid sequence
o The gene for this sequence is highly polymorphic, having several alleles at each loci
o There is great genetic variability between individuals
o Thus, Antigen is different in other people → would cause an immune response
o There is only 1:4 change that siblings will possess an identical antigen
Non-self-antigen
o Found on cells entering the body (e.g. bacteria, viruses, another person's cell)
o Will cause an immune response

Antibody (immunoglobin protein)

Secreted by B-lymphocytes and produced in response to a specific (foreign) non-self antigen

B-lymphocyte's receptor site matches the non-self-antigen
Each antibody is produced by one type of B-lymphocyte for only one type of antigen
An antibody is Y-shaped
o The two ends of the Y are called the Fab fragments
o The other end is called the Fc fragment
o Fab fragment is responsible for the antigen-binding properties
o Fc fragment is the effector component and triggers the immune response
B cells divide and form memory cells and antibody-secreting plasma cells:
o Agglutination makes pathogens clump together
o Antitoxins neutralise toxins produced by bacteria

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o Lysis digests bacterial membrane, killing the bacterium

o Opsonisation coats pathogen in protein that identifies them as foreign cells

Types of Immune Response

Lymphocytes undergo maturating before birth, producing different types of lymphocytes

Humoral response - B lymphocytes
o Produce and release antibodies into blood plasma
o Produce antibodies from B plasma cells
o Recognize foreign antigen directly
Cellular response - T lymphocytes
o Bind to antigen carrying cells and destroy them and/or activate the humoral response
o Recognize foreign antigens displayed on the surface of normal body cells
Primary response produces memory cells which remain in the circulation
Secondary response new invasion by same antigen at a lower state. Immediate recognition and distraction
by memory cells -faster and larger response usually prevents harm

B-Lymphocytes: The Humoral Response

Response for pathogens not entering our cells (e.g. bacterium)

Each B-lymphocyte recognizes only one specific antigen / need T-helper cell to be activated
Maturation / B-cells develop to give many different variants / specific immune system responds to
any type of pathogen entering the body
Primary response:
o Pathogen is ingested by macrophages / macrophage displays the pathogens surface non-self
antigen on its surface (antigen presentation)
o It then joins with specific T-helper cells and B lymphocytes that have membrane receptors and are
complementary in shape to the non-self antigen
o T-helper cells will release cytokines to activate selected B-cell/lymphocyte
 Secretes antibodies of the same type into the blood
 Divided by mitosis to produce a clone
 Cells grow to form plasma cells producing masses of free antibodies
o Some of the cells remain in the blood as memory cells.
Secondary response = new invasion by same antigen at lower state. Immediate recognition and distraction -
faster, larger response usually prevents harm. Antibodies are produced more rapidly and in larger amounts

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T-Lymphocytes: Cell-Mediated Response

Virus enter cell and more difficult to remove

No antibodies involved / work directly on the infected cell by destroying it
Special proteins called Major Histocompability Complex (MHC) are present on all human cells
Non-self antigen interacts with MHC as human cell becomes infected by a pathogen

Specific T-lymphocyte recognises specific non-self antigen only with a chemical marker next to it (MHC)
Activated T-lymphocytes multiply by mitosis and enter circulation
Cells differentiate into different types of cell
o Cytotoxic T-Cells destroy pathogens and infected cells by enzyme action, and secrete chemicals
which attract and stimulate phagocytes
o Helper T-Cells stimulate the activity of the cytotoxic T-Cells and B-lymphocytes by releasing
chemicals (cytokines andinterleukins). Destroyed by HIV
o Suppressor T-Cells switch off the T and B cell responses when infection clears
o Memory T-Cells Some activated T-Cells remain in the circulation and can respond quickly when same
pathogen enters body again

IMG 3-12-3
Table 3-12-3: Different types of immunity

Passive (Given-Antibodies,
Active (Antibodies made by short term acting)
the human immune system,
long term acting due to
memory cells)

Natural - Response to disease - Acquired antibodies

- Rejecting transplant (via placenta, breast milk)
Artificial(immunisation) - Vaccination - Injection of antibodies
(Injection of the antigen in a from an artificial source, e.g.
weakened form) anti venom against snake
biter
Differences - Antibody in response to - Antibodies provided
antigen - No memory cells
- Production of memory cells - Short lasting
- Long lasting

How vaccines produce responses by the immune system

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Artificial active immunity

Vaccine containing dead pathogens. Antigen is still recognised and an immune response made
o Salk polio vaccine (Polio vaccine is injected)
o Influenza
o Whooping cough
Vaccine containing a toxin
o Diphteria
o Tetanus
Vaccine containing an attenuated (modified or weakened) organism which is alive but has been modified so
that it is not harmful
o Sabin polio vaccine (Taken orally, often sugar pumps)
Purified antigen - genetically engineered vaccine
o Hepatitis B (A gene coding for a surface protein of the hepatitis B virus has been inserted into yeast
cells which produce the protein when grown in fermenters)

Parasites and Parasitism

Parasites (endo-) or (ecto-) feed on living organisms while causing harm

They gain benefits from them (e.g. unlimited supply of nutrients, H2O, constant temp)
Can be bacteria, protoctists, viruses, fungi, arthropods, platyhelminthes
Have structural and functional adoptions to their lifecycle
o Specialised reproductive strategies
o Modification of mouthparts, digestive enzymes and enzymes to allow attachment to the host and
utilisation of host's food supply, blood or tissues
o Resist attack by immune system
o Reduction of unnecessary sensory organs and locomotory organs in the adult stage, as they live in
protected, optimum conditions

Plasmodium (Malarial parasite)

Single celled, intracellular parasite of the kingdom Proctista (class protozoa)

o Development requires 2 hosts for its lifecycle
o Female mosquito (unaffected) and human (affected)
o Parasite is transferred by bites from the female mosquito
o Mosquito releases anti-coagulants when piercing skin / prevents blot clotting

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o Parasites is injected into human in the form of sporozoites

o If the human is infected with the malarial parasite, the mosquito takes up Plasmodium gametes in
the blood on which the mosquito feeds
Asexual reproduction phase
o Occurs in human liver and red blood cells
o Produces enormous quantities of parasites, merozoite stage
Sexual phase
o Occurs in the female mosquito
[EXAM] Lives inside the liver and red blood cells
o Survive for long periods because it is protected from the immune system
 Inside the blood or liver cell; and
 Surface antigen changes rapidly
o Has no (need for) locomotory structures because
 It is transported via blood stream
 No need to move to find food
o Has no (need for) mechanism for regulating its water content because
 cytoplasm has same water potential as blood cell
Symptoms and Treatment
o Red blood cells are destroyed causing anaemia and fever
o Temp peaks correspond to bursting of red blood cells
o Anti-malarial drug chloroquine lowers fever; reduces number of parasites
o Increasing resistance to the drug / combined drugs used
o High mutation rate / memory cells or vaccines useless

Lifecycle

Infection of Human
o Infected female mosquitoes are feeding human blood
o Secretes salvia which contains anticoagulants (anti blood-clotting agents)
o Sporozoites (young malarial parasites) in the salvia enter blood
Latent Period
o Parasites migrate to liver cells / undergo asexual reproduction / develop into merozoites
o Merozoites infect red blood cells / undergo asexual reproduction / produce more merozoites
Outbreak
o Merozoites burst out of red blood cells to infect more cells

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o This outburst is associated with bouts of fever

o Some merozoites develop into gametocytes
Infection of Female Mosquitos
o Gametocytes are taken up by female mosquitos that feed on the infected person's blood
o Inside the female mosquito, gametes produced by those gametocytes fuse (sexual reproduction
phase)
o Results in zygotes which develop into sporozoites
o Sporozoites move into the salivary glands of the female mosquito where they can be injected into
another person
Cycle starts again

Schistosoma (endoparasite)

Name of a genus of parasitic flatworms; causes the disease Bilharzia in humans

Two hosts for lifecycle: fresh water snails (vector) and humans
Penetrate the skin via enzymes damaging the host cell membrane
Invades blood vessels, veins of the bladder region, abdomen and pelvis (Schistosoma haematobium) or the
intestine (S. mansoni and S. japanicum)
Adult schistosomes exist as separate males and females usually found attached to one another, to ensure
mating and sexual reproduction
Fertilised eggs are deposited in the blood vessels of the host
o Huge number of eggs cause the vessels to rupture
o Eggs are discharged into the intestine to reach the outside of the body
o They work their way into adjacent organs (bladder, large intestine) for their way out
o Within tissues they cause severe inflammation, blood in the urine (anaemia)
Adult worm lacks locomotion and sensory organs
o Unnecessary inside the host's body
o Surrounded by nutrients in constant optimum conditions
Adult worm manipulates host's immune system
o Parasite coats itself with molecules from the host's red blood cells
o The host recognises those cells as its own

Lifecycle

Eggs pass out of an infected human via the urine or faeces

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Hatch into minute ciliated larvae (miracidia) / capable of swimming until they find and burrow into a water
snail and grow into a structure called sporocyst
Asexual reproduction occurs, producing free swimming larvae, cercariae, which borrow, aided by the
secretion of digestive enzymes, into the human via the skin or feet
Larvae migrate to the bladder or gut region where they may exist for many years producing a vast number
of parasites

Beta Blockers Against High Blood Pressure

Prolonged, high blood pressure → hypertension, risk factor of CHD (coronary heart disease)!
Risk factors associated with hypertension are stress, obesity, smoking, high intake of NaCl and alcohol
Smooth muscle in artery wall thickens → narrows lumen of the artery → heart must beat faster → contracts
with greater force than normal
o Increased risk of thrombosis and atheroma (fatty deposits form in artery walls)
o β-receptors found on plasma membrane of smooth muscle cells in arteries, arterioles and heart
o β-agonists are chemical messengers that fit into and stimulate β-receptors / muscle cells in the walls
of arteries relax (increases size of lumen)
o β-blockers are antagonists of β-agonists / block β-receptors on surface of muscle cells in arteries
and heart due to their similar shape / β-agonist cannot bind anymore / reduces hypertension
[EXAM] β-blocker binds to receptor / receptor on heart (muscle cells) / adrenaline cannot bind / blood
pressure falls because heart rate reduced/force of contraction reduced

Antibiotics

Produced as natural secretions by bacterial or fungal cells

o Bacteria and fungi are secondary metabolites (produce antibiotics during a late stage of their life
cycle)
o Antibiotics inhibit growth of natural competitors
o Gives antibiotic-secreting population an advantage in colonising it
Antibiotics harm pathogenic bacteria by
o Bacteriostatic antibiotics that are slowing down their growth rate
o Bactericidal antibiotics that kill pathogenic bacteria (in correct concentration)
Narrow-spectrum antibiotics (e.g. penicillin) are only effective on a few pathogens
Wide-spectrum antibiotics (e.g. chloramphenicol) are effective on many pathogens
Prevent formation of bacterial cell walls
o Bacteria occupy a solution with a more negative water potential than their own cytoplasm

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o Without the cell wall, bacteria are exposed to this hostile environment
o As a result, bacteria will swell, burst and die
o > Review the principles of water potential
Prevent formation of bacterial proteins
o By inhibiting DNA transcription or mRNA translation
o Bacteria are unable to synthesise proteins → affects the metabolism of bacteria
NOTE: Antibiotics do not affect viruses

Monoclonal antibodies
Hybridoma

B-lymphocytes are fused with tumour cells in laboratory cultures

They divide rapidly to form a clone of identical cells
Specific monoclonal antibodies are continuously produced and useful as
o Some are tumour markers (antigens not present on non-cancerous cells)
o Monoclonal antibodies will only attach to cancer cells
o Anti-cancer drug attached to monoclonal antibodies will deliver the drug directly to the cancer cells

Uses of monoclonal antibodies

Monoclonal antibody is an antibody that is of just one type

Used to target the treatment of cancer cells or to screen (AIDS) in contaminated blood
Antibody direct enzyme prodrug therapy techniques (ADEPT)
o Monoclonal antibodies are tagged with an enzyme that converts the prodrug (inactive drug) to an
active form that kills cells (i.e. is cytotoxic)
o The prodrug is injected in high conc
o Attached to a monoclonal antibody, enzyme activates the drug and kills only cancer cells
In immunoassays, they can be labelled (radioactively) making them easy to detect
In the enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA) technique, they are immobilised on an inert base and a
test solution is passed over them
o Target antigen combines with immobilised monoclonal antibodies
o Second antibody attaches with an enzyme and binds to the monoclonal antibodies and to the target
antigen as well
o Substrate is added which is converted to a coloured product by the added enzyme
o Conc. of colour tells us the amount of antigens present in the test solution

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Used to detect drugs in urine of athletics or in home pregnancy tests (where an antigen in human chorionic
gonadotrophin (hCG) is secreted by the placenta)
Transplanted organs have non-self-antigens triggering antibodies to attack the organ, leading to its
rejecting
o T-Lymphocytes are needed for B-lymphocytes to function
o Monoclonal antibodies against T-lymphocytes can be used to prevent B-lymphocytes from
functioning, thus blocking the rejection of transplanted organs
[EXAM] Helping to diagnose between two pathogens because
o Antigens are on cell-surface membrane
o Monoclonal antibody reacts with specific antigen only
o Thus, detects presence of special bacteria because of a different antigen on another, different
bacteria

Viruses (200nm)

Structure
o Consists of a core containing genetic material DNA or RNA
o This is surrounded by a protective coat of protein called capsid (subunits: capsomeres)
o The capsid is (sometimes) surrounded by an envelope of lipoprotein
o Antigens, glycoproteins on its surface recognize receptors on T-lymphocytes
They cause damage by taking over the host cell for multiplication
Do not have a cellular structure / don't respire or need food
Transmitted via sexual contact; infected woman passing it to her baby through the placenta
Also by receiving blood from an infected person

Human Immunodeficiency Virus HIV

AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)

o All T-helper cells infected (and destroyed)
o Number of T lymphocytes decrease dramatically / sign for the disease
o People highly susceptible to infections, diseases and cancer
Retrovirus: core contains reverse transcriptase and its genetic material as RNA
HIV can change its surface proteins and evade the immune system / vaccination is difficult

Cycle of infection

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HIV enters body from HIV +ve persons via body fluids such as blood or semen
Viral glycoprotein attaches to receptors on cell membrane of T-helper cells
HIV enters cell by endocytosis, releasing its RNA and reserve transcriptase into the cytoplasm
Reverse transcriptase copies viral RNA strand
This forms a double stranded viral DNA in the nucleus of T-helper cell / now called "provirus"
Viral DNA is integrated into the host DNA / host cell replicates with provirus
Latency period (variable period of time) → Infection of more cells, but no symptoms
Outbreak: host DNA is transcribed to make new viral RNA. Proteins necessary for the capsid and for the
envelope are synthesised by the infected host cell
New viruses assembled with RNA and proteins leave the cell by exocytosis - viral envelope is constructed
from the cell membrane of the host cell

Human Biology | Development

Early Development of the Zygote to a Blastocyst (1st Week)

Ovulation releases ovum/secondary oocyte

Fertilization in the oviduct → produces zygote
Zygote undergoes cleavage as it moves along oviduct → produces morula
o As zygote divides, cells become smaller \ Morula stays same size
o Movement by cilia and peristalsis present in oviduct walls
Morula develops into a blastocyst
o Trophoblast (outer layer of blastocyst) → nourishes future embryo
o Inner cell mass → will become fetus
o Fluid filled cavity → for protection (absorbs shocks, resists compression, ...)
Blastocyst (≈100cells) implants itself in uterus lining
o Nourished by secretion from uterus
o Microvilli provide large surface area (→gas + nutrients exchange)

Implantation Of The Blastocyst Into The Uterine Lining (2nd Week)

Trophoblast secretes enzymes → digest tissues and blood vessel of endometrium

Embryo uses released nutrients/products from digestion
Blastocyst becomes buried within endometrium
Microvilli are replaced by placenta
Trophoblast secretes human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) hormone

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The Developing Fetus

During gestation (→length of pregnancy) growth rate is in excess

Placenta is the first organ to develop when blastocyst embeds itself in uterine lining
o Growth faster than embryo in early pregnancy
Development increases in complexity
o Differentiating of inner cell mass of blastocyst
o First month → beginning of a gut, developed kidney, brain, beating heart
o Second month → all main organ systems present; embryo is called a fetus
At the end of gestation placenta is discarded, but essential for the 1st 9 month of life

Features of the Circulatory System of the Developing Fetus:

Placenta is the Fetal Gas Exchange Organ → Fetal Lungs are Non-Functional

Umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood from placenta to vena cava

Blood in the heart bypasses through foramen ovale
Oxygenated blood flows from right into left atria / flap valve prevents back flow of blood
Some blood in right atria passes to right ventricle into pulmonary artery (to lungs)
Blood bypasses lungs through ductus arteriosus
Oxygenated blood flows from pulmonary artery into aorta
Umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood from aorta to placenta

Importance of Pulmonary Circulation

Carry oxygenated blood to lungs

To allow respiration in lungs / be ventilated before birth

At Birth the Placenta is Replaced by Lungs as the Organ of Gas Exchange

Umbilical vein constricts → prevents blood loss

Ductus arteriosus constricts → blood leaving right ventricle is sent to lungs
Blood pressure in left atrium exceeds that in right atrium
Valve closes foramen ovale which fuses within atrial wall
o Prevents mixing of de- and oxygenated blood
o Deoxygenated blood in right ventricle is oxygenated in lungs
[EXAM] Replacement of fetal to adult Hb takes ≈3months
o Each polypeptide/globin chain is coded by a separate gene

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o Gene for fetal (gamma) globin is suppressed

o Gene for adult (beta) globin becomes active

Structure of the Placenta

Originates from fetal tissues and endometrium

Fully developed ≈20cm across and ≈3cm thick
Umbilical cord connects placenta with fetus
o 1 umbilical vein → oxygenated blood from placenta to fetal vena cava
o 2 umbilical arteries → deoxygenated blood from fetal aorta to placenta
FICK'S LAW: (surface area x difference in conc)/thickness of surface µ rate of diffusion
o Microvilli grow into endometrium
 Each villi contains a network of fetal capillaries
 Surrounded by thin pool of maternal blood
 Supplied by uterine arteries and drained by uterine vein
o Max difference in concentration
 Fetal Hb has a greater affinity for O2 than adult Hb
 Flow of maternal and fetal blood in opposite direction
 Uterine artery to umbilical vein
 Maintains gradient/prevents concs reaching eqm
o Short diffusion path (≈3.5μm)
 Fetal and maternal blood supply is separated by 3 layers
 Capillary endothelium
 Thin layer of connective tissue
 Epithelium covering villi
 Exchange surface only one cell thick
 Maternal and fetal blood come close together but never mix
 Maternal blood may be genetically different from fetal blood

Function of the Placenta

Exchange of substances between maternal and fetal blood

o O2 and waste products (urea, CO2) cross placenta by diffusion
o Glucose enters fetal blood by facilitated diffusion
o Amino acids enter fetal blood by active transport
 Placenta contains many mitochondria

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o Maternal antibodies are taken into villi by pinocytosis

 Infant has immunity to same diseases as its mother after birth
Secretes hCG (oestrogen, progesterone) → maintains pregnancy

Maternal Physiology
Effect of Pregnancy on Aspects of Maternal Physiology

GROWTH OF: uterus from ≈50g to 1kg / secreting tissue in breasts by progesterone
ENLARGEMENT OF: smooth muscle fibres of uterus wall / ducts of breast tissue by oestrogen
INCREASE OF:
o Body mass/thirst/metabolic rate/ventilation rate/cardiac output/blood volume/red blood cell
number
o Ca2+ and glucose levels in bloodstream
o Dietary requirements of Carbohydrates(energy), Protein(growth), Fe(Hb), Ca(bones), Vitamins
Minimises stresses imposed on female body → optimum environment for growing fetus

(1) Changes in Thermal Balance

Respiration + high growth rate increase heat

Heat excess transferred to cooler maternal blood by heat gradient
Mother loses this excess heat from her body

(2) Changes in Cardiac Output and Blood Volume and their Significance

High growth rate of fetus, placenta, maternal tissues (not just breast and uterus)
This increases O2 consumption/respiration
As maternal muscles have to work harder to move her increased size
Increases CARDIAC OUTPUT (= STROKE VOLUME x HEART RATE)
o Heart beats faster
o Increase in stroke volume
o Increase in cardiac muscle / heart chambers enlarge / output increases by 40%
Increase in maternal blood volume
o Changes in volume of plasma > increase in number of red blood cells

Birth

Fetus lies with its head down against stretched cervix

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Weak contraction of uterus every ≈30min / increase in strength and frequency

Caused by hormone oxytoccin secreted by posterior pituitary gland
When cervix is fully dilated
Expulsion of baby by contractions of mother's abdominal muscles
o Umbilical cord shuts down, isolating baby from mother
o Rises CO2 content of the blood / stimulates baby's first breath
Expulsion of placenta → ≈30min after birth
o Pregnancy lasts ≈38 weeks from implantation, 40 weeks from last period

Hormonal Changes During And After Pregnancy

Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin hCG Hormone

Secreted by trophoblast and developing placenta

Maintains corpus luteum past the time it normally disintegrates
o Endometrium is maintained and menstruation does not occur
o Female sex hormones still at high level
Basis for pregnancy test → hCG can be detected in urine
Peak in bloodstream after ≈2months followed by a slow decline

Progesterone and Oestrogen

Secreted by corpus luteum for first 3 months

Maintain endometrium, development of uterus, prevent menstruation
Inhibit FSH production from anterior pituitary gland
o Prevents development of further mature ovarian follicles in ovary
Hormone secretion is taken over by placenta
Corpus luteum degenerates

Oxytocin causes Uterine Contraction (Birth)

Oestrogen from placenta makes muscles of uterus sensitive to oxytocin

o End of pregnancy, level of oestrogen in blood rises, level of progesterone falls
o Oestrogen promotes uterine contraction, progesterone inhibits it
Pressure of fetus against cervix stimulates stretch receptors
Hypothalamus stimulates posterior pituitary glands to secrete oxytocin
Oxytocin causes contraction of uterus

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Lactation and Prolactin

High levels of progesterone inhibits prolactin

At birth, progesterone levels fall → prolactin levels increase
Suckling promotes production and ejection of milk
o Nerve impulses travel to hypothalamus
o Stimulates posterior pituitary gland to secrete oxytocin
 Stimulates muscles in walls of milk ducts to contract, squeezing milk out
o Stimulates anterior pituitary gland to secrete prolactin
 Stimulates production of more milk
 Prevents secretion of FSH and LH
 Thus, ovulation does not happen → mother is less likely to conceive
Milk is bacteria free/ contains antibodies, essential nutrients, Ca2+ for bone growth, NO fibre/iron → baby
will need solid food after ≈3-4months

Digestions of Food: The Alimentary Canal (Gut)

1) MOUTH where food is chewed and swallowed

Hydrolysis of starch to maltose by salivary amylase

Alkaline conditions assist to break the glycosidic bonds in starch

2) Food travels down the OESOPHAGUS by peristalsis

3) To the STOMACH

Acidity kills bacteria / Inhibits salivary amylase

o Gastric glands are stimulated by gastrin to secrete gastric juice
o Contains HCl and pepsinogen (inactive pepsin)
Active pepsin digests proteins → would damage glandular tissue
Damage to stomach wall by acidic gastric juice is prevented by mucus
Stomach digests proteins by hydrolytic endopeptidase
o pepsinogen + HCl + pepsin → pepsin
o Endopeptidases (pepsin/trypsin) break peptide bonds in the middle of polypeptides

ATE PRODUCTS ENZYME PRODUCED BY

Proteins Smaller polypeptides Endopeptidase: Pepsin Gastric glands

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4) To the SMALL INTESTINE (duodenum → ileum)

Liver in the upper abdomen secretes bile

o Liver detoxifies blood by removing poisonous substances / destroys old red blood cells / converts
Hb to bilirubin (present in bile) / produces bile / produces urea from amino groups and ammonia
o Gall bladder stores bile
o Secreted into small intestine by bile duct
Muscles in wall of small intestine mix H2O and oil forming small droplets/emulsion
o Larger surface area / higher lipase activity
o Bile prevents droplets from running together
Exocrine gland of the pancreas secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum
o Contains amylase, lipase, exopeptidase, trypsinogen (inactive trypsin)
o Exopeptidases break peptide bonds at the end of smaller polypeptide chains
Intestinal brush border contains enterokinase
o Trypsinogen + enterokinase → trypsin
Intestinal brush border contains peptidase
Intestinal brush border contains maltase
o Maltose in lumen of small intestine binds to maltase
o Resulting glucose diffuses into the cytoplasm of epithelial cells
o Glucoseis also released back into the intestinal lumen and absorbed further down
o Thus, duodenum digests food by HYDROLYTIC enzymes (→H2O)
Ileum absorbs food
o Last and longest part of small intestine
o Microvilli (brush border) increase surface area

SUBSTRATE PRODUCTS ENZYME PRODUCED BY

Starch Maltose Pancreatic amylase Pancreas
Maltose Glucose Maltase Intestinal cells
Proteins Smaller polypeptides Endopeptidase: trypsin Pancreas
Smaller Amino acids; Exopeptidase Pancreas
polypeptides Dipeptides
Dipeptides Amino acids Peptidase Intestinal cells
Triglycerides Glycerol; Lipase Pancreas
Monoglycerides;
Fatty Acids

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5) To the LARGE INTESTINE (cecum → colon → rectum) to anus

Larger in diameter than small intestine but shorter in length

Stores undigested food before it is egested as faeces

Lactose and Lactose Intolerance

Lactase splits lactose into β-glucose and galactose

Lactose intolerant person lacks lactase → lactose is neither digested nor absorbed
High levels of soluble lactose remain in small intestine
o Supports large populations of bacteria / ferment lactose producing gas / causing discomfort
o Water potential becomes more negative / H2O moves into small intestine / not reabsorbed /
diarrhoea
Adults rarely produce lactase / gene is switched off in adulthood

Absorption of Products of Digestion

Histology of the Ileum in Relation to its Secretory and Absorptive Functions

Na+, Cl-, digestive juice secreted into duodenum → LOWERS water potential
Thus, H2O moves from epithelial cells into lumen by osmosis
Increases efficiency of digestion (hydrolytic reactions) and absorption
Ileum absorbs ions by active transport → INCREASES water potential
Thus, H2O moves back into epithelial cells

The Layers of the Gut Wall and the Ultrastructure of the Epithelium

Hollow organs with a layer of epithelial cells surrounding the lumen

Walls of the lumen contain muscles and blood vessels
Small change in structure has a specific function
o Small intestine
 Tube with a thick wall surrounding a hollow lumen
 Epithelial cells have microvilli on their surface
 Epithelial cells secretes mucus

Absorption And Active Uptake Of The Products Of Digestion In Small Intestine

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Glucose

Absorbed by epithelial cells using a protein carrier

This protein carrier works by secondary active transport (co-transport system)
Glucose and Na+ are transported across the membrane into the intestinal cell
Further transport of glucose into blood capillaries by facilitated diffusion
NOTE: Fructose moves entirely by facilitated diffusion!

Amino Acids

Absorbed by epithelial cells by secondary active transport

Co-transport carrier proteins absorb amino acids and Na+ across the membrane
o Different carrier molecules transport different types of amino acids
o Carriers are associated with peptidase
Passes from the epithelial cells into capillaries by facilitated diffusion
Newborns don't produce trypsin, HCl → proteins are not digested before small intestine is reached
o Whole proteins may be transported by endocytosis and exocytosis
o Uptake by endocytosis, release into blood by exocytosis
o Often occurs in newborns due to their immature mucosa
o Allows passage of antibodies from mother's milk - provides passive immunity for the infant
o Accounts for many early food allergies as the protein is recognized as "foreign"

Lipids

Triglycerides digested into monogylcerate + glycerol + fatty acids by lipase

Monoglycerides combine with bile to form micelles
o 5mm in diameter / forms an emulsion / contains fatty acids and glycerol
Micelles move to membrane of epithelial cells
Monoglycerides + glycerol + fatty acids dissolve in bilayer
Triglycerides re-synthesise in cytoplasm / move into lymph capillaries (→lacteals)
Bile stays in small intestine

Oral Rehydration Therapy In The Control Of Gastro-Intestinal Infections

High amounts of semi-liquid faeces result form toxins produced by microorganisms

o Toxins block Na+ channels in cells lining small intestine
o Stop reabsorption / conc. of Na+ ions in small intestine increases

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o Water potential gradient is in the opposite way (into small intestine)

o Water is drawn out of epithelial cells and added to the contents of the gut
o This results in diarrhoea
Toxins have little effect on glucose co-transport carrier proteins
TREATMENT: measured amounts of glucose and mineral salts are mixed with H2O
o Drinking the solution stimulates Na+ and glucose uptake by co-transport proteins
o H2O is absorbed from small intestine
o ORT increases performance of co-transport proteins / adequate amounts of glucose and Na+ pass
into intestinal cells / clears up attack of diarrhoea
Thus, Na+ is absorbed by Na+ channels AND mainly by glucose-Na+-co-transport carrier proteins

Control Of Digestive Secretions

Nervous And Hormonal Control Of Salivary, Gastric And Pancreatic Secretions

Mammal has 2 communication systems → nervous and endocrine system

Nervous system is based on electrical impulses passing along nerve cells
o Short-lasting effects, can be switched on or off rapidly
o Secretes salvia when food enters mouth
Endocrine system is based on hormones
o Travel in blood to target organ
o Produce long-lasting effects
o Trigger secretion of bile and pancreatic juice
Endocrine system is only activated with large amounts of food intake
o Food takes a long time to reach small intestine
o Food stays there for a long time
o Digestive juice can be secreted as large amounts of food are present
o Digestive juice contains trypsin and pepsin → both enzymes are peptidases which damage proteins
→ they would damage epithelial cells if only small amounts of food would be present

Importance Of Simple And Conditioned Reflexes And The Hormones

Nervous reflexes

Nerve pathway involving small number of nerve cells (2/3) → rapid response
Automatic response → particular stimulus has same effect

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Condition reflex

Salvia and gastric juice are secreted

By various stimuli associated with food (smell/sight/sound)
By contact of substances in food with taste buds on tongue

Hormones

Secreted in response to presence of food in particular region of gut

Hormones travel in blood to glands / in glands, stimulate secretion of digestive juices
GASTRIN stimulates exocrine glands in stomach to release gastric juice
Acids (chyme) from stomach, fatty acids in duodenum stimulate release of SECRETIN
o Stimulates secretion of alkali (bicarbonate ions) from pancreas
 Neutralises acidity from intestinal contents
 When pH reaches neutrality, secretion of secretin is inhibited
o Inhibits gastric gland secretion
Acidic chyme from stomach, fat, amino acids in duodenum stimulate release of CHOLECYSTOKININ-
PANCREOZYMIN CCK-PZ
o Activates smooth muscle contraction/emptying of gall bladder (to release bile)
o Triggers secretion of enzymes from pancreas
o Stimulates Medulla oblongata which give a satiety signal
o Once molecules stimulating CCK are digested → CCK inhibited again
SOMATOSTATIN
o Acts on stomach, duodenum, pancreas
o Inhibits release of gastrin, secretin, and CCK-PZ

Growth And Its Measurement

Methods Of Measuring Growth

Human growth is diffuse (→spread throughout)

o Adult is taller, larger from front to back, has larger organs than a child
Growth: permanent increase in amount of organic matter
o Produces new cells and increases size of existing cells
o Somatotropin (→growth hormone) stimulates cell division, protein synthesis / released by anterior
lobe of pituitary gland
o Monitored by standing height and body mass

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Development: physical, emotional, mental, social changes throughout live

Supine Length (unable to stand → infant's length)

Infant is placed, on it's back, on a table

Ankles are gently pulled to straighten infant's leg
Length is measured from top of its head to base of its heels

Standing Height

Person standing with their heels flat on the ground

Horizontal bar is moved to touch the top of the person's head

Body Mass → Amount of Organic Matter [Dry Mass → Plants]

Wet body mass (weight) in humans is an INDICATION of organic matter

Includes food + H2O → method can be misleading

Absolute Growth and Growth Rate

ABSOLUTE GROWTH: total growth / cumulative height of a person

o [GRAPH] Regular increase in size that levels out at ≈16 years
GROWTH RATE: increase (in an appropriate feature) per unit time
o GROWTH RATE = (SIZE AT T2 - SIZE AT T1) / (T2-T1)
o Highest in the first year
o Decreases rapidly during the first 2 years
o Constant, low rate during childhood
o Females and males have similar height until ≈14 → growth spurt occurs
 later but greater in males than in females
 Therefore, male becomes taller than the female at ≈14
o Growth stops by the age of ≈18

Advantages and Disadvantages of Cross-Sectional Study

Measures people of different ages

Calculates mean of a population → Individual peaks tend to be smoothed out
Generalised picture of growth (-) may not be related to one individual (-)
Easy to perform during clinical investigation (+)

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Short-period of time measurement (+)

Longitudinal Study

Measures same person at regular intervals over a long period of time

Accurate picture of individual growth (+)
Measurements taken at different times can be compared
Not suitable for an investigation (-)
People leaf study area/lose interest in being involved in investigation
Migration/death
Takes a long time to see a pattern/conclusion

Relatives rates of growth of tissues and organs from birth to adulthood

[GRAPH] Different parts of the body grow at different rates

o Head and brain develop first → being ≈90% of its adult size by the age of 5
 Before growth of bones and muscles in limbs
 Thus, results in a change in body proportion
o Reproductive system develops latest → remains below ≈20% until puberty
o Lymphoid tissues (appendix, spleen, thymus gland) reach max size before puberty → size is
o reduced to its adult size after puberty → reduction in size caused by sex hormones
o Curve of the whole body is similar to an ABSOLUTE GROWTH GRAPH as height is an
o indicator of general body size
Different growth rates result in changes in shape during embryological and post-natal growth

Puberty
Physical And Endocrine Changes Associated With Puberty

Growth spurt occurs earlier in girls but is larger in boys

Sex hormones (testosterone; oestrogen + progesterone) cause
o Development of internal reproductive organs and 2° sexual characteristics
o Increase activity of sweat and sebaceous glands
 Blocked sebaceous glands cause acne
Changes the relative amounts of protein and fat
o Total body mass : body fat ratio is lower in boys than in girls
 Testosterone causes greater growth of muscles

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 Oestrogen causes an accumulation of fat in the body

o Menstrual cycle in females relates to the proportion of fat to muscle
Testosterone stimulates growth of cartilage in thorax, pectoral girdle → shoulders expand
Oestrogen stimulates growth of cartilage in pelvic → hips expand

The Role Of Hormones In Controlling Early Growth

Puberty begins with release of gonadotrophin releasing factor (GnRF) form hypothalamus
GnRF stimulates pituitary gland to release gonadotrophin hormone
o Has a different name but is the same in (1) males and (2) females
 (1) Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone ICSH → stimulates testosterone production by
interstitial cells between seminiferous tubules
 (2) FSH → stimulates egg-containing follicles in ovaries
o Travels in blood stream to gonads (→ovaries or testes)
o Causes gonads to release sex hormones
Internal stimuli must be involved to trigger initial release of GnRF
o Improved diets → faster grow of female, reach stage of maturity at younger age
 Age of menarche (→first period) is earlier than it was in the 19th century
 Relates to changes in female's muscle:fat ratio
o Girls with low body fat tend to have a later menarche
 Female athletes who have a high muscle:fat ratio
 Women who starve during anorexia nervosa find that their periods stop as they lose body fat

Table 16-3-1: Summary of hormones controlling growth

Site of Release Actions

Name of Hormone

Somatotropin Anterior pituitary gland Stimulates mitosis, protein synthesis

Thyroxine Thyroid gland Stimulates rate of metabolism
Gonadotrophins Anterior pituitary gland
(situated under brain)
- FSH - Development of follicle/egg cells and oestrogen secretion by
follicle cells in ovaries
- ICSH - Spermatogenesis in testes

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- LH (females) - Triggers ovulation, forms corpus luteum, thickens uterus lining,

produces milk in breasts
- LH (males) - Secretion of testosterone by testes
Oestrogen Ovaries - Growth of 2° sexual characteristics
- Thickening of uterus lining
Progesterone Corpus luteum - Growth of breasts
- Increases blood supply to uterus lining
Testosterone Testes - Growth of 2° sexual characteristics
- Sperm production

Table 16-3-2: Changes associated with puberty

In Girls Hormonal Stimulation In Boys In Girls

In Boys

Testes Ovaries, Oviduct, ICSH (boys) Growth Testosterone Oestrogen

Uterus, Vagina FSH (girls) hormones
Body growth Breasts Growth Testosterone Oestrogen +
hormones Progesterone
Facial Hair, Pelvic girdle Testosterone Oestrogen
Larynx
Pubic and axillary (underarm) hair
First menstrual flow Oestrogen +
(menarche) Progesterone

The Heart
When learning about the structure and function of the heart, it is useful to have a labelled diagram close to hand.
Even better still would be to get to a butcher or supermarket and buy a lamb heart and investigate for yourself!

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It is also worth looking for animations of the cardiac cycle on the internet to try and give you an image of how this
organ functions.

Anatomy
Until you are comfortable with the structure of the heart, it will be very difficult to understand HOW the heart works.
You should be able to identify the following structures:

Right atrium (RA)

Right ventricle (RV)
Left atrium (LA)
Left ventricle (LV)
Sinoatrial node (SAN)
Atrioventricular node (AVN)
Tricuspid valve
Mitral valve
Semilunar valves

The Cardiac Cycle

The four chambers of the heart are continually contracting and relaxing in a sequence known as the cardiac cycle.
Contraction of a chamber is SYSTOLE (pronounced sistolee) and relaxation DIASTOLE (pronounced diastole). The

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left and right sides of the heart actually contract simultaneously but in order to understand how blood moves
through the circulatory system we will consider each half separately.

Right atrium receives blood from

o Superior vena cava (SVC) - carries blood from upper body (head, arms)
o Inferior vena cava (IVC) - carries blood from lower body (chest, abdomen, legs)
Blood flows from right atrium, across tricuspid valve, into right ventricle
Blood leaves right ventricle and enters pulmonary artery
o Backflow into RV prevented by semilunar pulmonic valve
o Deoxygenated blood arrives at lungs via pulmonary artery
o Oxygenated blood leaves lungs via pulmonary vein
Blood from pulmonary vein enters left atrium
Blood flows from left atrium, across mitral valve, into left ventricle
Left ventricle has a thick muscular wall / generates high pressures during contraction
Blood from LV is ejected, across aortic valve, into aorta

TASK: using a simple diagram (boxes will do), draw arrows showing how the blood moves through the
chambers and blood vessels.

A common exam question at both GCSE and A Level is why is the muscle of left ventricle is thicker than right
ventricle? If you’ve done a heart dissection at school, this will certainly be something which the teachers pointed out
and there is in fact a considerable difference between the two chambers. The reasons for this are outlined below:

The pressure of the blood in the aorta is higher than pulmonary artery
The left ventricle must therefore generate more pressure to overcome pressure of aorta
Therefore, thicker muscle required in left ventricle

The problem of backflow:

Between each chamber of the heart are valves which prevent the blood being forced back into the chamber
from which it was just pushed out. Between the atria and the ventricles are the tricuspid and mitral valves
(mitral is on the left and tricuspid on the right). These are known as the atrioventricular valves. If you’ve
dissected a heart you will have seen fibrous strands leading from ‘flaps’ at the top of the ventricles. These
strands (cordae tendinae) are attached to papillary muscles which contract during ventricular systole which
generates tension pulling the AV valves shut.
The pulmonary artery and the aorta also contain valves to prevent the blood from these vessels falling back
into the ventricles. These are known as the Semilunar valves (pulmonic and aortic). They do not work in the
same way as the AV valves. Instead, the pressure of blood within the vessel actually causes the closure of the
semilunar valves.

Pressure Changes
At several points so far, pressure has been mentioned. It is an important aspect of the cardiac cycle and a factor
which can be used to identify which stage of the cardiac cycle a heart is in. In fact, examiners love to provide you
with pressure graphs and ask you to analyse the cardiac cycle. It is therefore worth us spending a little time going
over the principles of ‘Isovolumetric contraction’ - it sounds worse than it is!

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As a chamber fills with blood, the pressure is going to rise. When a chamber contracts, the pressure is going to rise.
Changes in pressure affect whether a valve is open or closed. Fluids always move from areas of high pressure to
areas of low pressure. Let us think through the cardiac cycle in terms of pressure:

As the blood passes into the atria, the valves are open so most will fall immediately into the ventricle. There
is a gradual rise in pressure in the atria until the end of atrial systole when the blood has moved into the
ventricles.
The intraventricular pressure rises as the ventricles fill with blood. This closes the AV valves.
Contraction of the ventricles means that the intraventricular pressure is higher than the pressure in the
artery which forces the blood out of the ventricle and into the aorta or pulmonary artery (depending on
which side of the heart you’re looking at).
The increase in pressure of the artery causes the closing of the semilunar valves preventing the back flow of
blood into the ventricle.

All good text books should have a pressure graph for you to look at and try to understand how the pressure
changes relate to the cardiac cycle.

Electrical Activity of the Heart - Controlling the Cardiac Cycle

The heart has a unique ability to beat (contract) on its own. The cardiac muscle cells are therefore myogenic.
Regulation of this contraction though is required to ensure that the muscle cells contract in a specific way and that
your heart can respond to meet the energy demands of your body. Nervous and hormonal stimulation both have an
effect on the way that the heart contracts.

On the right atrium is a structure called the Sinoatrial Node, or the SAN. This bundle of cells acts as a pacemaker
controlling the rate of contraction - the heart rate. Stimulation of this node initiates a wave of electrical impulses
which spread aross the atria causing atrial systole. If cardiac cells are stained with a voltage sensitive dye then a
wave of contraction can be seen rippling across the atria (all muscular contraction relied on electrical changes).

The electrical signal in the atria is picked up by a second node, the AtrioVentricular Node (or the AVN) which passes
the signal down to the apex of the heart (bottom of the ventricles). This is passed through specialised conducting
cardiac muscle fibres called the Bundle of His. From the apex, the electrical activity is spread throughout the
ventricles along Purkinje fibres. This means that the ventricles contract from the bottom up once they have filled
with blood.

You may have heard the terms fibrillation or VF (ventricular fibrillation) on TV shows or films. This refers to changes
in the electrical activity of the heart muscle cells. Fibrillation occurs when the cells are not contracting in a regular
fashion which, if it’s happening in the ventricles will mean that blood is not being forced into the blood vessels.

QUESTION: How and why would using a defibrillator help in this situation?

Pulling it all together

You should now understand the following things:

The structure of the heart - atria, ventricles, valves, blood vessels leading to and from the heart.
The route blood takes through the heart - the cardiac cycle
The terms systole and diastole
The function and role of valves within the heart

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The changes in pressure within the chambers and blood vessels

The electrical control of the cardiac cycle.

TASK: Test your knowledge by rearranging the following statements into a logical order!

A. Atria receive blood from veins and store it prior to each heart beat
B. Ventricular diastole
End of cardiac cycle, all chambers relax. Aortic and pulmonary valves close → 2nd heart sound. This prevents
backflow into ventricles.
C. Pressure of RA > RV - forces tricuspid valve to open
Pressure of LA > LV - forces mitral valve to open
D. Atrial systole
SAN stimulated and wave of electrical activity spreads across atria.
Both atria contract and move blood across AV valves into ventricles. This reduces volume of atria but
increases pressure
E. Atria fill up again to start next cycle. The volume increases while pressure decreases.
F. Ventricular systole
Contraction of ventricles increases pressure. The AV valves close as blood is forced against them → 1st heart
sound. This prevents backflow into atria. Instead, blood is ejected into arteries through aortic and pulmonary
valves.
G. Electrical signal picked up by AVN. Bundle of His transfers electrical activity down to apex of heart and along
purkinje fibres to intiate contraction of the ventricles.

Principles of Homeostasis
EXCESS NORM DEFICIENCY

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Change detected by β-cells in pancreas Change detected by α-cells in pancreas

Increase in insulin secretion Increase in glucagon secretion
- Activates enzymes converting - Activates enzymes converting
glucose to glycogen glycogen to glucose
- Increases rate of glucose uptake
Levels return to norm Levels return to norm

Fluctuating External Conditions

Features that influence internal environment have a set level → norm

Any changes from the norm is called deviation
Negative feedback / caused by deviation from norm / change results in return to norm
External environment is changing → experienced by body
o Homeostatic system even out variations experienced by body
 Liver can store or release glucose
o Blood is kept at a constant, ideal state
 Glucose conc. of 80mg cm-3
o Tissue fluid surrounds working cell with constant ideal conditions
 Optimum glucose for respiration

Negative Feedback Tends to Restore Systems to their Original Level

Homeostasis is achieved by a negative feedback and involves

o Change in level of an internal factor (change from norm level)
o Detected by receptors / impulse send to hypothalamus
o Activates effectors / stimulates corrective mechanism
o Level of factor returns to norm
Factors in blood and tissue fluid must be kept constant:
o Temp and pH
 Change affects rate of enzyme-controlled/biochemical reactions
 Extreme changes denatures proteins
 Humans maintain constant core body temp between 36-37.8°C
 Body temp refers to core body temp → limbs may be cooler than 37°C
o Water potential / avoids osmotic problems → cellular disruption
o Conc of ions (Na, K, Ca)

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Temperature Control

Blood flows through receptors in the hypothalamus

Deviation causes the autonomic nervous system to initiate an appropriate response

DEFICIENCY/DROP IN CORE BODY TEMP BY DECREASING HEAT LOSS/INCREASING HEAT PRODUCTION

Receptors in hypothalamus detect increase in core temp/temp of blood

Heat conversation centre stimulated
VASOCONSTRICTION of arterioles
Arterioles leading to capillaries in the skin narrow
SHUNT VESSELS DILATE
Less blood flows to skin surface / less heat is lost by RADIATION
Hair raising / greater insulation / humans have less dense hair, therefore, no effect
Shivering / rapid contraction and relaxation of muscles / heat produced by RESPIRATION
Adrenaline INCREASES METABOLIC RATE of cells //Mammals in cold climates can increase secretion of
thyroxine / hormone increases metabolic rate on a more permanent basis
VOLUNTARY CENTRE: put on clothes / seek warmer areas / warm drink

EXCESS/RISE IN CORE BODY TEMP BY INCREASING HEAT LOSS/REDUCING HEAT PRODUCTION

Receptors in hypothalamus detect increase in core temp/temp of blood

Heat loss centre stimulated
VASODILATION of arterioles
Arterioles leading to capillaries in the skin dilate (expand)
SHUNT VESSELS CONSTRICT
More blood flows to skin surface (capillaries) / heat loss by RADIATION
Heat loss by EVAPORATION of sweat / by using energy
o High(er) rate of sweating leads to a low(er) skin temp
VOLUNTARY CENTRE: remove clothing / seek cooler area / cold drink

IMG 7-16-11

The Role of Temperature Receptors in the Skin

Hypothalamus detects temp fluctuation inside the body/internal environment

Skin receptors detect temp changes in external environment
Information is sent by nerves to voluntary centres of the brain

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o Voluntary activities (jogging, moving into a shade) are initiated

o Changes behaviour of human

The Structure and Role of the Skin in Temp Regulation

Surface area is very large and in direct contact to external environment

Skin is divided into two layers: outer epidermis and inner dermis
MALPIGHIAN layer is the boundary between these two layers
o Cells of this layer divide repeatedly by mitosis
o Older cells are pushed towards the surface/EPIDERMIS
o Cytoplasm of old cells becomes full of granules / cells die
o Cells become converted into scales of keratin (waterproof)
DERMIS is thicker than epidermis and contains
o Nerve endings (temp receptors)
o Blood vessels held together by connective tissue
Beneath dermis is a region which contains some subcutaneous fat
o Adipose tissue (fat storage tissue) provides vital insulations in humans

Hypothermia

Body temp falls dangerously below normal

o Heat energy is lost from body more rapidly than it can be produced
Brain is affected first → person becomes clumsy and mentally sluggish
As body temp falls, metabolic rate falls as well
Makes body temp fall even further, causing a POSITIVE FEEDBACK
o Temp is taken further away from the norm
Death when core body temp is below ≈25°C / by ventricular fibrillation / normal beating of the
heart is replaced by uncoordinated tremors
Most at risk are (1) babies and (2) elderly
o (1) High surface area:volume ratio, undeveloped temp regulation mechanisms
o (2) Detoriated thermoregulatory mechanisms
Deliberate hypothermia is sometimes used in surgical operations on heart
o Patient is cooled by
 Circulating blood through a cooling machine
 Placing ice packs in contact with the body
o Reduces metabolic rate / O2 demand by brain + other vital tissues is lowered

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o Heart can be stopped without any risks of the patient suffering brain damage through lack of O2
o Tissues may be permanently damaged if patient is cooled to long

Control of Blood Glucose Concentration

The Factors which Influence Blood Glucose Concentration

Digestion of carbohydrates in diet

o Digestion → polysaccharide → glucose
o Fluctuation of glucose blood level depend on amount + type of carbohydrate eaten
Breakdown of glycogen
o Excess glucose → glycogen → glucose
o Storage polysaccharide made from excess glucose by glycogenesis
o Glycogen is abundant in liver + muscles
Conversion of non-carbohydrates to glucose by gluconeogenesis
Oxidation of glucose by respiration
o Glucose → ATP → energy
o Rate of respiration varies for different activities
o This affects glucose uptake from blood into cells
Brain is unable to store carbohydrates
o Lack of glucose in blood → no respiratory substrate → insufficient energy for brain
o Short period of time already causes brain to malfunction
Normal glucose level in blood ≈90mg per 100cm²
After a meal it rarely exceeds 150mg per 100cm²

The Pancreas

Endocrine role is to produce hormones

Contains islets of Langerhans → sensitive to blood glucose conc
Islet cells contain
o α-cells → secrete glucagon and β-cells → secrete insulin
o capillaries into which hormones are secreted
o delta cells → produce hormone somatostatin → inhibits secretion of glucagon
Insulin mainly affects muscles, liver, adipose tissue
Exocrine role is to produce digestive enzymes
Active trypsin damages pancreas / digests proteins that make up pancreas / amylase leaks into blood from
damaged tissues / amylase conc in blood higher

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High Blood Glucose Concentration

Detected by β-cells in islet of Langerhans (receptor) → secrete insulin

Increase in insulin secretion (corrective mechanism → effectors bring about a return to norm)
o Speeds up rate of glucose uptake by cells from blood
 Glucose enters cells by facilitated diffusion via glucose carrier proteins
 Cells have vesicles with extra carrier molecules present in their cytoplasm
 Insulin binds to receptor in plasma membrane
 Chemical signal → vesicles move towards plasma membrane
 Vesicle fuses with membrane → increases glucose carrier proteins
o Activates enzymes / Converts glucose to glycogen / Promotes fat synthesis

Low Blood Glucose Concentration

Detected by α-cells in islets of Langerhans → secrete glucagon

Increase in glucagon secretion
o Hormone activates enzymes in the liver → convert glycogen to glucose
o Stimulates formation of glucose form other substances such as amino acids
Glucose passes out of cells into blood, raising blood glucose conc until norm is reached

Diabetes and its Control with Insulin and Manipulation of Carbohydrate Intake

Diabetes mellitus → inability of control of blood glucose level

High levels of blood glucose because
o Pancreas becomes diseased → fails to secrete insulin
o Target cells lose responsiveness to insulin
Kidney is unable to reabsorb back into blood all the glucose filtered into its tubules
o Glucose secreted into urine
o Craving for sweet food and persistent thirst
DIAGNOSTIC: glucose tolerance test
o Patient swallows glucose solution
o Blood glucose level measured at regular intervals

Two Types of Diabetes Mellitus

Type I → insulin dependant/juvenile-onset

o Occurs in childhood

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o Autoimmune reaction → immune system attacks and destroys own cells

o Destroys β-cells in islet of Langerhans → unable to produce insulin
o TREATMENT: insulin given must match glucose intake and expenditure
 Overdose causes hypoglycaemia (to much glucose withdrawn from blood)
 Diabetics need to manage their diet and levels of exercise
 Need to monitor blood glucose conc
Type II → insulin independent/late-onset
o Occurs late in life, more common than type I
o Causes by gradual loss in responsiveness of cells to insulin
o TREATMENT: regulated diet
 Sugar intake must balance with amount of exercises taken
Glycogen levels are lower
o Little insulin / no glucose to glycogen
o Insulin receptors no longer functional / less glucose taken up by cells
Glycogen is an effective storage molecule
o Insoluble → no osmotic effect
o Large → cannot diffuse out of cell
o Branched → easy to break down / hydrolyse to glucose
o Compact → large amount of glucose stored in small space

Insulin Patches

Insulin → peptide chains → digested if swallowed by peptidase → had to be injected

Treat skin area with ultrasound → disrupts underlying fat tissues
o Insulin is not soluble in fat
o Disrupting tissues allows movement through skin
Apply patch containing insulin to that area

Human Biology | Human Body

Tissues

Connective Tissue (CT) binds to and supports body parts

Muscle Tissue protects joints, produces movement and heat
Nervous Tissue responds to stimuli and transmits impulses from one body part to another
Epithelial Tissue covers body surfaces and lines body cavities

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Skin is an organ
o Epidermis of skin is made of stratified squamous epithelium
o New cells are pushed outward, become keratinized, die and are rubbed off

Classification of Epithelium

Simple epithelium: Composed of a single cell layer

o Found in the alveolar (air sacs) wall of the lung
o Increases rate of diffusion by increasing surface area and reducing diffusion pathway
Stratified epithelium: Composed of multiple cell layers
o Provide protection
Squamous: Cells have a flattened appearance, with a flattened nucleus
Cuboidal: Cells appear as a cube, the nucleus is spherical
Columnar: Cells are column shaped with an elongated nucleus
Cilia: Small projections that can move small substances
o Lines the respiratory tract
o Cleans impurities by moving them upwards, towards the throat

Blood

Is a connective tissue containing different cell types (erythrocytes, lymphocytes, monocytes, granulocytes)

Blood Plasma

Plasma is aq containing proteins, inorganic salts, amino acids, vitamins, hormones

Main plasma proteins are albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen
o Albumin maintains osmotic pressure and acts as a transport protein for various substances
o Globulins are mainly antibodies
o Fibrinogen is involved in clotting process

Erythrocytes (red blood cells) are filled with O2 carrying haemoglobin

Contain the respiratory pigment haemoglobin which carries oxygen

Biconcave discs 7.5 µm in diameter
o Biconcave shape provides large surface-to-volume ratio for O2 delivery
o Also allows greater flexibility in thin capillaries
Maturation in bone marrow takes 24-48h

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o Loose mitochondria, nucleus during maturation for O2 carrying

o Thus, No aerobic respiration possible → depends on anaerobic respiration
o Proteins serve as acid-base buffers //anaerobic respiration produces lactic acid
Survive in circulation for ≈120 days
Old cells are removed by phagocytic cells of spleen and bone marrow
Decrease of red blood cells is called anaemia

Leukocytes (white blood cells)

Involved in cellular and humoral defence of organism

[MECHANISM] Leave circulatory system to enter tissues
o Margination: Leukocytes flow in plasmatic zone (next to the tunica intima)
o Adhesion: They randomly contact or "roll over" the endothelium
o Emigration: Migration through the wall of venules and small veins
o Diapedesis: Passive escape of red cells from vessels
Classified into granulocytes and agranulocytes
o Based on the presence or absence of visible granules within the cellular cytoplasm
o Granulocytes / presence of granules / neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
o Agranulocytes / absence of granules / monocytes and lymphocytes

Lymphocytes (6-18µm)

Spherical nucleus and shape, very little cytoplasm

Memory cells have specific antigen receptors on the cell surface
Lymphocytes vary in life span. Some live few days, others many years
Only white blood cells that return to blood stream after migrating to tissues

Monocytes (12-20µm)

Oval, horseshoe or kidney shaped nucleus; more cytoplasm than lymphocytes

Nucleus does not stain as darkly as lymphocytes in blood smears
After leaving circulatory system, they differentiate into macrophages in connective tissues

Granulocytes

Lobed nucleus and granular cytoplasm

Different functions: some engulf bacteria; others are involved with allergies and inflammation

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Blood clotting

If blood vessels are damaged a series (cascade) of enzyme-control reactions occurs to form a clot
o Prevents further blood loss
o Prevents invasion by pathogens
IMG 3-12-3
Clotting depends on clotting factors which are plasma enzymes
They are present as an inactive form in blood plasma
They are named with roman numerals e.g. Factor V
Haemophilia is an inherited disease. Patients make non functional Factor VIII
Serotonin causes smooth muscle of the arterioles to contract / narrows blood vessels, cutting off the blood
flow to damaged area

Blood vessels
Arteries

Pulmonary artery
o Transport deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle into lungs
Systemic arteries
o Transport oxygenated blood from left ventricle to body tissues
o About 10% of total blood volume is in systemic arterial system at any given time
o Blood is pumped from the left ventricle into large elastic arteries
o Elastic arteries become smaller muscular arteries
o Muscular arteries branch into smaller arterioles (smallest arteries)
o Arterioles regulate blood flow into tissue capillaries
Arterial wall consists of 3 layers:
o Innermost layer, tunica intima, is simple squamous epithelium / surrounded by a connective tissue
basement membrane with elastic fibres
o Middle layer, tunica media, is smooth muscle and usually thickest layer / changes vessel diameter to
regulate blood flow and blood pressure
o Outermost layer, tunica adventitia, attaches vessel to surrounding tissue / connective tissue with
varying amounts of elastic and collagenous fibers
Arteries have a relatively small lumen (compared to veins)
During exercise, supply of blood to muscle and skin increases; blood to digestive system decreases / middle
layer muscles of smaller arterials and arterioles change their diameter to adjust blood supply

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Veins

Pulmonary veins
o Transport oxygenated blood from lungs to left atrium
Systemic veins
o Carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart
o After blood has passed through the capillaries, it runs into venules (smallest veins)
o Afterwards, veins become progressively larger until they reach the heart (right atrium)
o Medium and large veins have valves that help to keep blood flowing toward heart
o This is important in arms and legs to prevent backflow of blood due to gravity
Walls of veins have same three layers as arteries
o BUT less smooth muscle and connective tissue
o Makes walls of veins thinner with less pressure → Larger lumen
o Can hold more blood than arteries
Almost 70% of total blood volume is in veins at any given time

Capillaries

Smallest, most numerous blood vessels

o Carry blood from arteries to veins
o Blood flows from arterioles into the capillaries, then from them into venules
o Size of lumen is roughly equal to diameter of erythrocytes
o Thin wall is composed of endothelium (single layer of overlapping flat cells)
Function: exchange of materials between blood and tissue cells (e.g. O2, CO2, nutrients, wastes)
Capillary distribution varies with metabolic activity of body tissues
o Skeletal muscle, liver, and kidney have extensive capillary networks
o They are metabolically active and require an abundant supply of oxygen and nutrients
o Connective tissue have less abundant supply of capillaries
o Epidermis of skin and lens, and cornea of eye completely lack a capillary network
Flow of blood is controlled by structures called precapillary sphincters
o Located between arterioles and capillaries
o Muscle fibres allow them to contract
Hydrostatic pressure is created by the heart which pumps blood into arteries
At the arteriole end
o Hydrostatic pressure > water potential
o As plasma proteins lower water potential

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o H2O, small molecules, fluid are forced out through the permeable capillary wall
o Plasma proteins are not forced out as they are too large
At the venule end
o Water potential > hydrostatic pressure (due to lower volume)
o Fluid tends to flow back into the blood with waste products produced by cells

Lungs and Respiration

Diffusion and gas exchange

All organisms exchange food, waste, gases, heat with their surroundings by diffusion
Rate of diffusion is given by Fick's law and depends on
o Thickness of the membrane the molecules must diffuse across,
o Surface area for gas exchange
o Mass and solubility of molecule
o Rate of diffusion is proportional to (surface area x conc. difference) / distance
Large organisms have a small surface area : volume ratio
o Decreases the rate of diffusion
o More difficult to exchange materials (e.g. waste) with surroundings
Organisms also need to exchange heat with their surroundings
o Large animals lose less heat than small animals
o Small mammals lose heat very readily → have a high metabolism to maintain body temp
o Large mammals feed once every few days while small mammals must feed continuously
Plant cells respire all the time, chloroplasts causes photosynthesise / plants exchange gases
o Main gas exchange surfaces in plants are spongy mesophyll cells in leaves
o Leaves have large surface area / loosely-packed spongy cells further increase area

Structure of the lungs

Air is
o filtered in nostrils with small hairs
o moistened and warmed by nasal cavities
o mucus traps foreign particles while cilia propels particles towards the throat
Air passes into the pharynx → larynx → trachea
o The epiglottis is found within the larynx
o Breathing: epiglottis projects upwards → larynx is open
o Swallowing: larynx pulled up / epiglottis blocks larynx / prevents food from entering airway

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Trachea
o Contains C-shaped cartilage rings / prevents collapsing of tube
o Trachea divides into 2 tubes with smaller diameter called bronchi
o To prevent microorganisms, a bronchus is supported with ciliated epithelia
o Right bronchus is bigger than the left one → common site for inhaled foreign objects
Bronchi further divide into bronchioles
o Their diameter can be controlled by smooth muscles
o Bronchial tubes form a system called alveoli (100µm in diameter)

Alveolar Gas Exchange

Greater partial pressure of O2 in alveolar air / more O2 dissolves in blood (Henry's Law)
Alveoli walls are composed of endothelium → gases diffuse through 2 thin cells
o Alveoli is constantly moist
o O2 can dissolve and diffuse through the cells into the blood
o It is then taken up by haemoglobin
Alveoli contain phagocytes to kill bacteria that have not been trapped by mucus
O2 diffuses down its conc. gradient from air to blood; CO2 diffuses from blood to air
Ventilation: Flow of air in and out of alveoli

Ventilation

Tidal volume, VT, volume of air inhaled and exhaled in a normal single breath (≈0.5 L)
Functional residual capacity, FRC, volume remaining in lungs after exhalation of tidal volume (≈2.5 L)
Expiratory reserve volume, ER, volume of a maximal exhalation (≈1.5 L)
Residual volume, RV, volume remaining in lung after maximal exhalation (≈1L)
Inspiratory reserve volume, IR, additional volume that can be inhaled after inhalation of tidal volume
Vital capacity, VC, maximum volume of exhalation after lungs are maximally filled
o best clinical indicator of breathing
Minute ventilation is the overall flow of air into lungs (analogous to cardiac output)
o Minute Ventilation = Tidal Volume x Respiratory Rate
o (0.5 litre/breath * 10 breaths/min = 5 litres per minute)
"Dead space" - not all O2 available in air is available to alveoli
o Fresh air mixes with exhaled air during inspiration
o Alveolar ventilation takes dead space into account
o Alveolar ventilation = (Tidal Volume - Dead Space) x Respiratory Rate

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o (350 ml x 10 breaths per minute = 3500 ml or 3.5 litres)

Measurements of Ventilation

A spirometer is used to measure expired breath

Restrictive disorders, such as pulmonary fibrosis, reduce compliance and vital capacity
Four measures are called respiratory volumes
o Tidal volume
o Inspiratory reserve volume
o Expiratory reserve volume
o Residual volume
Others, called respiratory capacities, are calculated by adding 2 or more of the respiratory volumes

Coordination of breathing

Breathing centre in the medulla of the brain consists of

o Inspiratory centre (dorsal respiratory group, DRG)
o Expiratory centre (ventral respiratory group, VRG)
The purpose of respiration is to maintain pH, oxygen, and carbon dioxide levels in the blood within
homeostatic limits. Brainstem respiratory centers monitor these conditions in the blood by various means

Inspiration (inhalation)

Inspiratory centre sends impulses to intercostal muscles and diaphragm via intercostal and phrenic nerves
Muscles contract, ribs raise, diaphragm moves down
Volume of alveoli increases / pressure decreases below atmospheric / air flows in
Inhalation requires muscular effort, thus burning calories and ATP

Normal expiration

Stretch receptors are stimulated, send impulses to expiratory centre via vagus nerve
Diaphragm (moves upwards) and external intercostal muscles relax
Volume of alveoli decreases / pressure increases above atmospheric / air flows out

Forced expiration (exercise)

Abdominal muscles contract, pushing diaphragm upwards

Internal intercostal muscles contract, pulling ribs downward
Gives larger and faster expiration

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Control of breathing - Respiratory control

Breathing rate is monitored by

CO2 conc. - increases when more CO2 is produced as a waste product

O2 conc. - decreases as it is used in respiration to produce ATP
More sensitive to changes in CO2

Sensory nerves send information to the medulla via cranial nerves

Chemoreceptors, aortic and carotid bodies, are located in the aorta and carotid arteries
Primarily monitor pH and CO2 level (homeostasis control)
Aortic bodies send signals via vagus nerves about breathing reflexes, blood pressure and cardiac activity
Carotid bodies send signals about sensations of breathing and blood pressure

Motor nerves send commands to muscles or organs

Phrenic nerve innervates diaphragm

o Originate from cervical plexus, high in neck
o Stimulate breathing by carrying messages from medulla
Intercostal nerves enter intercostal muscles and run along the rib cage

Heart

Heart pumps blood through arteries that branch into smaller arterioles, capillaries, then from a network of
venules to veins and back to the heart

Cardiac Anatomy

The heart consists of 4 chambers: right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle
Right atrium receives blood from superior and inferior vena cava
Blood flows from right atrium, across tricuspid valve, into right ventricle
Muscle of right ventricle is not as thick as left ventricle
Blood enters pulmonary artery from right ventricle. Backflow prevented by semilunar pulmonic valve
Blood returns to heart from lungs via 4 pulmonary veins that enter left atrium
Blood flows from left atrium, across mitral valve, into left ventricle
Left ventricle has a thick muscular wall / generate high pressures during contraction
Blood from left ventricle is ejected, across aortic valve, into aorta
Tricuspid and mitral valves (atrioventricular AV valves)

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o Have fibrous strands (cordae tendinae) that attach to papillary muscles

o The papillary muscles contract during ventricular contraction
o Generate tension on valve via cordae tendinae to prevent AV valves from bulging back into atria
Semilunar valves (pulmonic and aortic) do not have these attachments

The Cardiac Cycle

Atria receive blood from veins and store it prior to each heart beat
Right atrium receives blood from main body veins called "vena cava"
o Superior vena cava SVC carries blood from head, upper chest and arms
o Inferior vena cava IVC carries blood from lower chest, abdomen and legs
Left atrium receives blood from lungs via 4 separate pulmonary veins
Systole refers to a period of contraction by heart muscle
Diastole refers to a period of relaxation by heart muscle

Atrial systole

Both atria contract and push stored blood across AV valves into ventricles, to help fill them
Atrioventricular (AV) valves include
o Mitral valve located between left atrium and left ventricle
o and tricuspid valve which separates right atrium from right ventricle
Reduces the volume of atria and increases pressure

Ventricular systole

After atria contracts, ventricles begin to contract

Pressure in ventricles increases, blood is forced against AV valves
Valves close to prevent backflow → first heart sound
Volume is reduced
Blood is ejected into arteries through aortic and pulmonary valves

Ventricular diastole

End of cardiac cycle, all chambers relax

Aortic and pulmonary valves close (second heart sound) / prevents backflow into heart
Atria begin to fill up again to start next cycle
Volume increases and pressure decreases

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Electrophysiology

Sinus node is located at the top right atrium

o Also known as the "natural pacemaker" controlling heart rate
o Increases with physical activity and decreases when relaxing
o Electrical signal rapidly spreads from the Sinus node across the right atrium and left atrium
Only one area where atria and ventricles are electrically connected
o Atrioventricular node or AV node deep in center of heart
o All electrical signals from atrium must pass through AV node in order to get to ventricles
o AV node is connected to the Bundle of His
o Branches into a right bundle (to right ventricle) and left bundle (to left ventricle)
Fibers that branch out to distant ventricular tissues are called Purkinje Fibers

Blood pressure

Baroreceptors near aorta and carotid arteries monitor blood pressure

Abnormal blood pressure → signal send to medulla
Cardiac center changes heart rate → cardiac output
Vasomotor center changes diameter of blood vessels
Shock: blood pressure too low
o Insufficient nutrients for cells with a high metabolism (heart, brain)
o Caused by excessive bleeding or extensive vasodilation
o Treated with vasoconstrictors such as epinephrine (adrenaline), atropine
o [NOTE] International name for adrenaline is now epinephrine

Regulation of the Cardiac Cycle

Heart has unique ability to beat (contract) on its own

Assisted by nerves and hormones in blood but functions without them
Impulse leaves SA node and passes through both atria → causing them to contract
From AV node impulse passes down to the Bundle of His
Bundle of His branches and spreads through both ventricles via Purkinje fibers → ventricles contact

Cardiac output as a function of stroke volume and heart rate

The volume of blood pumped by one ventricle during one beat is called the stroke volume
Cardiac Output = Stroke Volume x Heart Rate (number of ventricular contractions/min)

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↑Force of contraction → ↑Stroke volume → ↑Cardiac output

Regulation of heart rate → Cardiac output is influenced by several factors

Autonomic Nervous System

Heart is innervated by the autonomic nervous system (ANS)

o The autonomic nervous system has 2 divisions
o These division are called parasympathetic and sympathetic
o Parasympathetic fibres decrease heart rate via the vagus nerve
o Sympathetic fibres increase heart rate
Cardiac Inhibitory Centre
o Found in the medulla oblongata of the brain stem
o Sends signals via the vagus nerve, which is parasympathetic, to the heart
o Signal reaches SA and AV nodes to trigger a release of neurotransmitter acetylcholine
o This slows down the heart rate
Cardiac Accelerating Centre
o Found in the medulla and the upper thoracic spinal cord
o Sympathetic fibres run towards the myocardium
o There they also innervate the SA and AV nodes, but also cardiac cells
o When stimulated, the sympathetic fibres cause a release of norepinephrine
o [NOTE] The international name for noradrenaline is now norepinephrine
o Norepinephrine increases heart rate and strength of ventricular and atrial contraction
Cardiac centres balance stimulatory and inhibitory effects of the ANS

Hormonal influence

Stress releases epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla into the circulation.
Both hormones increase the heart rate.

Electrolyte Balance

Excess K+ in the extracellular environment reduces heart rate and strength of contraction
Only a fraction of a KCl infusion is required to kill a patient
Spastic contraction of the heart results from excess Ca2+
Heart can be defibrillated by applying an electrical current to the chest wall
Stimulates depolarisation of all cardiac muscle fibres simultaneously
As a result, all contractions cease

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If the SA node then begins to function, normal cardiac rhythm may be re-established

Pressure Changes During the Cardiac Cycle

Ventricles begin to contract, intraventricular pressure rises causing AV valves to close. Ventricles are neither
being filled with blood (AV valves are closed) nor ejecting blood (intraventricular pressure has not risen
sufficiently to open semilunar valves). This is the phase of isovolumetric contraction.
Pressure in the left ventricle becomes greater than pressure in the aorta, phase of ejection begins as
semilunar valves open. Pressure in left ventricle and aorta rises to about 120 mm Hg when ejection begins
and ventricular volume decreases
Pressure in left ventricle falls below pressure in the aorta, back pressure causes semilunar valves to shut.
Pressure in aorta falls to 80 mm Hg
During isovolumetric relaxation AV and semilunar valves are closed. This phase lasts until pressure in
ventricles falls below pressure in atria
When pressure in ventricles falls below pressure in atria, ventricles are filled
Atrial systole empties final amount of blood into ventricles immediately prior to next phase of isovolumetric
contraction of ventricles

The Lungs

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The structure of the respiratory system

You need to recall the structure and function of each component of the respiratory system:

Nose
Pharynx
Larynx
Epiglottis
Trachea
Bronchus
Bronchiole
Alveolus

Air comes into the respiratory system through the nose. The air is filtered in the nostrils due to the presence of small
hairs. It is also moistened and warmed by the nasal cavities and the mucus present traps foreign particles which are
then propelled towards the throat by the cilia on the epithelial cells.

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From the nose, the air passes into the pharynx and is drawn into the larynx and then the trachea. The epiglottis is
found within the larynx. This structure prevents food and drink passing into the respiratory system. When
swallowing, the larynx is pulled up and the epiglottis flaps back to block the entrance of the larynx.

The trachea contains C-shaped cartilage rings which prevent the tube collapsing due to the change of pressure. It
divides into 2 tubes with smaller diameter called bronchi. Each bronchus is lined with ciliated epithelia to waft mucus
upwards towards the throat. There is asymmetry in the respiratory system - the right bronchus is bigger than the left
one and at a more vertical angle. This makes it a common site for inhaled foreign bodies.

The bronchi further divide into bronchioles. These are important because their diameter can be controlled by
smooth muscles contraction or relaxation. The bronchioles terminate with alveoli (100µm in diameter) which are the
site of gas exchange.

Mechanism of breathing
The process of breathing in and out is known as ventilation. Breathing in (inhalation) relies on air being drawn into
the lungs because the air pressure in the lungs is lower than that in the atmosphere. This lower pressure is created
by the contraction of the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles. This flattens the diaphragm and moves
the ribs up and out. The volume of the thorax therefore increases, decreasing the pressure and allowing air to enter
into the lungs.

Exhalation (breathing out) requires the air pressure in the lungs to be increased. As with inhalation this occurs
because of changes in the diaphragm and intercostal muscles. The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax,
raising the diaphragm back up into a dome shape and pulling the ribs down and in. These changes reduce the
volume of the thoracic cavity. This rise in air pressure in the lungs means that air is moved out of the lungs. If
exhalation is forced then the internal intercostal muscles contract further raising the pressure in the thoracic cavity.

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Fick’s law
Fick was a busy man, he has both a law and a principle named after him AND is credited with the invention of the
contact lens! Fick’s law states that:

The rate of diffusion across a fluid membrane is proportional to (surface area x conc. difference) / distance

Efficient gas exchange therefore requires:

Large surface area

Large concentration
Short diffusion pathway (thickness of the membrane molecules must travel to diffuse across)

Large organisms have a small surface area : volume ratio

Decreases the rate of diffusion

Large animals loose less heat than small animals
Don't require a high metabolism to maintain body temperature
Feed only once

Small organisms have a large surface area: volume ratio

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Lose heat very readily

Need a high metabolism to maintain body temp
Must feed continuously

Alveolar Gas Exchange

The greater the partial pressure of O2 in alveolar air the more O2 will dissolves in blood (Henry's Law)

It seems that Henry was a master of stating the obvious! Let’s try to further understand the process of how oxygen
moves across the alveolus and into the blood.

The alveoli - the site of gas exchange in the lungs is composed of epithelial cells. This has evolved to allow efficient
diffusion of gases (large surface area short diffusion pathway) down their concentration gradients. O2 therefore
diffuses from air to blood where it then associates with haemoglobin and CO2 diffuses from blood to the air in the
alveolus.

A protein called surfactant is produced by the alveoli, which prevents the alveolar surfaces from sticking together
when they deflate. The alveoli also contain phagocytes to kill bacteria that have not been trapped by mucus which
may later cause disease.

Lung Disease
There are many different conditions which can impair the function of the lungs. Obviously with such an important
role, any harm done to the lung tissue can have major effects on a person’s health and fitness. With such a clinical
focus, this is a key area of ‘How Science Works’ and you should be able to analyse data for correlations and causal
relationships between human activity/behaviour and the onset of disease.

Asthma
At least one in ten people suffer from asthma at some point during their lives with the majority of cases presenting
in childhood. The condition is caused by inflammation of the bronchioles. In an asthma attack:

1. The smooth muscle in the bronchiole wall contracts which narrows the lumen

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2. The epithelial cells lining the bronchiole secrete more mucus than normal which obstructs the movement of
air through the respiratory system
3. Breathing rate increases but the tidal volume is reduced
4. Gas exchange in the alveoli is reduced

Asthma attacks can be triggered by many different stimuli. Common triggers include:

Some diseases e.g. the common cold and flu

Exposure to air pollution or dust
Exposure to known allergens such as pollen, animal fur or certain foods
Exercise - especially in cold air
Psychological factors such as stress

There is no ‘cure’ for asthma but the condition can be treated and managed through the use of inhalers which
administer drugs to the respiratory system. Normally an asthma sufferer would have two inhalers to be used in
different ways. They will have one ‘Preventer’ which when used release anti-inflammatory drugs such as steroids to
reduce the underlying inflammation and hopefully reduce the likelihood that a person will have an asthma attack.
They will also be given an inhaler which should be used to relieve symptoms during an attack. This contains
substances which dilate the bronchioles which should make breathing easier.

Pulmonary Fibrosis
Fibrosis is the scarring of body tissue in this case - the lungs. The scarring causes a loss in elasticity of the tissue
between the alveoli and contorts the bronchioles and alveoli. These pathological effects reduce lung capacity. The
condition is highly linked to occupational hazards such as working with substances such as asbestos, coal dust and
metal dust. Widespread fibrosis caused by inhalation of harmful substances is called emphysema. Infectious diseases
such as tubercolosis can also leave small regions of the lungs with scarring. Fibrosis therefore refers to the
consequence of diseases which produce lung damage.

A patient suffering from pulmonary fibrosis would have shortness of breath and/or a cough. At present there is no
treatment for this condition and a lung transplant is the only treatment option which will improve long - term
survival.

Pulmonary Tuberculosis
This condition is caused by rod-shaped bacteria: Mycobacterium tuberculosis OR Mycobacterium bovis.

Symptoms:

persistent cough
tiredness
loss of appetite and weight loss
fever
coughing up blood

Transmission:
This disease is spread through the air in droplets released when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Coughs and
sneezes really do spread diseases! Unusually the bacterium causing TB can survive for a long period of time even in

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dried droplets. This means that close contact with an infected person over a period of time can lead to transmission
of the disease.

It is especially common in communities where living space is relatively small or crowded working environments.
There are some countries in which TB is particularly prevalent and anyone moving to Britain from these countries
will need to be tested for the bacteria before being allowed to enter the country without first being treated for TB.

People most at risk of contracting TB are those who:

are in close contact with infective individuals

live or work in care facilities
are from countries in which TB is prevalent
have reduced immunity (the very young or very old, those with AIDS, people taking immunosuppresants,
malnourished individuals, alcoholics, homeless people)

Once inside a person’s respiratory system there is a plentiful supply of oxygen allowing rapid growth and division of
the bacteria. At this early stage the person often develops pneumonia. The white blood cells of the immune system
respond rapidly to the infection to try and prevent the bacteria from spreading. This process results in the formation
of scar tissue which contains the infection in an inactive state.

If the body’s immune system becomes weakened the TB bacteria can break through the scar tissue resulting in the
return of pneumonia and the spreading of the bacteria to other parts of the body (the kidneys, bone and linings of
the brain and spinal cord are the most common sites affected).

Symptoms and Treatment:

There is a relatively long time between the time of infection and the onset of symptoms. A patient will present with
tiredness, weight loss, fever, coughing, chest pain and shortness of breath (this is due to the presence of scar tissue
in the lungs).

Inactive TB may be treated with an antibiotic and active TB will usually require several antibiotics to combat the
infection.

Emphysema
Emphysema can be an inherited condition but most cases arise as a result of smoking. The toxins passed into the
lungs when smoking trigger an immune response which ultimately leads to the destruction of the lung tissue.

Your lungs contain white blood cells which ‘patrol’ the lungs phagocytosing any harmful pathogens or particles
which are inhaled. These phagocytes release enzymes which catalyse the breakdown of proteins found in the
connective tissue between the alveoli and bronchioles. This makes it easier for them to move around the lung tissue
to engulf and kill the invading pathogen or particle. Elastin is one of these proteins which phagocytes destroy. The
elastin fibres act as an elastic band would, snapping back into shape after they have been stretched. This allows the
stretch and recoil of the alveoli (the site of gas exchange).

Excessive destruction of elastin is normally prevented by the production of a substance called α1-antitrypsin which
acts to prevent the action of elastase (the enzyme which catalyses the breakdown of elastin). The smoke from
cigarettes contains several chemicals which stop lung cells from producing α1-antitrypsin. This means, that the

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destruction of elastin will increase, damaging the elastic tissue of the lungs making it harder for a person to exhale.
Other proteins are also destroyed by the enzymes secreted by the pathogens meaning that the alveoli walls can be
damaged and the surface area available for gas exchange is reduced.

A reduced area for gas exchange means that a person with emphysema’s blood will contain a reduced
concentration of oxygen. This will limit the amount and rate of aerobic respiration achievable by their cells making
any activity a great effort.

Neurones

Soma: nerve cell body / contains nucleus, cell organelles / synthesise of neurotransmitter
Dendrites: branching extensions from nerve cell soma
o Stimulated by other neurones \ transmit impulses towards soma
Axon: single extension that extends from the soma to the target cell
o Myelinated axon is surrounded by Schwann cells (myelin sheath)
o Have nodes of Ranvier and are rich in myelin (lipid)

Table 16-7-1

NEURONE STIMULATED BY TRANSMITS IMPULSES TO STRUCTURE

Sensory Receptor Relay neurone Cell body in root cell ganglion

Relay Sensory neurone Motor neurone No axon
Motor/effector Relay neurone Gland, muscle Schwann cells
(effector organ)

Change In Membrane Permeability Leading To The Generation Of An Action Potential

Stimulus reaches threshold

Voltage-regulated sodium channels open / influx of Na+ / down electrochemical gradient / +ve feedback
Depolarisation / inside becomes +ve / membrane potential reverses
o //Depolarisation opens sodium channels in adjacent membrane
Potassium channels open (slower than Na+ gates) / diffusion of K+ ions out of neurone
Repolarisation
Sodium channels close
Hyperpolarisation due to overshoot in movement of K+out of the cell
o //Membrane potential is lower than resting potential
o //Interior of the cell becomes -ve \ membrane is more permeable to K+ ions than to Na+ ions

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Sodium-potassium pump restores RESTING POTENTIAL

[GRAPH] Highest positive membrane potential is the action potential

The Role Of The Neurone Membrane In The Establishment Of A Resting Potential

MEMBRANE IS POLARISED: inside of axon is more -ve than outside

A resting potential of -70mV is maintained by [EXAM BYA7 JUN2002]
o Negatively charged proteins/large anions inside axon
o Membrane more permeable to K+ ions than to Na+ ions / K+ ions move out faster than Na+ ions
diffuse in
o Sodium/potassium pump / Na+ ions pumped out faster than K+ ions pumped in
Electrochemical gradient determines movement of ions
o K+ cannot move down its conc. gradient
o Build up of positive Na+ outside membrane repels K+
Imbalance of negative ions causes potential difference/voltage
o Cl- cannot move down its conc gradient
o Negatively charged proteins in cytoplasm repel Cl-

The All-Or Nothing Nature Of Nerve Impulses

Once action potential starts, it travels to a synapse

Stimulus must cause sufficient movement of Na+ and K+ to depolarise the membrane and
cause an action potential
Threshold stimulus → impulse that causes an action potential
o Stimulus transmits an impulse at a constant and max strength
o Transmission is independent of any intensity of the stimulus
o High frequency of impulses / more amount of sodium entry / more ATP
Subthreshold stimulus → stimulus weaker than a threshold stimulus
Summation → series of subthreshold stimuli cumulate to cause an action potential

Refractory Period

Represents a time during which the membrane cannot be depolarised again

o During repolarisation and hyperpolarisation
o Membrane is impermeable to Na+ ions / sodium ion channels closed
o Sodium ions cannot enter axon

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o K+ ions move out as membrane is more permeable to K+ ions

o Membrane becomes more negative than resting potential
Nerve impulses can only travel in one direction
o Action potential can only depolarise the membrane in front
o Membrane behind is recovering from refractory period (previous action potential)
Limits frequency with which neurones can transmit impulses

Factors Affecting the Speed of Conductance: Myelin, Axon Diameter, Temperature

Impulses travel faster in myelinated neurones → SALTATORY CONDUCTION

o Schwann cells prevent diffusion of ions
o Flow of current between adjacent nodes of Ranvier
o Thus, depolarisation only at nodes of Ranvier
o Action potential jumps from node to node
Temp affects speed of conduction of impulses
o Higher temp increases rate of diffusion of ions
Impulses faster in an axon with larger diameter
o Small cells / large surface area:volume ratio / ion leakage weakens membrane
o Myelin stops ion leakage \ diameter only important for unmyelinated neurones

Synaptic Transmission

Synaptic cleft (gap) of 20μm separates two neurones at a synapse (junction of 2 neurones)
o Presynaptic membrane is at the end of a neurone
o Postsynaptic membrane is at the next neurone in the chain
Synaptic knob of a presynaptic neurone contains
o Neurotransmitters in small vesicles
o Mitochondria to produce ATP needed for neurotransmitter synthesis

Aspects Of Synaptic Transmission

Unidirectional
o Neurotransmitter always travels from pre- to postsynaptic membrane
o Thus, flow in one direction only, action potential only in postsynaptic neurone
Summation
o Several presynaptic neurones release neurotransmitter

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o Cumulative effect reaches a threshold to depolarise postsynaptic membrane

o E.g. rod cells when they synapse with relay neurones in the retina
o Spatial summation
 Several impulses arrive at one neurone via several synapses
 Cause sufficient depolarisation / open sufficient sodium ion channels
 For threshold to be reached
o Temporal summation
 Several impulses arrive at same neurone via same synapse
 Threshold → action potential
Inhibition
o More inhibitory postsynaptic potentials IPSPs than excitatory postsynaptic potentials EPSPs
o Reduces membrane potential / makes more negative
o Hyperpolarisation of postsynaptic membrane
o Cancels effect of action potential when several synapses

The Mechanisms Of Transmission At An Excitatory Synapse

Nerve impulse reaches synaptic knob/presynaptic membrane/neurone

Depolarisation opens Ca2+ gates / calcium ions enter
Ca2+ causes vesicles containing neurotransmitter to fuse with membrane
Release of neurotransmitter / into synaptic cleft / by exocytosis
Diffuse across synaptic cleft
Neurotransmitter binds to specific receptors in postsynaptic membrane
Sodium channels open / sodium ions enter
o Depolarisation of postsynaptic membrane
o Threshold causes an action potential along postsynaptic neurone
Neurotransmitter are quickly removed from the postsynaptic membrane
o Diffuse out of the synaptic cleft
o Taken up by presynaptic membrane by endocytosis
o Enzymes break down neurotransmitters into inactive substances

Knowledge Of Transmitters Limited To Acetylcholine And Noradrenaline

Acetylcholine released by
o motor neurones on to muscle cells
o neurones in the parasympathetic division of the ANS (autonomic nervous system)

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Noradrenaline is released in the sympathetic division of the ANS

//The international name for noradrenaline is now norepinephrine

The Agonistic And Antagonistic Effects Of Chemicals On Synaptic Transmission

Agonists/antagonists are similar in shape to neurotransmitter

o Fit into specific protein receptors of postsynaptic membrane
Agonists → same effect as neurotransmitter
o Anatoxin produced by some algae and mimics effect of acetylcholine
o Swallowing H2O contaminated with anatoxin causes continuous salvation in mouth
Antagonists block action of neurotransmitter
o Prevent neurotransmitter from binding with their receptor sites
o High blood pressure can be treated by drugs called β-blockers
 Antagonist of adrenaline-receptors on membrane of muscle cells in heart
o Curare blocks action of acetylcholine at the junction of nerves and muscles
 Useful as a general muscle relaxant in patients undergoing major surgery

Spinal Reflexes

Stimuli: Change in internal or external environment

Reflexes → automatic, same, fixed response to a stimulus
o Dilating of pupils in dim light
o Salvia production when tasting food
o Withdrawing part of your body from a painful stimulus
Spinal reflex/Reflex arc is the nervous pathway of a reflex
o Reflex arc involves spinal cord rather than brain (quicker action)
o May involve brain
 Control of muscles in iris
 Tension in suspensory ligaments of eye
o In-born but can be adapted through learning
 Relay neurones carry impulses from reflex arc up ascending tracts in white matter to the
brain
 New relay neurones form in brain that stimulate motor neurone
 They control e.g. muscles that control speech
o Rapid and autonomic action
o Large number of receptors, sensory, relay and motor neurones involved

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Human spinal cord is a hollow tube of nervous tissue

31 pairs of spinal nerves enter and leave spinal cord
o Grey matter contains unmyelinated neurones (responsible for grey colour)
 Synapse of relay neurone with sensory and motor neurone
o White matter contains myelinated neurones (appear white)
 Motor and sensory neurones
 Is made up of interneuronal axons (tracts)
o Sensory neurones enter spinal cord via dorsal root (back)
 Their cell bodies are in the dorsal root ganglion
o Motor neurones leave the spinal cord via the ventral root (front)

The Pathway and Adaptive Value of a Simple Spinal Reflex Involving 3 Neurones

Stimulus causes receptor to generate nerve impulse along SENSORY NEURONE

o Moves along dendrite, dorsal root, to the cell body
o Cell body is in the dorsal root ganglion, outside the cord/CNS
o From cell body along axon
RELAY NEURONE in grey matter synapses with sensory and motor neurone
Impulse leaves spinal cord by ventral root of the spinal nerve
Moves along axon of MOTOR NEURONE to an effector
o E.g. release neurotransmitter into muscle cell → contract
Brain receives information concerning sensory stimuli by other relay neurones
o Their long fibres run through ascending (to brain) and descending tracts in the white matter of the
spinal cord

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Outline of the Functions of Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Divisions of the ANS
Table 16-10-1: The ANS controls internal glands + muscles beyond conscious control

Target Organ/Tissue Parasympathetic Stimulation Sympathetic Stimulation

Effect on organ: Inhibitory effect / relaxation Excitatory effect / stress

Motor neurone releases: Acetylcholine (ACh) Norepinephrine (noradrenlaine)

Iris of eyes Constricts pupil Dilates pupil

Bronchi, bronchioles Constricts tubes Dilates tubes

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Blood vessels - Dilates blood vessel - Constricts blood vessels

- Lowers blood pressure - Raises blood pressure
Heart - Lowers heart rate - Raises heart rate
- Lowers stroke volume - Raises stroke volume
Intercostal muscles Lowers breathing rate Raises breathing rate
Salivary glands Stimulates secretion of salvia Inhibits secretion of salvia
Gut Stimulates peristalsis Inhibits peristalsis
Sweat glands No effect Increases sweat production

Specific Physiology in the Context of the Control of Heart Rate

Heart rate is controlled by cardiac centre in MEDULLA

Cardio accelerator centre CAC RAISES heart rate
o Sympathetic neurones run from CAC down descending tracts
o Along spinal nerve to sinoatrial node SAN
o Release NORADRENALINE onto target cells
Cardio inhibitor centre CIC LOWERS heart rate
o Parasympathetic neurones from CIC leave brain via VAGUS NERVE
o Releases ACETYLCHOLINE onto target cells
CAC and CIC are always active, alter rate of depolarisation of SAN
Autonomic nervous system controls rate of heart contraction
o Contracting muscles pressing on veins force blood towards heart causing greater filling of the
ventricles which makes the heart beat faster and stronger
o If blood pressure rises too far above normal, pressure receptors in the aorta and carotid (artery)
sinus send nerve impulses to the CIC
o CIC send inhibitory nerve impulses to the CAC and the SAN
Heart is myogenic, heart beats are initiated by electrical activity in the SAN, followed by the atrioventricular
node and atrioventricular bundle
BETA BLOCKERS: bind to receptors in myocardium / prevent epinephrine (adrenaline) from binding to the
myocardium / reduce rate of contractions

Dietary Requirements

Food has two main functions which provide

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o Chemical P.E. (starting point) for respiration

o Substances used in metabolism to produce/maintain cells and tissues

Role Of Carbohydrates And Lipids In The Body

Starch and Sugar Provide ≈80% of total chemical P.E.
Breast-fed infants obtain ≈40% of their chemical P.E. from lactose
Non-starch Control appetite
polysaccharides (e.g. Low levels in diet may cause appendicitis, cancer of colon,
glycogen) haemorrhoids, constipation
Lipids Source of chemical P.E.
Phospholipids are essential for plasma membranes
Essential fatty acids are precursors of other important substances

Simple Laboratory Techniques For Estimating Energy Content Of Different Foods

To determine the energy content of food (using a calorimeter)

o A known mass of food is fully burnt
o Under a boiling tube which is filled with a known volume of H2O
o Increase in temp of the H2O is measured
o ENERGY RELEASED = RISE IN TEMP OF H2O * VOLUME OF H2O * 4.2
o Experimental error due to incomplete combustion / heat loss
More accurate results by reduced heat loss
o Water jacket → less loss of heat
o Sample burnt in O2 allows more combustion
o Copper coil transfers more heat to water
o Stirrer distributes heat evenly to area of thermometer
Healthy diet requires right balance between carbohydrates and lipids
o Food rich in carbohydrates is an instant source of energy (→glucose)
 Tend to be bulky and contain large amounts of H2O
 Amount of energy released is low
 Food/drink rich in pure glucose is absorbed without digestion
Lipid-rich food → amount of energy released is high

Role Of Proteins In The Body

Nucleic acid Genetic info

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Cells and tissues Growth and repair

Enzymes and hormones Essential role in metabolic pathway
Mineral ions Synthesis of compounds;
Carrying out functions;
Transmitting nerve impulses
Essential amino acids Cannot be synthesised and must be present in diet
Non-essential amino acids Can be synthesised from essential amino acids by
transamination in the liver

Transamination

Essential amino acid A + keto acid B → non-essential amino acid B + keto acid A
o Enzyme: transferase
Transfer of amino NH2 group from an essential amino acid to a keto acid
Produces a non-essential amino acid and a keto acid of a different sort

Role Of Vitamins With Respect To Vitamin D And Of Inorganic Ions Illustrated By Fe And
Ca
Provided in fresh vegetables, meat, fish, eggs, fruit
Vitamins
Decrease appetite / minimises risk of constipation
Vitamin D Involved in metabolism of calcium
Essential in the diet but required in small amounts
Calcium - In bones, teeth, small amounts in tissues, body fluids
- Important for synapses
- During lactation, women tend to eat more → automatic increase in
calcium intake
Iron Synthesis of Hb, used by enzymes
≈30% in the body can be stored

The Path Of Iron Through The Body

Absorbed from the gut and stored

Used for physiological requirements (Hb, enzymes)
Lost in blood, urine, rubbed off intestinal epithelial cells by food

People Who Are Vulnerable To A Deficiency Of Iron:

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People with a high physiological requirement for iron

Children with late weaning and inappropriate infant food
Growing people \ children and pregnant women
Women of reproductive age / menstruation / loss of blood \ iron
Old people / absorb iron poorly
People who drink too much tea / tannin inhibits absorption of iron from gut

Dietary Requirements Concept Of Basal Metabolic Rate BMR

Rate of metabolism when a person is at rest / but awake

Energy exhaustion to carry out essential activities that maintain live
o E.g. diffusion, breathing, pumping of blood
o NOT movement
Measured in kJ kg-1 h-1 or kJ m-2 h-1
Measured after meal at constant temp
o Temp may affect BMR → shivering
o Energy requirement at different levels of physical activity can be expressed in multiples of BMR
BMR depends on number of metabolically active cells in a unit mass of the body
Factors affecting BMR
o LARGER BODY MASS → more cells respire \ release energy
o LARGER SURFACE AREA → greater heat loss \ higher respiration to maintain core temp
o SEX → muscle has greater BMR then fat
o AGE → growth requires high energy amounts; muscle:body fat ratio decreases with age; biochemical
reactions slow down, become less efficient
o FUNCTION OF BASAL METABOLISM → supply heat to maintain body temp above that of the
surroundings
BMR not helpful for total energy requirement (human is physically active the whole day)
Physical activity ratio (PAR) is the energy being used in carrying out the activity concerned
to the basal metabolic rate

Protein Requirement

Growing people / production of new cells → youngest age group have highest requirement
Pregnant woman / growing fetus and organs / lactation (milk is rich in protein)
Adults / maintenances / synthesis of Hb, enzymes, hormones → lower requirement with age

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Glycogen Loading And The Enhancement Of Athletic Performance

High carbohydrate diet (long before exercise) / more glycogen in muscles / more can be broken down to
glucose / prolonged rate of respiration / longer but not faster exercise

Concept Of A Balanced Diet And Problems Which Arise From Vegetarian And Weight-Loss
Diets

Balanced diet: correct amounts and properties of all/essential nutrients

Fat in diet: makes foot tasty and → encourages eating / rather stored than used as respiratory substrate /
provides essential fatty acids → must be in diet / provides more energy than the same mass of
carbohydrates
VEGETARIAN DIETS
o Based on cereal grains, vegetables
o Total energy yield may be reduced (-)
o Must contain more protein to provide the supply for essential amino acids
o Shortage of vitamin B12 and D, iron (→anaemia), zinc possible
WEIGHT LOSS DIETS
o Obesity → energy imbalance → energy intake with food > energy expenditure in exercise
o Use of muscle and other tissue proteins for energy production - causing wasting
o SYMPTOMS: tooth decay / low blood pressure / constipation / menstruation ceasing
o INCREASED RISK OF: infections / vitamin and mineral deficiency diseases
 Ca2+ needs can be met by drinking skimmed milk
 Iron supply may need a supplement (-)

Table 16-5-1: Dietary demands in pregnancy and lactation

REQUIREMENT PREGNANCY LACTATION

Protein Growth of fetus, placenta, uterus, breasts High amino acid content of milk for growth of baby
Iron For fetal Hb and increase in mother's Hb Synthesise of baby's Hb
and blood volume
Calcium Growth of fetal teeth and bones Growth of baby's bones (and teeth)

Influence Of IUDs And Oral Contraceptives On Menstrual Loss Of Iron

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Intra-uterine contraceptive (IUD) affects amount of blood lost during menstruation

Mean blood loss during menstruation before IUDs were fitted was 41cm�

Table 16-5-2: Sample calculation

Conc of Hb ≈ 13g per 100cm3 13 * 41/100 = 5.3g Hb lost

5.3g Hb = 18.4g Fe over a 28-day cycle 0.7mg day-1 of Fe lost

0.8mg day-1 Fe lost from other causes Total loss of Fe = 1.56mg day-1

Average intake of Fe day-1 for women ≈12.1mg

o Only ≈15% absorbed → only 1.8mg day-1 taken into body
o This is a slight surplus compared with 1.56mg day-1 loss
Mean blood loss during menstruation after IUDs were fitted was 90cm3!
o Iron loss and anaemia cause problems for women using IUDs, particularly if blood loss during
menstruation was heavy or the diet was low in iron

Receptors

Stimulus: environmental change of an organism → change in energy

Transduce (→convert) a stimulus into a nerve impulse
o Stimulus above threshold
o Detected by receptors
o Changes its membrane potential
o Causes generator potential
o Action potential along sensory neurone
Receptors respond to specific stimuli only

Pacinian Corpuscles

Found in dermis of skin, joints, tendons, external genitalia, internal organs

Structure
o Layers (maellae) of connective tissue surround
o Myelinated sensory neurone (nerve fibre ending) that have
o Stretch-mediated Na+ channels
Round pacinian corpuscle has a resting potential

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Stretch-mediated sodium channels restrict movement of ions

PRESSURE OPENS SODIUM CHANNELS
Entry of sodium ions
Causes depolarisation / membrane potential / generator potential
Threshold potential reached
o Slight pressure / small generator potential / no depolarisation
o Great pressure / more channels open / larger generator potential

The Eye
Table 16-8-1: The structure and function of the mammalian eye

Conjunctiva Protection of cornea

- Protection
Sclera
- Attachment for eye muscles
Cornea Refracts (→focuses) and allows passage of light
Choroid Pigment prevents light reflection within the eyeball by absorbing light
- Accommodation
Ciliary body
- Secretion of humour
Iris Regulates passage of light
Lens Refracts light
Retina Contains light receptors
Fovea Contains only cone cells
Blind spot Optic nerve (sensory nerve fibres) leave the eyeball
Humour Maintains shape of the eyeball

Transmissive And Refractive Properties Of The Eye In Focusing An Image On The Retina

Light/photons travel through transparent media in a light ray

o Rays reflect at a predictable angle when they strike an object
o Rays passing through mediums of different density refract (change angle)
Accommodation → focus of rays from near/distant objects by changing shape of lens
Light rays form an image in the retina [EXAM]
o Refraction / by lens or cornea / shape of lens changes

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o NEAR DISTANT
ACCOMMODATION ACCOMMODATION
CILIARY MUSCLES CONTRACT RELAX
TENSION IN SUSPENSORY
REDUCED INCREASED
LIGAMENTS
SHAPE OF LENS FAT, ROUNDED THIN, FLAT
RESULT LIGHT BENDS LIGHT BENDS LESS
FOCUSES DIVERGING LIGHT RAYS PARALLEL LIGHT RAYS

Role of Rod Cells and Cone Cells in Effecting Monochromatic and Trichromatic Vision

Retina contains 4 layers → synapse between them

o Cone and rod cells (light-sensitive receptor)
 Inner segment → nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, synaptic region
 Outer segment → membranous disks containing pigments
o Bipolar neurones (relay neurone)
o Ganglion cells (sensory neurones)
o Axon of ganglion cells → optical nerve
 Send impulses to the brain
Light passes through neurones before it strikes the retina
There are no cone and rod cells where the optic nerves pass through the retina; this point is called the blind
spot

Table 16-8-2: Features of rod cells and cone cells

FEATURE ROD CELLS CONE CELLS

Number in retina More Fewer

Distribution - Evenly throughout the retina Present in the fovea
- Absent from the fovea
- Only type of light receptor at the periphery of the
retina
Shape of outer
Rod shaped Cone shaped
segment
Sensitivity to Dim light Bright light

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Visual acuity Poorly resolved images Well-resolved images

Light-sensitive - Only rhodopsin - Iodopsin
pigments - Monochromic vision - Sensitive to blue, green, blue light
- Trichromatic vision (combination)
Synapse with relay Each cone cell synapses with just one
Several rod cells synapse with same relay cell
cells relay cell

Table 16-8-3: Absorption of light by rhodopsin creates a generator potential in rod cells (AP = action potential)

In the dark (rod cell) In light (rod cell)

Opsin + Cis-Retinal → Rhodopsin Rhodopsin → Opsin + Trans-Retinal

Causes sodium channels to open Causes sodium channels to close
Membrane depolarised Membrane hyperpolarised
Neurotransmitter released into inhibitory
No neurotransmitter released into inhibitory synapse
synapse [rod → bipolar cell]
Bipolar neurone hyperpolarised → no impulse Bipolar neurone depolarised → AP
No neurotransmitter released into excitatory
Neurotransmitter released into excitatory synapse
synapse [bipolar → ganglion cell]
No action potential Action potential along ganglion neurone

Resynthesis of rhodopsin

TRANS-RETINAL + OPSIN → RHODOPSIN ATP → ADP + PI

Mitochondria in inner segment synthesis ATP
Slow reaction compared to rhodopsin breakdown by light
Bright light into dim light conditions → poor vision until rhodopsin is resynthesised
Retinal is a derivative of vitamin A

The Connection Between Sensory Cells and The Neurone of the Optic Nerve

Rod cells are working in dim light conditions

o Several rod cells synapse with one relay cell → retinal convergence
o Impulse by summation \ rod cells collectively cause generator potential
o Poor visual acuity but high sensitivity to dim light

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Cone cells are working in bright light

o Each cone cell synapses with each individual relay cell
o Several impulses pass along the optic nerve to the brain
o High visual acuity (ability of the brain to resolve images)

Histology of the Testis

Testes in the scrotal sac (→extension of abdominal cavity)

o Produce sperm and male sex hormones
o Have a constant temp "body temp - 5°C" maintained by)
 Heat exchange system in arteries and veins
 Semi-external position
 Muscles in scrotal sac → move testes up/down against warmer abdomen
o Sterility if testes do not descend during development
Spermatogenesis occurs in walls of seminiferous tubules (→compartment of testes)
Sperm are passively carried to the epididymis
o Network of seminiferous tubules → leads into vas deferens
o Sperm acquire ability to swim and are stored
Urethra (joining of vas deferens) carries fluids from the urinary and reproductive system
During interaction / pressure in erectile tissue rises / arteries supplying it dilate and veins draining it
constrict
Not discharged sperm are degenerated, absorbed, lost via urine

Histology of the Ovary

Ovaries in the abdominal cavity produce gametes + sex hormones

Stroma within the ovary contains blood vessels
o Supply of oxygen and nutrients
o Removal of waste products → CO2
o Transports hormones which control process of reproduction
Follicle development occurs within the ovary
o Each follicle consists of follicle cells surrounding an oocyte (→developing egg)
o At birth ≈1 million primary follicles in each ovary
 Remain in suspension until puberty → at puberty, only ≈400k are present

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 ≈400 will be released into the oviduct during reproductive life of a female
At month intervals ≈20-25 follicles begin to develop further, from these only a single oocyte is released

Gametogenesis (→Formation of Gametes)

SAME in both sexes a) spermatogenesis, b) oogenesis

Multiplication of diploid cells by MITOSIS

o Epithelium of seminiferous tubules multiplies Daughter cells are pushed towards lumen of tubule
o Epithelial cell inside ovary of female fetus multiplies
GROWTH of daughter cells from mitotic divisions
Products of the growth phase divide by MEIOSIS producing haploid cells (46→23)
MATURATION of haploid daughter cells into gametes (eggs, sperm)
o Heads are embedded in Sertoil cells
 Prevent destruction of sperm by immune system
 Sperm and body cells are genetically different
 Provide nutrients Tails are projected into fluid-filled lumen

How gametogenesis differs in females

"b) Unequal cell division in meiosis / 1 ovum and tiny polar bodies produced
b) Primary oocytes form before birth / growth phase before birth
b) Pause in meiosis at prophase I / further development suspended until puberty
b) Pause in meiosis at metaphase II / meiosis not complete until fertilisation occurs"1

Follicle Development/Ovarian Cycle

Follicular stage [days1-13]

Anterior pituitary gland is secreting follicle-stimulating hormone FSH

FSH travels in bloodstream to ovary
Stimulates development (division) of follicle cells surrounding oocyte
Developing follicle cells secrete oestrogen
Stimulates proliferation of endometrium and its blood supply
Inhibits further secretion of FSH by negative feedback
Stimulates anterior pituitary gland to secrete luteinising hormone LH
LH brings about ovulation

Ovulation [day14]
// Mature ovarian follicle ≈15mm in diameter

Mature ovarian follicle bursts and releases secondary oocyte (now called ovum!)
Corpus luteum forms from remaining follicle cells in ovary

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Ovum passes down fallopian tube/oviduct towards uterus; fertilization now possible
o Happens once a month, menstrual cycle ≈28days
o Each ovary alternatively releases an ovum every ≈56days (→56/2)

Luteal phase [days15-28]

Corpus luteum secretes sex hormones

Progesterone continues to stimulate
o Profileration of endometrium and its blood supply
o Development of nutrient fluid glands in uterus lining
High levels of sex hormones inhibit secretion of LSH and LH

IF FERTILISATION DOES NOT OCCUR

Corpus luteum degenerates \ levels of sex hormones fall

Uterus lining breaks down; FSH is not inhibited anymore → cycle starts again

Uterine Cycle

Menstruation [days1-5] → Endometrium breaks down

o Low levels of female sex hormones causes
 uterus lining/endometrium to disintegrate
 its blood vessels to rupture
o Flow of blood (menses) passes out of the vagina
Proliferative phase [days6-13] → Endometrium rebuilds
o Increased production of oestrogen by ovarian follicle
Secretory phase [days15-28] → Endometrium thickens and glands are secretory

Structure of a Mature Sperm Cell

Head: acrosome (enlarged lysosome → digestive enzymes → penetrate egg), nucleus (n)
Middle piece: mitochondria, ATP needed for tail movement
Tail: flagellum, movement

Movement of Sperm in the Female Reproductive Tract

Sperm are ejaculated into the vagina / deposited outside the cervix
o Alkalinity of semen neutralises acidic pH in vagina

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o Mucus allows sperm to swim through cervix / mucus is thin and watery during ovulation /
glycoprotein chains run parallel
Wall of uterus has two distinct layers
o Bulk of uterus wall consists of myometrium (→smooth muscle) / expels fetus at birth
 Active muscular contractions during intercourse support sperm
 Travel to oviduct in ≈5hours / survival rate of sperm ≈48hours
o Endometrium is concerned with anchorage and nourishment of embryo
Sperm undergo capacitation while travelling
o Acquire ability to fertilise 2° oocyte by removal of acrosome membrane proteins
o Takes ≈6hours
Fertilisation occurs in the fallopian tube
o Walls are lined with ciliated epithelia and contain smooth muscles
o Egg moves to uterus via cilia movement and peristaltic muscle contraction
o Contact between sperm and oocyte is by chance

Structure of the Egg

0.1mm (100um) in diameter. Sperm's head is only 2.5um across

Haploid nucleus is surrounded by cytoplasm / with enzymes and organelles
Yolk droplets contain proteins and lipids
Outside plasma membrane is a glycoprotein coat called a jelly coat

Acrosome Reaction and Penetration of the Oocyte Membrane

Acrosome reaction
o Contact of jelly coat and sperm
o Triggers Ca2+ to enter membrane of sperm
o Causes acrosome to burst / releases enzymes / digest jelly coat
 // enzymes: hyluronidase + acrosin
o Sperm filament attaches to receptor on vitelline membrane
o Sperm and egg plasma membranes fuse
o Sperm nucleus enters egg, tail and middle piece remain outside
Depolarisation of membrane / blocks entry of more sperm
2° oocyte undergoes 2nd division of meiosis / produces ovum + second polar body
Nuclei (ovum + sperm) fuse forming a zygote

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Female Infertility

Pituitary gland fails to produce FSH and prevents ovulation

o TREATMENT: Injections of FSH
o SIDE EFFECTS: May produce several eggs at the same time (→twins)
Too much oestrogen is secreted which inhibits FSH secretion
o TREATMENT: non-steroidal drugs (e.g. clomiphene) which oppose action of oestrogen

Male Infertility

Semen contain too few sperm

o TREATMENT: natural/synthetic androgens such as testosterone
// Viagra (sildenafil) is an enzyme inhibitor → causes smooth muscle surrounding erectile tissue to relax →
more blood can be pumped into them during erection process

In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF)

FSH is injected in woman

Just before ovulation eggs are collected and matured
Fertilisation → collected sperm sample is added to collected mature egg
o Nucleus of sperm is micro-injected into the egg
o Fertilisation outside the body in a plastic disc
Advantage: possible to screen embryos for genetic defects
Maximum of three are transferred into the uterus

Haemoglobin and Hydrogen Carbonate Ions carry Respiratory Gases and Control Blood Ph
Haemoglobin Transports Oxygen

Lower atm pressure / fewer molecules present / less O2 reaches tissues

Body adapts to changes by increasing
o Heart rate and resting breathing rate
o Blood plasma
o Red blood cell production and number of blood capillaries
Haemoglobin Hb has 4 subunits, each subunit contains 2 parts
o Haem → ring of atoms linked to Fe2+
o Globin → polypeptide chain

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o Sequence of amino acids affects O2 carrying properties

Oxyhaemoglobin HbO2 from lungs dissociates in respiring tissues
o O2 diffuses into body cells while Hb is transported back to lungs
Features of red blood cells that allow them to transport O2 more efficiently
o Biconcave disc → larger surface area to volume ratio for diffusion
o Absence of nuclei/other organelles → more room for haemoglobin

Hydrogen Carbonate Ions Remove CO2

CO2 produced in tissues diffuses into blood plasma

There it reacts with H2O in the plasma and in the cytoplasm of red blood cells
o CO2 + H2O → H2CO3(carbonic acid) → H+ + HCO3- (hydrogen carbonate)
In red blood cells, carbonic anhydrase is present
o Rate of HCO3- production is higher than in blood plasma
o Establishes a conc gradient → HCO3- diffuses into plasma
o Cl- diffuses into red blood cells to keep eqm in balance → chlorine shift
Thus, most CO2 is transported in blood as HCO3-
But, small amount reacts directly with haem to produce carbamino-haem
o More CO2 binds to haem when O2 conc is low

Control Of Blood pH

Dissociation of CO2 produces H+ ions

Buffer keeps pH constant
o Plasma contains phosphate and plasma proteins
o Red blood cells contain Hb
Hb takes up H+ and releases O2 to respiring tissues
o H+ + HbO2 → Hb + O2
o The more H+ taken up by Hb the more O2 is released
Higher rate of respiration produces more CO2 from respiring tissues
o More H+ is produced and taken up by Hb
o More O2 is released, therefore, more CO2 is transported in blood plasma
o Carbamino-haem travels to gas exchange surface
o There, more CO2 is removed and more O2 is taken up by haem
o More O2 is transported and supplied to respiring tissues
o Thus, CO2 regulates breathing rate

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The Oxyhaemoglobin Dissociation Curve

% saturation of Hb is plotted against partial pressure of O2 (pO2)

pO2 is a measure O2 concentration
o 100% saturation of Hb → high partial pressure → in lungs
 Low pCO2 as it is removed from the body → high O2 uptake
 O2 is transported to and unloaded in tissues
o 60% saturation (straight line) in muscles → using up O2 carried by Hb
S-shaped because each Hb carries 4 molecules of O2
o First molecule changes shape of Hb → remaining molecules bind more easily
o It becomes easier for the second and third molecules to bind
o Curve becomes flat at the end as binding of the last O2 is more difficult again

The Bohr Effect

Increased pCO2
o moves dissociation curve to the right (Bohr shift)
o causes Hb to give up more O2 to respiring tissues
o pO2 falls (increase of respiration), more CO2 is released and rises pCO2
Curve to the right of the normal for active animals
o Small animals → low surface area to volume ratio → readily lose heat
o Higher metabolism increases metabolic rate
o This requires more O2 for respiration to generate ATP
o pO2 is high at respiring tissues as it comes directly form lungs
o pCO2 must have a high value as well (see above)
o O2 is released at high pO2
Curve to the left of the normal (greatest affinity for O2)
o pO2 is low in deep underground levels and high altitudes
o Fast release of O2 at low pO2 is required (Hb can adapt)
o Blood at placenta has low pO2
 Fetus lives in low pO2
 Fetal Hb has a high affinity for oxygen/is saturated at low pO2
 Mother gives up O2 and fetus picks it up
 Fetus takes up O2 in limited supply
o Red pigment myoglobin stores O2

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 In muscles/anaerobic/diving animals → when O2 will get very low

 Fast release of O2 at very low pO2, but storage of O2 at high pO2 In some children fetal Hb
is abnormally high / oxygen not released from fetal Hb/ in low pO2/body tissues/muscles /
more anaerobic respiration / less ATP available / muscle fatigue

Human Biology | Senescence

The Decline of Physiological Effectiveness

Rate of cell division and number of cells reduce

o All cells are capable to divide during embryological development
o Cells lose ability to divide after birth or have a lower growth rate
o Born with a fixed number of neurones → cannot divide/be replaced
Decline in functional effectiveness of cells and organ systems
o Deterioration in cells / slower responds to stimuli / slows homeostatic mechanism / increases change
of dysfunction and death
Ageing is controlled by genes but can be slowed down by
o Regular (and adequate) sleep, (well balanced) meals, exercise
o Refrain from smoking and alcohol
o Keep body mass close to desirable mass for your height

Effect of Age on

BMR
o Number of cells decreases during ageing → lowers BMR
o BMR decreases by ≈ 5% every 10 years above the age of 55
o 10-20 years - rapid decrease associated with adolescent growth spurt
o 20-35 - no change as body same size / same level of activity
o 30-70 - slow decrease associated with loss of muscles / gain of fat / reduced activity
CARDIAC OUTPUT = STROKE VOLUME x HEART RATE
o Cardiac output decreases even though heart rate does not decline
o Due to cardiac muscle fibres weaken (mainly left ventricle)
o Decreases stroke volume of ventricles/volume of blood pumped per beat/cycle
NERVE CONDUCTION VELOCITY
o Cells in peripheral nervous system and brain get less
 Neurones (nerve cells) are lost and cannot divide

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 Effect of cell loss depends on cells location

 Brain loses ≈25% of cells that control muscular movement but hardly any that control speech
→ changes muscle coordination but not ability to speak
o LOSS OF MYELIN: no saltatory conduction / impulses cannot jump from node to node / impulses
must pass through greater amount of membrane
o INCREASED WIDTH OF SYNAPSES: longer needed for diffusion/movement/greater distance to
receptors/further to stimulate post-synaptic membrane/further diffusion distance of transmitter
(across synapse)
o SLOWER SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION: presynaptic neurones produce less neurotransmitter
Female reproductive capacity → MENOPAUSE (45-55 year old women)
o Ovaries gradually become insensitive to FSH / secretion of oestrogen becomes less / ovulation
becomes less / menstrual cycle becomes less / vagina walls become thinner / woman is infertile
when oestrogen secretion stops
o Levels of gonadotrophins (FSH, LH) rise to a peak after menopause
 At menopause, oestrogen no longer secreted
 FSH and LH no longer inhibited by negative feedback
o SYMPTOMS: due to loss of oestrogen
 Intense sweating / uncomfortable warmth / psychological problems
 Increase risk of osteoporosis (loss of bone tissue) and heart diseases
o TREATMENT: Hormone replacement therapy (HRT)
 Postmenstrual woman take in small doses of oestrogen and progesterone
 As tablets (orally) or apply implants beneath skin (skin patches)

Human Biology | Skeletal Muscle

The Sliding-Filament Theory

Gross and Microscopic Structure of Skeletal Muscle Including Ultrastructure of a Myofibril

Skeletal muscle is joined to bone by inelastic tendons

o Muscle contraction / pulls on tendons / bone moves
Each muscle is made of bundles of muscle fibres surrounded by connective tissue
An individual muscle fibre
o Has many nuclei → muscle fibre develops from fusion of many cells
o Sarcoplasm (cytoplasm) filled by parallel myofibrils
o Sarcolemma (surface membrane) forms deep tubes (T tubules) into the sarcoplasm along its length
o Network of membranes called sarcoplasmic reticulum (ER)

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Roles of Actin, Myosin, Calcium Ions and ATP in Myofibril Contraction

Striations In Skeletal Muscle Are Caused By Filaments Of Two Protein Actin And Myosin

Actin filament / thinner than myosin → lighter striations

Myosin filament / thicker than actin filament → darker striation
Distance between 2 adjacent Z lines: sarcomere / actin filament is attached to Z lines and extended into
sarcomeres on either side
Striation of actin alone → I band
Striation of myosin alone → H zone
Length of myosin → A band
Central thickening of each myosin filament → M line

Structure Of Actin And Myosin Filament

Actin filament: 2 actin strands twisted around each other

o Troponin-tropomyosin-actin complex blocks binding site for myosin
Myosin filament: bundles of myosin molecules
o Bundle of myosin tails form a central stalk
o Globular heads attach to specific sites on actin filaments
o Myosin heads contain ATPase that hydrolyses ATP

Neuromuscular Junction

Synapse between motor neurone and muscle fibre

\ skeletal muscle fibres are stimulated by motor neurones
IMPULSE REACHES NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION

Influx of Ca2+ / synaptic vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane

Release of acetylcholine (ACh) into synaptic cleft by exocytosis
Neurotransmitter diffuses across cleft
Binds with receptors on motor end plate (→postsynaptic membrane of muscle fibre)
Depolarises sarcolemma
Threshold stimulates wave of depolarisation along muscle fibre
Changes permeability of sarcoplasmic reticulum to Ca2+
Ca2+ move into sarcoplasm / causes contraction of myofibril

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Muscles As Effectors

Motor neurones stimulate glands and muscles into action

Respond to a stimulus → are effectors

Role of ATP and Phosphocreatine in Providing the Energy Supply During Muscle
Contraction
Stimulation Of Muscle Fibres By The Nervous System

CONTRACTION → myosin heads attach to actin binding sites / form temporary cross bridges / bridges
rapidly break and reform / new cross bridges form further along actin filament / causing shortening of each
sarcomere
WHEN STIMULATION STOPS → Ca2+actively taken up by sarcoplasmic reticulum / myosin head detaches
from actin / cross bridges reform / muscle relaxes
NO ATP AVAILABLE → cross bridges cannot detach / muscle becomes stiff / unable to relax / extreme form:
rigor mortis / occurs after death

Cycle Of Events During Contraction Of A Myofibril

Ca2+ ions enter sarcoplasm during wave of depolarisation

Bind to troponin / changes shape of protein / removes block of tropomyosin / exposes actin binding sites
ATP binds to myosin / stimulates ATPase / RELEASES ENERGY
Allows myosin heads to form cross bridges with actin
Allows POWER STROKE: myosin head changes angle / pulls on actin filaments
o Width of I band, H zone decrease → filaments overlap increases
o Z lines move closer together → length of sarcomere decreases
o No change to A band → lengths of filaments stay constant
Allows Ca2+ ions to be pumped back in by active transport
New ATP binds to myosin / allows detachment from actin
Myosin head changes to original position (cross bridges reform)
Next attachment to actin filament and power stroke can occur
o Ca2+ and ATP required for cycle to continue

Energy In Active Muscle Cells

Breakdown of phosphocreatine / releases PI + energy / attach to ADP / forms ATP

o PHOSPHOCREATINE + ADP → CREATINE + ATP

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o ATP is used faster than it can be supplied by respiration

o Phosphocreatine allows regeneration of ATP without respiration
Thus, Muscle cells continue exercise until slower pathways synthesis ATP
o Breakdown of glycogen in muscle cells / aerobic respiration of glucose
o Aerobic respiration of glucose, fatty acids from bloodstream / fatty acids last longer
Prolonged exercise / not enough O2 for aerobic respiration
o Anaerobic respiration continues
o Lactate may cause cramps

Table 16-9-1: Structure, location and general properties of slow and fast skeletal muscle fibres

Fast muscle Slow muscle

Feature

FUNCTIONAL - Rapid, powerful movements - Slow movement

- Role in body - Short-lasting - Long-lasting
STRUCTURAL
- Diameter of fibres - Large - Small
- Capillaries - Few - Many
- Sarcoplasmic reticulum - High - Low
- Mitochondria - Few - Many (ETC, Krebs cycle)
MECHANICAL
- Speed of contraction - Fast - Slow
- Rate of pumping Ca2+ - High - Slower
BIOCHEMICAL
- ATPase activity - High, split ATP quickly - Low, split ATP slowly
- Respiration - Anaerobic - Aerobic
- Glycogen content - High - Low
- Myoglobin content - Low - High
- Resistance to fatigue - Low - High
LOCATION Arms and legs Back and neck
(running and throwing) (postural muscles)
Slow muscles contain myoglobin in sarcoplasm → appears bright red

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Ecosystem | Ecosystem

Ecological Terms

Ecosystem: all the abiotic and biotic factors in an area/environment surrounding a species
Community: "all the organisms present in an area/habitat/ecosystem"1
Population: "all the individuals of one species in an area"2
Environment: sum of all conditions in the ecosystem outside the organism
Habitat: place within an ecosystem where a particular population is found
Niche: species' function in its habitat
o Two species occupy different niches when they NOT compete
 Feeding at different times on different organisms
o "Two species NO LONGER occupy the same niche when
 one species displaces other species (better adapted)/one species survives/none survive due
to
 competition (for environmental resources)/insufficient
 food, territory, mates (animals); light, CO2, H2O, mineral ions (plants)"2

Investigating Numbers and Distribution

Investigating Variation

Several samples eliminate chance and anomalies (eg three averaged readings)
Random sampling eliminates bias (favour of one type)
o Random coordinates achieved by calculator
Any differences must reflect real differences in the population of sampled data

Frame Quadrats

Three measurements can be taken / population size of a particular species occupies in a quadrat
Assumptions
o Stationary organisms / must not move
o Quadrats must be chosen randomly
o Sample represents whole population
To investigate an area
o Area is divided into a grid by measuring tapes
o Quadrats are chosen at random by using random numbers from a calculator
o Organisms under investigation are counted in each quadrat

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To investigate a volume
o Container of known volume is immersed at random points in the pond
o Number of tadpoles are counted each time
Limitation: Area being studied is much larger than the small quadrats
POPULATION SIZE = (Sorganisms per quadrat * A of field)/A of quadrat)
o S = Sum of; A = Area;

Line Transects

Measures distribution of species in a straight line across a habitat

Useful for identifying changes in a habitat
Records all species which touch a tape stretched across a habitat
o Belt transect records species between two lines
o Interrupted belt transect records species present in a number of quadrats placed at fixed points
along a line stretched across the habitat
Limitation: one transect may not cross typical areas

Mark-Release-Recapture

Animals are marked and released back into the community (N1)
Second sample is collected
o Total size of sample (N2) and
o Number of marked animals (n) are counted
Population size = (N1*N2)/n
Marking must not affect organisms' behaviour / non-toxic marking, survival rate must not be affected /
would make it not more vulnerable to predators
Animals must not die, reproduce, migrate into study area → population size must not change
Marked animals in population must mix

Diversity

Measure of the number of species and their success within an area

Shows stability of an ecosystem
COMPARING DIVERSITY IN TWO HABITATS#

Use large number of traps in each of two habitats

Place traps at random / by random coordinates using a calculator
Keep factor (size/length of time/time of day) constant

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Count number of organisms of each type

o N = number of organisms of all species present in the community
o n = number of organisms of each individual species
Calculate index of diversity d = N(N-1) / ∑n(n-1) for both habitats
Takes account of number of individuals (as well as number of species)

Abiotic (non-living) Factors

Climatic factors: seasonal changes in temp, humidity, daylength, rainfall

Physical conditions: pH, soil particles, ions, availability of H2O
Organism must have physiological adaptations to live in abiotic conditions
Lack of inorganic ions (nitrate) often limit plant growth
Plants are primary producers, affecting all populations in a community

Biotic (living) Factors - Interaction Between Organisms

Intraspecific competition / members of the same species compete for resources

o Space, patch of soil to grow on, nesting site, food, ...
Interspecific competition / different species need same resources at same trophic levels
o Plants compete for light
o Herbivore species compete for plants
o Carnivore species compete for prey (predation)

Table 5-14-1: The environment influences diversity

Less Extreme/Harsh Environments Extreme Environments

Higher diversity → more plant species → more

Lower diversity → less plant species → less
niches→ greater variety of food → less
niches → smaller variety of food → higher competition for
competition for resources → more food
resources →less food available → more harsh environment
available → less harsh environment (abiotic) in
(abiotic) in forest
forest
Stable ecosystem, if the population of one
Unstable ecosystem, change in the population of one species
species changes, alternative food sources are
affects populations of other species
available
Biotic factor(s) dominate Abiotic factor(s) are extreme and dominate

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Many species have adaptations that allow them

Only a few species have adaptations that allow them to survive
tosurvive, including many producers
Higher solar energy input gives more light for
photosynthesis (and higher temperatures)

Succession

Process in which different species make up a community over time

Autogenic succession: brought about by plants only
Allogenic succession: external factor (eg flooding) alters development of community
1° succession / succession where no living organisms have been found before
2° succession / community of living organisms have already been there / human activity damaged
vegetation and stopped succession
CLIMAX COMMUNITY: final most complex stage of succession / affected by abiotic factors
o Succession can stop before a tree community
 Valley / top of a high mountain
o Climate climax: climate affects succession and complexity
o Grazing climax: grazing animals stop succession
 Grazing sheep and cattle prevent grassland to revert to woodland
SERAL STAGES change the environment to decrease abiotic factors (whole succession = sere)
o Different types of vegetation enter the area
o Increases amount and depth of soil
o Allows other plants to enter
o Will create more niches / more complex food webs / higher diversity
o More animals will enter the area
o Species diversity and complexity of food webs increases until climax is reached

Table 5-14-2: Succession

STABLE CLIMAX COMMUNITY

PIONEER COMMUNITY →

HARSH ENVIRONMENT → LESS HARSH ENVIRONMENT

PIONEER SPECIES WITH ADAPTED
→ MORE PLANT SPECIES CAN GROW
CONDITIONS
LOW DIVERSITY → HIGH DIVERSITY

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Five Kingdoms

Definition of species (basic unit of classification):

Members of a species are similar (phenotype) to each other but different from other species
o Similarity of organisms in same species can be
 physical (branching pattern of trees)
 biochemical (haemoglobin structure)
 immunological (antibody against an antigen equally effective)
 development (similar growth of embryos)
 ecological (occupy identical ecological niche)
(Group of) organisms able to interbreed/reproduce giving fertile offspring
o Each species is reproductively isolated from every other species

The five-kingdom classification of organisms

Nomenclature: Naming of organisms

Binomial: Biological name of an organism → Genus species
Taxon: Set of organisms within a category / Taxonomy / Study of biological classification
Different levels of taxons: SPECIES, GENUS, FAMILY, ORDER, CLASS, PHYLUM, KINGDOM
o Most number of species on right
o Most similar organisms on left
Unicellular: Single cell; Colonial: Groups of cells; Multicellular: Many cells
Autotrophs produce energy from inorganic sources
o Phototrophs from photosynthesis/sunlight
o Chemotrophs from simple inorganic (oxidative) processes
Heterotrophs digest and absorb organic molecules

Prokaryotae (prokaryotes)

Cell structure:
o Prokaryotes, unicellular
o Prokaryotes lack cytoplasmic organelles found in eukaryotes
Cell wall: murein
Nutrition: autotrophic (photosynthesis, chemosynthesis), aerobic heterotrophs
Divide by binary fission, not by mitosis

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≈10μm in size (bacterial cell, filaments of blue-green bacteria)

Mutualistic nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in nodules on the root of legumes / symbiotic

Protoctista (protoctists)

Cell structure: eukaryotes, unicellular and multicellular

Cell wall: (sometimes) polysaccharide
Nutrition: autotrophic, heterotrophic
Placed in this category by exclusion / cannot be placed in any other kingdom
o Slime moulds / fungi characteristics
o Protozoa / heterotrophic and ingest food
o Algae / photosynthesis
≈10μm (amoeba) - 1m (Laminaria / large brown alga)

Fungi

Cell structure: eukaryotes, multicellular and unicellular (yeast)

Cell wall: chitin
Nutrition: heterotrophic / saprotrophic decomposers or parasitic
Genus Penicillium
o Body of a fungus is composed of thin filaments called hyphae / form a mycelium
o Secret enzymes / external digestion / absorbs resulting nutrients
o Erect hyphae that grow upwards from the mycelium carry their reproductive spores
o Chains of spores on the erect hyphae / coloured mould visible on stored food
Break down organic matter

Plantae (plants)

Cell structure: only multicellular, eukaryotic; large vacuoles

Cell wall: cellulose
Nutrition: autotrophic (photosynthetic)
Growth is restricted to meristems (layers/patches of dividing cells)
Non-motile; adapted to land / strong tissues, leave gas exchange system, waterproofed
Eg mosses, ferns, conifers, angiosperms (flowering plants)

Plant kingdom has two different types of adults in their life cycle

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Gametophytes, hidden in plant / sexual reproduction forms multicellular zygotes

Sporophytes, what we call plant / asexual reproduction to form spores that germinate into gametophytes
Gametophyte (n) → gamete (n) → fertilisation → zygote (2n) → mitosis → sporophyte (2n) → meiosis →
spore (n) → mitosis → gametophyte (n)

Animalia (humans, animals)

Cell structure: eukaryotic, multicellular, no cell wall

o Develop form a blastocyst / embryo
o Have nervous and hormonal control systems
No cell wall!
Nutrition: heterotrophic, involving a digestive system
Are motile and grow throughout tissues (no mersitems)

Viruses → acellular → not included in classification system → pathogenic

Human Activity

Deforestation

Clearing of forests for agriculture or buildings; cleared areas may be mined for mineral ores; timber obtained
may be used for paper, charcoal, furniture, building material
Reduces transpiration, rainfall, humidity
o Increases risk of fire
Increases velocity of rain reaching the soil
o Soil erosion / leaching of ions
Reduces biodiversity
o More extreme environment / abiotic factors increase / unstable ecosystem
o Change in (micro)climate / levels of light / temp / humidity
o Loss of niches/habitats and complex food webs
o Animals move away/higher death rate/extinction
Lower biomass and productivity per hectare

Effect on Nitrogen Cycle

Growth in human population is increasing the demand for agriculture

o for land for farming

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o for grazing land to provide animal protein

Many decomposing fungi live in association with roots of trees
o Less NH4+ can be absorbed by plants from decomposition
o The soil itself is often a poor source of mineral ions
o Thus, reduced input in the nitrogen cycle; slower and less recycling of NH4+
Nitrogen in soil is lost as smoke but ash is still rich in nutrients for crops
o Yield falls with subsequent crops
o Crops are harvested before they die/decompose
o Nitrogen is not recycled and not returned to the soil
o Fertilisers (NO3, NH4+) make up that loss
o Ions from fertiliser readily leach out of the soil by rain into lakes and rivers
o Increases growth of algae and water plants
[EXAM] Ploughing increases the activity of nitrifying bacteria in the soil
o Oxygen enters the soil
o Nitrifying bacteria are aerobic
o Convert ammonia/ammonium ions to nitrite, nitrite to nitrate
o Nitrate is absorbed/used by plants
o To make protein/amino acids/DNA/ATP/NAD(P)/chlorophyll
o Increased yield/growth

Affect on Carbon Cycle

Lower CO2 (greenhouse gas) uptake by photosynthesis

Burning trees for agriculture and fuels releases CO2
Higher conc of CO2 in the atmosphere accelerates greenhouse effect
o CO2 absorbs outgoing longwave radiation
o Warms the troposphere (lower atmosphere)
Trees can act as carbon sinks [EXAM]
o Absorb CO2 in photosynthesis
o Carbon (dioxide) is used in forming permanent plant tissues/biomass/plant structure
o Carbon is incorporated in organic molecules
Reduction in the amount of ploughing lead to more carbon being stored [EXAM]
o "Less oxygen can enter the soil (from the air)
o For decomposers/saprobionts/fungi/soil microorganisms/bacteria
o For use in aerobic respiration

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o Less breakdown of organic matter/humus/dead plants/dead animals

o Less carbon dioxide released"1

Conservation of Forests is the Sustainable Use of Forests

On deforestation
o Felling one hectare will give space for agriculture for high income
o But the land loses fertility after a few years
o Using cleared land for cattle will give a low income per year
If the forest is kept
o Medium income per hectare per year for fruit and rubber production
o Income from tourists and medicinal plants
o Gene pools of wild relatives of domesticated organisms - which may be used as a source of
genes/alleles in selective breeding or genetic engineering
Tropical rainforests should be conserved to avoid [EXAM]
o "Loss of species / decrease in diversity / loss of niches / disruption of food chains
o Loss of pharmaceuticals / medicines / timber / wood
o CO2 build-up in atmosphere / global warming
o Leaching of ions / minerals / nutrients
o Soil erosion / mud slides / flooding / desertification"2

Inheritance

Stages of Meiosis
Interphase DNA replicates → Identical sister chromatids form
Meiosis I Meiosis II (same as mitosis)
Prophase //Spindle forms //Spindle forms
Nuclear envelope disappears //Nuclear envelope disappears
- Chromosomes shorten/thicken/condense
- Form bivalents/tetrads
- Crossing-over of homologous pairs
Metaphase //Spindle complete //Spindle complete
- Bivalents at equator - Chromosomes at equator
- Join to spindle (fibres) via centromere

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Anaphase //Cytokinesis begin //Cytokinesis begins

Random segregation of homologues Random segregation of chromatids
- Intact centromeres - Chromatids are pulled to opposite poles
- Two chromatids on one chromosome - Centromeres divide
Telophase //Spindle disappears //Spindle disappears
//Nuclear envelope reforms //Nuclear envelope reforms
- 2 haploid cells - 4 haploid daughter cells
- Chromosomes still duplicated

Principles of Mendelian Inheritance

Mendel's 1st Law of Segregation (Anaphase I and II)

o During gamete formation, allele pairs (Gg) of one gene separate (G)(g)
o Thus, only one of the alleles of one gene is present in a single gamete
o Monohybrid inheritance (single gene - 3:1 ratio)
o Recessive alleles can cause genetic disorders (e.g. cystic fibrosis)
Mendel's 2nd Law of Independent Assortment (Anaphase I and II)
o Alleles for one gene segregate independently with the alleles of another gene (GgBb)
o Two genes for each characteristic segregate during gamete production (GB)(gb)(Gb)(gB)
o Independent assortment means either G / g can go with either of B / b
o Meiosis separates alleles / homologous chromosomes
o Dihybrid inheritance (two genes - 9:3:3:1 ratio) → occurs at different loci

Multiple Alleles

Human ABO group is controlled by the immunoglobulin gene I

o The immunoglobulin gene has 3 alleles IA, IB, I0
o These alleles code for antigen A, B, neither A/B, respectively
Only 2 alleles can be present in a diploid cell → IAIB is codominant, I0 recessive

Codominance (1:2:1)

Heterozygous allele is neither dominant nor recessive → both alleles are expressed

Sex Linkage

e.g. Haemophilia → clotting time of blood is longer than usual

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Inheritance of sex in humans

o Females are homogametic sex (X: or XX)
o Males are heterogametic sex (XY) / Y chromosome is shorter
o Involves whole chromosomes instead of individual genes
Phenotypic characteristic is inherited on X, not on Y chromosome
o Thus, more common in males / females can be heterozygous (XAXB)
o Thus, sex linked characteristic is never passed from father to son
Evidence from a tree diagram which suggests that a disease is
o Sex linked: only seen in males / not in females
o Recessive: unaffected parents

Application of Chi-Squared Test (x²) to Data Obtained

Observed Expected value

o IMG 5-14-1
o Degree of freedom = n - 1
Shows if differences between sets of data are significant or not
Null hypothesis states that there are no significant differences between sets of data
Small value / probability higher than the level of significance 0.05/5%
o Little difference between observed and expected value
o Likely to be extremes of the same population
o Null hypothesis accepted
Large value / probability is less than the level of significance 0.05/5%
o Significant difference between observed and expected data
o Likely to be two distinct populations
o Null hypothesis rejected

Nutrient Cycle

Nutrient Cycles

Elements are taken up by producers (plants) / stored as organic matter

Passed on across trophic level / consumer digest and absorb food / stored as organic matter
Decomposers decay detritus and excretory products / return inorganic ions to environment / taken up by
producers
Warm temp / higher enzyme activity / faster decomposition

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Table 9-14-1: Use of nutrients in plants and animals

ANIMALS

PLANTS

Organic substances / lipids / Organic substances / lipids /

CARBON
proteins / ATP / chlorophyll proteins / ATP / chlorophyll
- Amino acid / nucleotide synthesise - Amino acid / nucleotide synthesise
NITROGEN
- In RNA, DNA, proteins, ATP - In RNA, DNA, proteins, ATP
- In cytochromes / ETC - In cytochromes / ETC
- Needed for enzymes such as - Needed for enzymes such as
IRON
catalase to work catalase to work
- Synthesis of chlorophyll - Part of Hb
IODINE Contained in thyroxine (hormone)
Nitrate reductase / reduces nitrates during synthesis of
MOLYBDENUM
amino acids

Carbon Cycle

Producers, consumers, decomposers

o Add CO2 to the air by respiration
o Carbon is stored in tissues as organic matter (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins)
o Carbon is passed along food web by feeding
Plants remove CO2 from air by photosynthesis
Animals excrete carbon as waste products
Decomposers decay detritus and excretory products / add carbon to soil
o Detrivores digest detritus to small pieces / large surface area
o Saprophytes digest smaller detritus by
 Extracellular digestion by secreting enzymes
 Absorb resulting nutrients across plasma membrane
 Releases inorganic matter (CO2, H2O, mineral ions) into soil
Fossil fuels
o Combustion releases CO2 into air
o Fossilisation of carbon atoms in organic compounds in dead remains (plants, animals) and excretory
products (animals)

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Respiring organisms must not die to release stored carbon / differs from other cycles

Respiration, Photosynthesis and CO2

Photosynthesis takes up more CO2 than is released by respiration

CO2 concentration
o Higher at night than at daylight; light-dependent reaction cannot take place
o Peaks at winter time due to high oil consumption; low rate of photosynthesis due to cooler temp,
shorter day length, loss of leaves
Variation in a graph due to wind mixing CO2 with the surrounding air
o Graph should show conc over whole area rather over a specific area
Rate of photosynthesis and respiration are balanced in a rain forest
o Forests grow for a long time and have stored lots of carbon in their tissues, other plants have stored
carbon as cellulose and lignin

Nitrogen Cycle

*processes involved in restoring nitrate conc in soil after cultivation is abandoned

1) Assimilation (→Building up organic molecules)

Plants take up NITRATE NO3/AMMONIA NH3 from the soil by active transport
o Used to synthesis amino acids / synthesise proteins / new cells and tissues
Primary consumers feed on plants
o Proteins are digested into amino acids and absorbed
o Amino acids synthesise new proteins
Nitrogen is passed along the trophic level through the food web

2) Ammonification*

Detritus/leaves from plants/excretion from animals/dead animals

Broken down by saprotrophs/decomposition
Releases ammonia/ammonium ions (from decay)
Ammonia dissolves in H2O → NH3 + aq → NH4+

3) Nitrification*

Ammonium NH4+ / nitrite NO2-

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Nitrite / nitrate
By aerobic nitrifying bacteria

4) Denitrification

Removal of nitrogen from NO2- and NO3- to make N2(g)

By anaerobic denitrifying bacteria (NO3- as a RS)

5) Nitrogen Fixation*

N2(g) is converted to nitrates by lightning N2(g) + O2 → NO3-

o NITROGEN GAS IS CONVERTED TO NH3/NH4+
By Haber process: N2(g) + H2 → ammonia NH3
o //used to make fertilisers / added to soil / leakage of ions into river
By Nitrogen-fixing bacteria by anaerobic nitrogenase
Live free in soil/nodules on the roots of legumes (peas, beans)
NH4+ is assimilated by legumes into amino acids
o //Mutualistic relationship → bacteria get their carbon-containing compounds from the plant while
the plant gets nitrates

Photosynthesis

Metabolism

All chemical reactions in a cell → arranged into metabolic pathways

Intermediates in these pathways are called metabolites
Catabolic reactions (e.g. respiration) release energy
Anabolic reactions (e.g. photosynthesis) use up energy

Leaf Structure

Phototropism → growth towards light

Large leaf surface area → captures more light
Thin leaves → few cell layer → more light captured by chlorophyll
Leaf mosaic increases leaf exposure to light
Internal Structure
o Cuctile → reduces H2O loss by evaporation
o Palisade mesophyll → chloroplast can move around cell for max light absorption

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o Spongy mesophyll → allows diffusion of gases through leaves

o Phloem sieve tube → removes products of photosynthesis

Chloroplast

Thylakoid membrane: light-dependent → large surface area

o Associated with chlorophyll, accessory pigments, ETC, enzymes
Grana: stacks of thylakoid membranes
o Enclose hydrogen reservoir used in chemiosmosis
Lamella: tubular extensions forming a network between grana
Stroma: RuBP carboxylase catalyses light independent reaction
Starch granule → insoluble storage carbohydrate product of photosynthesis

Light Dependent Reaction

In Thylakoid Membrane / Granum

IMG 5-14-6

Chemiosmosis/Photophosphorylation produces ATP

//H+ from photolysis remain in thylakoid space

ETC releases energy

Used to pump H+ from stroma into thylakoid space
By active transport and electrochemical gradient
H+ conc in thylakoid space > stroma
H+ ions pass back from space between two mitochondrial membranes
Through pores which are associated with the enzyme ATP synthetase
Energy from the ETC will be used to produce ATP
Diffuse down conc gradient across thylakoid membrane
Produces ATP by photophosphorylation

Light Independent Reaction

In Stroma (Calvin Cycle)

IMG 5-14-6

Summary WITH IMG!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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The light dependent reaction takes place in the chloroplast and is important to produce ATP and NADPH +
H+. Both molecules and carbon dioxide (CO2) are needed in the light independent reaction (Calvin Cycle) to
produce a hexose sugar, such as glucose, from RuBP.
Glucose is used to in the mitochondrion to produce the energy molecule ATP. NAD+ is also needed for
respiration, but is not produced by photosynthesis.
PARP (Poly-ADP-Ribose-Polymerase) and PARG (Poly-ADP-Ribose-Glycohydrolase) are important if the plant
is exposed to excessive stress factors (such as extreme temperatures). Note: knowledge about PARP and
PARG is not required for your exam.
IMG
Picture 5-1 from Bayer research.
Genetic engineering improves crop yields,
Braving the drought [view article]

Energy Transfer
Ecological pyramids

Pyramids of numbers
o Total number of organisms in a food chain at each trophic level
o Highest number at the bottom (usually producers, then consumers)
o Pyramid will be inverted if lots of small animals are feeding off one large plant
Pyramids of biomass
o Total biomass of organisms in a food chain at each trophic level
o Always pyramid shaped
o Organisms multiplying rapidly may have biomass less than primary consumers
o Dry mass is measured / H2O stores no energy and varies in different organisms
Pyramid of energy
o Amount of energy transferred to each level of a food chain in an ecosystem
o Always pyramid-shaped / no energy loss

Transfer of energy between trophic levels

Food chains and food webs

Energy is used to produce new cells / remains fixed in that organism

Energy is passed on to the next trophic level through feeding
Producers are photoautotrophs (plants)

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o Transduce light energy into chemical P.E. by forming new tissues and storing organic compounds
(starch, glucose, lipids, proteins)
Consumers are herbivores, carnivores and omnivores
Decomposers are detritivores and saprophytes
o Break down dead complex organic molecules into simple inorganic molecules
Food chains are feeding relationships and linked with each other to form complex food webs
o Some organisms feed on different trophic levels / leaves and insects
o Some organisms feed on different foods when they are larvae (leaves) and when they are adult
(nectar produced by different flowers)

Energy transfer and efficiency

2% of light energy is converted to chemical P.E. by photosynthesis

o Rest is lost reflection from leaves / heat loss / not all wavelengths are utilised / light strikes non-
photosynthetic structures
10% of that are passed on along trophic levels
o Rest is lost in respiration / as heat/faeces/urine
Chemical P.E. / generates heat / stores energy by forming organic matter (new cells)
o Mammals are homeothermic / must maintain constant body temp
o Warm environment / less energy maintains body temp / more organic matter stored / more
transferred to consumer
o Small organisms / large surface area:volume ratio / lose high amounts of energy
Carnivores fix organic matter more efficiently than herbivores
o Herbivores feed on plants
o Thus, take up cellulose and lignin / difficult to digest
o Thus, more food passes through gut and is lost as faeces
Trout fix organic matter most efficiently, they are
o Poikilotherms → must NOT maintain constant body temp
o More energy is used to fix organic matter
o Carnivores are harvested while they are still young and grow rapidly
o Trout transfer most energy to consumer (human) in terms of food
[EXAM] Number of food chains is limited
o Due to energy losses (at each trophic level)
o In respiration/egestion/excretion/movement/as heat
o (Too) little energy is left to sustain higher trophic levels/to be passed on

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Selection

The Hardy-Weinberg principle

Allele frequency → p (A) + q (a) = 1 (total gene pool)

Genotype frequency p2 (AA) + 2pq (Aa) + q2 (aa) = 1 (gene pool)
Allele frequency must be constant / population must be stable [EXAM]
o Large population
 Prevents large swings in frequencies
 Anomalies and chance variation less significant
o Random mating
 Equal chance of alleles being passed on
o No mutations / no immigration/emmigration / no natural selection
 Prevents addition or removal of new alleles
Baseline by which to judge whether allele frequency of population's gene pool has changed
Gene pool: all the alleles in a population

Selection and change of allele frequency

Natural selection

New environmental factor affects survival rate of phenotype before reproduction

o //otherwise population may become extinct
Organisms better adapted to the environment survive, reproduce, pass on their alleles/genes
Allele frequency of the advantageous gene increases
Changes frequencies of alleles in gene pool / phenotype in population
Population becomes adapted to environment

Stabilising selection

Natural selection favours "average" organisms best adapted to that environment

Organisms with extreme forms of characteristics/mutations are selected against
Heaviest and lightest babies have highest mortality
o Less likely to survive, reproduce, pass on their alleles
[Graph] Normal distribution curve with thinner bell-shaped curve

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Directional selection

Natural selection favours organisms with one extreme form of a characteristic

Pesticide resistance (warfarin - poison used to kill rats)
o Resistant rats / need a lot of vitamin K / stabilising selection
o New environmental effect: warfarin / kills normal rats
o Resistant rats survived, reproduced, pass on resistance gene
o New population forms by directional selection
Antibiotic resistance (penicillin resistance)
o Resistant bacteria / unnecessary enzymes / selected against
o New environmental factor: penicillin / kills normal bacteria
o Resistant bacteria survived, reproduced, passed on resistance gene
[Graph] bell-shaped curve shifted to the right

Disruptive selection

Natural selection favours organism with two extreme forms of a characteristic

Balanced polymorphism: equilibrium of non-carriers and carriers of a characteristic caused by natural
selection
Sickle-cell anaemia
o Abnormal Hb makes red blood cells sickle-shaped / stick in capillaries
o People homozygous for this recessive allele die before reproducing
o People heterozygous for the allele should be at a disadvantage / red blood cells can sickle during
exercise / allele should be selected against and rare
o Where malaria is found, people heterozygous for sickle-cell have an advantage (resistant) and are
likely to survive, reproduce and pass on the allele; people without the allele also have an advantage,
because their red cells behave normally
o Balanced polymorphism is produced / carrier is heterozygous for sickle cell
[GRAPH] Acts against the mode in a range of variation producing a bimodal distribution (two new modes) /
might result in two distinct forms of the species (→morphs)

Reasons for a high incidence of a (dominant) rare disease/allele in a population [EXAM]

Allele frequency stays constant due to

Common ancestor/no migration/genetic isolation/small gene pool/in-breeding
High probability of mating with person having the allele

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Reproduction before symptoms of the disease are apparent

No survival/selective disadvantage (no elimination by natural selection)

Speciation

Splitting of one into more species/transformation of one into a new species over time
Emigration/immigration moves alleles between populations
Changes allele frequency by genetic variation in meiosis

Reproductive Isolation Mechanisms

Premating

Habitat isolation / populations inhibit different local habitants within one environment
Temporal isolation / same environment but are reproductively active at different times
Behavioural isolation / two populations have different courtship patterns
Geographical separation / populations inhabit different continents, islands, �

Postmating

Gametes mortality / sperm cannot reach or fertilize egg

Zygote mortality / fertilisation occurs, but zygote fails to develop
Hybrid sterility / hybrid survives (viable) but is sterile and cannot reproduce (no meiosis)
Hybrid inviability / F1 hybrid has reduced viability: incomplete development

Allopatric speciation (geographical isolation)

Physical barrier (H2O, mountains, dessert) divides a population

Two different environments (abiotic, biotic)
Natural selection
Genetic drift changes genotype and phenotype
Two populations evolve separately
Reproductively isolated / 2 distinct species

Sympatric speciation (reproductive isolation)

Genetic isolation by mutation / reproductively isolated / but inhibit same habitat

Drift can cause further divergence between isolated gene pools
Hybridisation in plants

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o Offspring produced from parents of two different species

o Chromosomal number doubles / polyploidy
o New species is reproductively isolated by a postmating mechanisms
Can only reproduce with other polyploids, backcrosses with (2n) parents are sterile

Variation

Normal distribution about the mean

Mode (most frequent) = median (mid) = mean (average value)

Bell-shaped/ even distributions of values above and below mean
Standard error (SE)
o True mean of SE is ±1.96
o In a number of samples each sample will have its own mean
o Standard error measures how much the value of a sample mean is likely to vary
o The greater the standard error, the greater the variation of the mean
Standard deviation (σ)
o Measure of the spread of results about the mean of a normal distribution curve
o Thinner bell-shape / smaller standard deviation / less variation
o Same pattern with bigger bell-shape

Causes of variation
Independent assortment of bivalents at the equator during anaphase I

Chromosomes of bivalents pulled to opposite poles at random

2n different combinations of chromosomes in four haploid cells produced where n is the haploid number of
chromosomes

Crossing over between non-sister chromatids during prophase I

At synapsis, non-sister chromatids of homologous pairs cross over at chiasmata

Homologous chromatids (corresponding pieces of genetic material) break and exchange equivalent
segments between maternal and paternal chromatids
Results in new combination of genes from the two parents

Fertilization / random fusion of gametes

Genetic difference amongst the zygote

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New combinations of alleles

Gene mutation / increased by environmental factors (eg radiation)

Addition / at least one base is added during DNA replication

Deletion / at least one base is not copied (frameshift)
Substitution / at least one base is copied wrongly
Interferences with normal base pairing (A-T;C-G)
Degenerate code / different triplets can code for same amino acids

Discontinuous variation

IMG 5-14-2
Limited number of distinct phenotypes / categories (e.g. blood group)
Strong genetic factor controlled by alleles on one gene
Frequency histogram has separate bars
Unaffected by the environment

Continuous variation

Continuous range of values / class intervals (e.g. human height)

Alleles on many genes located on different chromosomes / polygenic inheritance
Frequency histogram is a smooth (normal distribution) curve
Phenotype is affected by environmental factors
o Lower skin temperature activates a gene for pigment production
o Diet affects individual's size and health. Malnourishment results in shorter height
o Therefore, genes + environment → phenotype (continuous variation)

Advantageous of variation to species

Allows different adaptations / some better adapted

Some survive / reproduce / pass on gene/allele
Allows for changing environment / different environment

Biol1

What is disease?

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A disease is defined as a physical or mental disorder or malfunction with a characteristic set of signs or
symptoms.
Diseases may be caused by a single factor such as a pathogenic microorganism or be multifactorial and have
many causes some of which may depend on lifestyle.

Pathogens

Pathogenic microorganisms include bacteria, viruses and fungi.

Each pathogen has a specific method by which it causes disease. Some such as the influenza virus damage
host cells whereas others, such as Vibrio cholera produce toxins which have a harmful effect on the body.
The ability of the pathogen to cause disease depends on
o Location - what tissue is colonised
o Infectivity - how easily a bacterium can enter the host cell
o Invasiveness - how easily a bacterium or its toxin spreads within the body
o Pathogenicity - how a bacterium causes disease
Common entry points for pathogens are the gas exchange and digestive system.

Lifestyle

A healthy lifestyle involves:

o Maintaining a healthy weight
o Taking regular exercise
o Eating a balanced diet
o Drinking a limited amount of alcohol
o Not smoking
Lifestyle has an effect on human health:
o Exposure to carcinogenic chemicals (i.e. those found in tobacco smoke) or radiation (i.e. X-rays) may
increase a person's chance of contracting cancer
o Coronary heart disease is associated with diets that are rich in fat and a sedentary lifestyle
o Alterations to a person’s lifestyle can have a dramatic effect on the likelihood of them contracting
these conditions

Heart Disease
The incidence of heart disease has been steadily increasing as our lifestyles become more sedentary and our diets
have changed. There are many causes of heart disease but the condition which most people associate with this
disease is the sudden onset of a heart attack. This section will examine the cause of these myocardial infarctions
(Doctor speak for heart attack).

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The heart muscle is supplied with freshly oxygenated blood from the coronary arteries. Any disruption to this
supply will mean that the heart muscle cells do not have enough oxygen and glucose to contract efficiently and can
lead to death of the muscle tissue. The severity of a heart attack will depend on the size of the area of muscle cells
affected - blockages in larger coronary arteries will affect larger areas of cells.

A recent TV advert showed what a heart attack might feel like.

What can cause these blockages?

The most common cause is a blood clot. A blood clot is called a thrombus and the process of forming a blood clot,
thrombosis. If a clot forms in the coronary arteries it is called coronary thrombosis.

The clot blocking the coronary artery may not have formed actually within the heart itself, it may have travelled in
the bloodstream from another site. In this situation the clot is called an embolus and the blockage of the coronary
artery an embolism.

A process known as atherosclerosis increases the tendency of thrombosis within arteries. Essentially it is a build up
of fatty deposits within and a thickening of the wall of the arteries, narrowing the lumen, making the wall less elastic
and preventing blood flow thus encouraging the formation of blood clots. Your course requires you to understand
the mechanism by which one of these atherosclerotic plaques forms:

Cholesterol is transported around the body in lipoproteins (LDLs).Excess cholesterol leaks from lipoproteins
(LDLs)
Deposited on arterial walls
Macrophages (white blood cells) are trapped within cholesterol
Release free radicals which damage the arterial wall
Activates blood platelets which stick to damaged areas releasing clotting factors (thromboxanes)
Forms a plaque which may rupture to produce a thrombus
Circulating thrombus is called an embolus
Embolus may lodge elsewhere in the circulation (brain - cause a stroke, coronary arteries - cause a heart
attack, lungs - cause a pulmonary embolism)
NB: healthy arteries produce anti-clotting factors (prostaglandins) → don't form clots

Once again I would recommend looking at an animation of how this process happens or any of the other superb
examples you’ll find there.

Prevention of atherosclerosis is therefore essential in prevention of heart disease. Diets rich in cholesterol,
chronically high blood pressure or smoking all raise the risk of the formation of atherosclerotic plaques and
therefore are risk factors in the development of atherosclerosis - as is being male!

It is worth reminding you that atherosclerosis can happen anywhere in the body and can manifest in many different
symptoms. Another effect of atherosclerosis is that it can weaken the artery wall. If this happens then the artery
could, when placed under pressure burst or deform. This is called an aneurysm. If this happens in the brain then it
will also result in a stroke. Again, it’s worth looking online for images or animations showing the formation of these
aneurysms. Some are truly spectacular. Just as the severity of an embolism depends on its location, the severity of
an aneurysm is location dependent. An aortic aneurysm would obviously be life threatening! If this weakening is
discovered by a doctor, then there are procedures which can help. Stents can be used to support the blood vessel,
ensuring that they are not harmed by mechanical stress.

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Coronary Heart Disease refers to a condition which develops when the coronary arteries themselves become
damaged and narrowed by atherosclerotic plaques. Atherosclerosis causes arteries to become narrowed. This
means that:

More force required to move blood through narrowed vessels

Blood pressure increases to compensate for this
Increased blood pressure was an initial cause of atherosclerosis so it could result in further damage.

Development of atherosclerosis can lead to the development of angina:

↑exercise leads to ↑oxygen requirements by heart

Narrowed arteries prevent more blood to pass through
Shortage of blood to heart muscle causes chest pain
Cells do not die as some blood can still pass through
Pain only occurs during activity but not at rest

Heart failure is caused by the prolonged blockage of a coronary artery which causes damage to heart
muscle. Frequent heart attacks will cause this damage, but there are many other causes of heart failure. The
damage to the heart muscle results in a decrease in the number of contractions / a reduced cardiac output / lower
pressure generated / less blood leaves heart. This means that more blood is stored on the right side of the heart
and in the veins leading to swelling and enlargement of the heart and liver. At this point, a patient’s only option
would be a heart transplant.

QUESTION: Why would healthcare professionals think it a good idea for people to take aspirin regularly?
Note: you may have to do some research to find out the effect of aspirin on the circulatory system.

Prevention of Heart Disease

Heart disease, as mentioned is a condition which has a strong link to the way we chose to lead our lives. Diet,
exercise and stress levels have all been shown to have a direct impact on the development of heart disease.

Cholesterol Level
Cholesterol is needed for many things in the human body including:

Vitamin D production in skin

Sex hormone production in gonads and adrenal glands
Making cell membranes
Produce bile acid (salts)

It has properties similar to fats → soft, waxy, and insoluble (difficult to remove if deposits form). As mentioned
before, it is transported in blood from liver to tissues. It is carried by lipoproteins (soluble fatty proteins which wrap
themselves around cholesterol).

There are two different forms of lipoprotein, LDL (Low Density Lipoprotein) and HDL (High Density Lipoprotein)
which have slightly differing roles.

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LDL

Carries cholesterol from liver to tissues

Normally, some cholesterol 'leaks' from the lipoprotein and is absorbed to build cell membranes
Excess LDL/cholesterol → too much cholesterol leaks out and causes atherosclerosis

HDL

High density lipoprotein

Picks up cholesterol from arterial walls and carries it away from tissues
Travels to liver where cholesterol is removed with bile
A diet low in cholesterol is therefore recommended for anyone concerned about heart disease.

How Can Smoking Lead to Heart Disease?

Nicotine constricts arteries causing platelets to stick together → vasoconstriction → heart must work harder
to force blood through → increases BP
↑BP causes damage to blood vessel lining / endothelium / collagen
o Leads to rise on blood platelets and makes them more sticky / form a plug / adhere to collagen
fibres
o Release of thromboplastin/thrombokinase
o Fibrinogen converted to insoluble fibrin
o Platelet plug trapped by fibrin mesh
Raises conc. of fibrinogen (in blood) → increased risk of clotting
↑LDL causes more cholesterol to leak out in blood
Carbon monoxide reduces the efficiency of the blood in terms of carrying oxygen
o Haemoglobin combines with CO more readily than with oxygen → forms carboxyheamoglobin
o Associated with plaque formation
Principle CHD = heart muscle receives inadequate amount of blood or oxygen/(coronary) blood supply
reduced

Treatment of Heart Disease

Medication
o Beta blockers reduce heart rate and reduce oxygen required by heart
o Aspirin prevents blood clotting and thrombosis formation
o ACE inhibitors stabilize plaques → prevent thrombus to break off

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o Statins reduce LDL and increase HDL

Angioplasty
o Deflated balloon-like device is passed up to the heart via the aorta
o Guided into damaged coronary artery and inflated to stretch the artery
Heart by-pass graft
o Leg veins and arteries from chest are used to by-pass the blocked region of the coronary artery
o Involves open heart surgery
Reperfusion therapy after a myocardial infarction
o Angioplasty done within 90 minutes of onset of chest pain
o May prevent irreversible damage to the heart muscle

Reaction to Foreign Material

This topic involves learning a lot of new terminology. Below is a list of the terms which you will need to be
comfortable using:

Pathogen Fever Inflammation Phagocytosis

Neutrophils Macrophage Immunological memory Self and non-self
Complement proteins Immunoglobulin Antigen Plasma cell
Memory cell Major Histocompatibility T-helper cell Cytokines
complex
Primary immune response Secondary immune T-lymphocytes B-lymphocytes
response
Natural immunity Artificial immunity Active immunity Passive immunity
Polyclonal antibodies Monoclonal antibodies Vaccine

After studying this topic you should have an understanding of how the body is equipped to keep most
microorganisms out and how it responds to and destroys any microorganisms which do manage to get through the
body’s barriers.

How can we resist infection?

Resistance to infection is possible due to:

Species resistance - the fact that we are Homo sapiens - many microorganisms are species specific and will
therefore not cause an infection in us.
Physical and chemical barriers - pathogenic organisms (those which can cause disease) might enter the body
at any point where there is an ‘interface’ with the external environment. Your body has several physical and
chemical barriers which try to prevent this:
o Eyes are protected by tear production - contain antibacterial enzyme - lysozyme

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o Ears secrete wax - antiseptic properties

o Sweat - contains an antiseptic
o Stomach acid - many bacteria cannot withstand the low pH environment
o Urine - antiseptic properties
o Digestive tract - (small and large intestines and anus) contain large numbers of harmless bacteria
which out compete the pathogenic microorganisms. This is known as your natural flora. Any
disruption to this can lead to infection - the cause of stomach upsets whilst taking antibiotics.
o Airways - epithelial cells lining the respiratory system produce mucus and are ciliated. Bacteria are
trapped in the mucus and wafted up towards the oesophagus by the cilia.
o Blood clotting - any open wound soon is sealed with a scab preventing entrance of pathogenic
microorganisms. A clot consists of a mesh of blood proteins which trap blood cells. It is an
interesting biochemical pathway - well worth further investigation!
Immune responses - if a pathogenic microorganism does make it past the physical and chemical barriers
listed above then the body’s immune system mounts a response. This can be non-specific or specific as you
will discover shortly.

What happens if a pathogenic microorganism enters the body?

The first response to an invading pathogenic microorganism is a non-specific immune response. A foreign antigen
needs to be detected by the immune system to initiate this response. An antigen is usually a protein (but
polysaccharides, nucleic acid and lipids also act as antigens). The entire immune response depends on the body
detecting the difference between self and non-self antigens:

Self-antigen
o Only found on the host's own cells and does not trigger an immune response
o As these are proteins, their structure depends on the amino acid sequence
o The gene for this sequence is highly polymorphic, having several alleles at each loci
o There is great genetic variability between individuals
o Thus, antigen is different in other people → injection would cause an immune response
o There is only 25% chance that siblings will possess an identical antigen (transplant will not be
rejected)
Non-self-antigen
o Found on cells entering the body (e.g. bacteria, viruses, another person's cell)
o Can also be displayed by cancer cells
o May cause an immune response

Once a foreign antigen has been detected, the non-specific immune response is triggered. The temperature of the
body will rise - FEVER - This higher temperature causes damage to the pathogenic cells. The site of infection will
become swollen - INFLAMMATION - The area will be red, swollen, painful and feel hot to the touch. This is because
the blood vessels in the affected area become more permeable thus allowing more white blood cells and important
blood proteins such as antibodies to flood into the infected area and deal with the infection. Any pathogenic
microorganisms found will be engulfed and destroyed -PHAGOCYTOSIS - by phagocytic cells entering the infected
area. Damaged or infected tissue releases chemical mediators which attract the neutrophils and macrophages (most
common phagocytic white blood cells).

Neutrophils primarily engulf bacteria

Macrophages engulf larger particles; including old and infected red blood cells

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This process of chemical attraction of cells is called chemotaxis. A quick online search should provide moving
images of phagocytosis. The cells enclose the pathogens in phagosomes formed by pseudopodia (cellular
projections). The phagosome then fuses with lysosomes containing digestive enzymes which digest the
microorganism. Pus is formed at the site of infection if no extensive vasculature is present.

Another event in the non-specific immune response is the activation of the complement protein cascade. The
complement proteins are blood proteins, which due to inflammation enter the site of infection. Damaged tissue is
capable of activating this biochemical cascade which results in the formation of a protein complex which is then able
to lyse (burst) the invading microorganism. Looking at an image will help you to understand this system better -
again an internet image search will help.

If, despite the initiation of the non-specific response (FEVER, INFLAMMATION, PHAGOCYTOSIS) the infection still
remains, the specific immune system will begin to act. This as its name suggests depends on recognition of SPECIFIC
antigens present on the invading microorganism. Activation of this response results in the formation of antibodies
and immunological memory to protect you from further infection by that SPECIFIC microorganism.
There are two types of specific immune response:

The Humoral, or antibody-mediated response

The Cell-mediated response

The Humoral Response

The humoral response is mainly involved in the elimination of pathogenic microorganisims which do not enter body
cells - bacteria. As mentioned above, this response relies on the production of antibodies. Antibodies are secreted
by B-lymphocytes and produced in response to a specific (foreign) non-self antigen. The B-lymphocyte's receptor
site will match the non-self-antigen. Each antibody is produced by one type of B-lymphocyte for only one type of
antigen. In diagrams you can recognise the antibody as they are a Y-shape. An internet image search for a diagram
of an antibody would help here:

The two ends of the Y are called the Fab fragments

The other end is called the Fc fragment
Fab fragments are responsible for the antigen-binding properties
Fc fragment triggers the immune response

Primary response
The antigen binds to specific Fab fragment of B cell receptor immunoglobulin

This produces a short and weak response

T helper cells are required to trigger the true potential of B cells

Once activated, the B cell grow and produce many clone cells. The clone cells have the same Fab fragment that
recognizes the same antigen. Most of these clone cells differentiate into plasma cells which secrete large amounts of
antibodies. Some of the clone cells differentiate into memory cell.
The antibodies which are released are specific for the original antigen and are capable of a variety of effects:

Agglutination - making the pathogens clump together

Acting as an antitoxin - to neutralise toxins produced by bacteria
Lysis - digests bacterial membrane, killing the bacterium

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Opsonisation - the pathogen is coated in protein that identifies them as foreign cells making them more
obvious targets for phagocytosis and destruction.

Secondary response
Exposure of same antigen causes activation of memory cells. They are present in the glandular tissue and will
immediately recognize the antigen if presented with it. They are capable of producing larger amounts of antibodies
in a much quicker time meaning that the pathogenic microorganisms are destroyed quickly and the infection never
takes hold. This is immunological memory.

Cell-Mediated Response
Pathogens that quickly enter cells (viruses, tuberculosis) are more difficult to remove. The only way of clearing the
infection is to destroy infected cells. No antibodies involved in the cell-mediated response. It is done by binding to
the self and non-self antigen which prevents destruction of harmless body cells. The self antigen is a MHC (Major
Histocompability Complex) protein present on almost all body cell and the non-self antigen (from viruses,
bacterium, cancer, foreign cell, parasite) is an antigen which has been processed and displayed on the surface of the
infected cell.

Primary response
A macrophage engulfs the pathogen and processes its foreign antigen. The non-self antigen is transported to the
plasma membrane surface of the macrophage. This cell is now called an antigen presenting cell (APC). Activated B-
cells can also act as antigen presenting cells.
T Helper cells (Th cells) recognise the foreign antigen present on the APC. They then activate cytotoxic T cells and B
cells to destroy the infected cell:

T killer cells (cytotoxic T cells)

o Must recognize self and non-self antigen to attach to infected cell
o Directly kill pathogen by injecting proteases into the infected cell
o Detach to search for more foreign cells
T-Suppressor cells switch off the T and B cell responses when infection clears otherwise your T killer cells
would destroy your healthy body cells long after the infection had gone. This is the basis of autoimmune
disease. Experiments with mice have shown that destroying their T-suppressor cells leads to the
development of conditions very similar to human autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis and
rheumatoid arthritis.

Secondary response
As with the humoral response, this involves the development of memory cells. Some of the T cells differentiate into
T-memory cells which remain in the circulation and respond quickly when same pathogen enters body again.

HIV
The HIV virus has specific proteins which recognise the T helper cells. It enters and destroys these cells and therefore
immunosuppress the patient as:

Other immune cells are not activated

The humoral response cannot be launched without Th cells / require co-stimulation of Th cells

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AIDS develops as the immune system becomes totally suppressed. A patient with end stage AIDS will have multiple
opportunistic infections (caused by microorganisms usually present but non pathogenic on or in the body) and
possibly large numbers of tumours as a result of the suppressed immune system.

Vaccines
The immune responses discussed above are examples of natural active immunity. If antibodies are acquired by an
individual then this is an example of passive immunity. Natural passive immunity happens when antibodies are
passed from mother to foetus across the placenta and from mother to baby in the colostrums and milk during
breast feeding.

Artificial immunity can be initiated in individuals. Artificial active immunity is the result of vaccination. If a patient is
given an ‘agent’ containing the same antigens as the pathogenic microorganism then their body will produce
antibodies against the pathogen. There are many different types of vaccine used:

Live attenuated: organism is alive but has been modified/weakened so that it is not harmful
o MMR (measles, mumps, rubella) - vaccine does NOT cause autism!
o BCG for tuberculosis
Inactivated: dead pathogen but antigen is still recognised and an immune response triggered
o Pertussis (whooping cough)
o Poliomyelitis
Toxoid: vaccine contains a toxin
o Diphtheria
o Tetanus
Subunit: contains purified antigen that is genetically engineered rather than whole organism
o Haemophilus influenza b - causes epiglottitis, meningitis
o Meningococcal C - causes serious septicaemia, meningitis
o Pneumoccocal - causes meningitis which results in permanent disabilities in >30%!

A vaccine may cause swelling, mild fever, and malaise and you should NEVER give live vaccines to children with an
impaired immune system!

Active (Antibodies made by the human immune Passive (Given-Antibodies, short term
system, long term acting due to memory cells) acting)
Natural - Response to disease - Acquired antibodies
- Rejecting transplant (via placenta, breast milk)
Artificial Vaccination - Injection of antibodies from an artificial
(immunisation) (Injection of the antigen in a weakened form) source, e.g. anti venom against snake biter
Differences - Antibody in response to antigen - Antibodies provided
- Production of memory cells - No memory cells
- Long lasting - Short lasting

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Monoclonal Antibodies (Magic Bullets)

Monoclonal antibodies are produced by just one type of B cell. They are therefore highly specific and are suitable
for use in many research situations. The methods used to produce them are outlined below.

Hybridoma

B cells are fused with tumour cells in the lab

Divide rapidly to form a clone of identical cells
Specific monoclonal antibodies are continuously produced and useful as
o Tumour markers (antigens not present on non-cancer cells / attach to cancer cells only)
o Anti-cancer drugs attached to monoclonal antibodies - deliver drug directly to cancer cells, fewer
side effects

Uses of monoclonal antibodies

Monoclonal antibody is an antibody that is of just one type

Used to target the treatment of cancer cells or to screen (AIDS) in contaminated blood
Antibody direct enzyme prodrug therapy techniques (ADEPT)
o Monoclonal antibodies are tagged with an enzyme that converts the prodrug (inactive drug) to an
active form that kills cells (i.e. is cytotoxic)
o The prodrug is injected in high conc

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o Attached to a monoclonal antibody, enzyme activates the drug and kills only cancer cells
In immunoassays, they can be labelled (radioactively) making them easy to detect
In the enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA) technique, they are immobilised on an inert base and a
test solution is passed over them
o Target antigen combines with immobilised monoclonal antibodies
o Second antibody attaches with an enzyme and binds to the monoclonal antibodies and to the target
antigen as well
o Substrate is added which is converted to a coloured product by the added enzyme
o Conc. of colour tells us the amount of antigens present in the test solution
Used to detect drugs in urine of athletics or in home pregnancy tests (where an antigen in human chorionic
gonadotrophin (hCG) is secreted by the placenta)
Transplanted organs have non-self-antigens triggering antibodies to attack the organ, leading to its
rejecting
T-Lymphocytes are needed for B-lymphocytes to function
Monoclonal antibodies against T-lymphocytes can be used to prevent B-lymphocytes from functioning, thus
blocking the rejection of transplanted organs
[EXAM] Helping to diagnose between two pathogens because
Antigens are on cell-surface membrane
Monoclonal antibody reacts with specific antigen only
Thus, detects presence of special bacteria because of a different antigen on another, different bacteria

The Digestive System

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The digestive system is a tube through which food passes from the mouth where food is ingested to the anus where
it is egested. It consists of a series of organs, each with a distinct structure and function. During the digestive transit
food is broken down into substances suitable for absorption into the bloodstream.
The gut wall has the same basic structure along its length. There are three main layers:

An outer, muscular layer. Circular and longitudinal layers of smooth muscles are present. Alternate
contraction of these muscles moves food along the digestive tract (peristalsis)
A middle layer of connective tissue - submucosa
An inner layer - mucosa

These three layers have different adaptations in different parts of the alimentary canal. The adaptations are
underlined below.

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Oesophagus

Muscular tube carrying food from the mouth to the stomach

Stomach

Elastic and muscular organ which can expand

Highly folded mucosa
Gastric pits secreting gastric juices containing digestive enzymes (proteases)
Contraction and relaxation of the muscular wall mix the food thoroughly

Small Intestine

The site of chemical digestion and absoption of the products of lipids, polysaccharides and proteins
Highly folded mucosa - arranged in villi (finger like projections to increase surface area for absorption)
Epithelial cells lining the small intestine have a folded cell membrane - microvilli to further increase the
surface area for absorption

Large Intestine

The site of absorption of water

Undigested food matter forms faeces

Rectum

Faecal matter is stored here before egestion

Digestion

Large molecules (starch, proteins, TAG) are too big and insoluble to be absorbed
o Polymers have to be broken down into monomers
o With help of hydrolytic enzymes - reaction requires H2O
o Note: TAGs are not polymers but also need to be broken down
Different enzymes break down different food
o Work best at body temperature (37°)
o Work in different conditions at different pH (stomach is acidic, intestine is alkaline)
Hydrolysis
o Proteins → amino acids
 Essential amino acids: cannot be synthesised and must be present in diet

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 Non-essential amino acids: synthesised from essential amino acids by transamination in the
liver
o TAG → glycerol and fatty acids
o Polysaccharides → monosaccharides

Proteins

Proteins are made up by different combinations of 20 amino acids

o Common structure
 -COOH group
 -NH2 group
o Amino acids differ in their R-group
Tertiary structure
o Complex globular 3D shape
o Folding and twisting of polypeptides (H-bond, ionic bonds, disulphide bridges)
o Polypeptides contain many peptide bonds
Same amino acid sequence → ALWAYS same shape
Bonds found in proteins
o Hydrogen bonds
 Between R-groups
 Easily broken, but present in larger numbers
 The more bonds, the stronger the structure
o Ionic bonds
 Between -COOH and -NH2 groups
o Disulphide bridges
 Between two sulphur-containing cysteine side chains
 Strong bonds found in skin and hair
Denaturation
o Destruction of tertiary structure, can be done by heat
o Protein structure is lost and cannot reform → dysfunctional
Background Reading: Structure of Proteins
http://www.chemguide.co.uk/organicprops/aminoacids/proteinstruct.html

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What are enzymes?

All enzymes are globular proteins → spherical in shape

Control biochemical reactions in cells
They have the suffix "-ase"
Intracellular enzymes are found inside the cell
Extracellular enzymes act outside the cell (e.g. digestive enzymes)
Enzymes are catalysts → speed up chemical reactions
o Reduce activation energy required to start a reaction between molecules
o Substrates (reactants) are converted into products
o Reaction may not take place in absence of enzymes (each enzyme has a specific catalytic action)

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o Enzymes catalyse a reaction at max. rate at an optimum state

Lock and key theory
o Only one substrate (key) can fit into the enzyme's active site (lock)
o Both structures have a unique shape
Induced fit theory
o Substrate binds to the enzyme's active site
 The shape of the active site changes and moves the substrate closer to the enzyme
 Amino acids are moulded into a precise form
 Enzyme wraps around substrate to distort it
o This lowers the activation energy
o An enzyme-substrate complex forms → fast reaction
o E + S → ES → P + E
Enzyme is not used up in the reaction (unlike substrates)

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Enzyme Activity

Changes in pH
o Affect attraction between substrate and enzyme
o Ionic bonds can break and change shape → enzyme is denatured
o Charges on amino acids can change → ES complex cannot form
o Optimum pH (enzymes work best)
 pH 7 for intracellular enzymes
 Acidic range (pH 1-6) in the stomach for digestive enzymes (pepsin)
 Alkaline range (pH 8-14) in oral cavities (amylase)
o pH measures the conc. of hydrogen ions → higher conc. will give a lower pH
Enzyme conc
o Proportional to rate of reaction, provided other conditions are constant
o Straight line
Substrate conc.
o Proportional to rate of reaction until there are more substrates than enzymes present
o Rate of reaction increases
 Substrate binds to active site, but more enzymes are available
 Rate increases if more substrate is added
o Eventually, curve becomes constant (no increased rate)
 Substrates occupy all active sites (all enzymes)
 Adding more substrate won't yield more product, as no more active sites are available

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Increased Temperature
o Increases speed of molecular movement → chances of molecular collisions → more ES complexes
o At 0-42°C rate of reaction is proportional to temp
o Enzymes have optimum temp. for their action (usually 37°C in humans)
o Above ≈42°C, enzyme is denatured due to heavy vibration that breaks -H bonds
o Shape is changed → active site can't be used anymore
Decreased Temperature
o Enzymes become less and less active, due to reductions in speed of molecular movement
o Below freezing point
 Inactivated, not denatured
 Regain their function when returning to normal temperature
o Thermophilic: heat-loving
o Hyperthermophilic: organisms are not able to grow below +70°C
o Psychrophiles: cold-loving
Monomer (-OH) + monomer (-H) ↔ polymer + H2O(l)
Condensation: monomers join to form polymers
o Amino acids join to form a dipeptide (protein)
 Two amino acids release -H and -OH groups (H2O)
 Peptide bond forms between the alpha-carbon and nitrogen
o Monosaccharides join to form disaccharides
 Glycosidic bond forms between both monomers
Hydrolysis: break down of a polymer
o Reverse of the condensation reaction
o This is the process of digestion

Carbohydrates

Organic molecules which contain C, H and O

Bind together in the ratio Cx(H2O)y
Monosaccharides → single sugar (monomer)
o Ribose found in RNA and DNA
o Deoxyribose part of nucleic acids
o Glucose is the main energy source in brain
o Fructose is found in sweet-tasting fruits
Disaccharides → two sugar residues (2 monomers)

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o Sucrose (glucose + fructose) → transport carbohydrates in plants

o Maltose (glucose + glucose) → formed from digestion of starch
o Lactose (glucose + galactose) → found in milk
o Lactose intolerance
Polysaccharides → many sugar residues (polymer)
o Starch (alpha-glucose) → main storage of carbohydrates in plants
o Glycogen (alpha-glucose) → main storage of carbohydrates in humans
o Cellulose (beta-glucose) → component of plant cell wall, important for digestion

Starch

Consists of amylopectin and amylose (both are made of α-glucose)

o Amylopectin is branched via 1,6-glycosidic bonds
o Amylose forms a stiff helical structure via 1,4-glycosidic bonds
o Both are compact molecules → starch can be stored in small space
The ends are easily broken down to glucose for respiration
Does not affect water potential as it is insoluble
Readily hydrolysed by the enzyme amylase produced by the pancreas and present in saliva
Found in corn (maize), wheat, potato, rice

Biochemical Tests

Reducing sugars (all monosaccharides and some disaccharides) can be tested for using Benedict’s reagent.
After placing the sample and the reagent in a hot water bath a brick red precipitate will be produced if
reducing sugars are present.
Non reducing sugars require a negative result using Benedict’s reagent. Add hydrochloric acid to the sample
and heat. Neutralize the solution using sodium hydrogencarbonate and then test again with Benedict’s
solution. A positive result will be found.
Starch can be tested for using iodine. In the presence of starch iodine will turn blue - black.

Cells
You need to be able to use your knowledge of the structure of cells and the function of the organelles to interpret
electronmicrographs of cells. In particular the epithelial cells lining the small intestine. These are cells which are
specialised for absorbing the products of digestion. They will therefore have a large surface area provided by the
microvilli and due to the need for active transport across their cell membranes they will contain a large number of
mitochondria providing them with ATP. Epithelial cells also secrete enzymes and other proteins. This means that
they will have a large and visible endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus to allow protein production and secretion.

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Below is a list of the most important organelles that you are required to know about. It is worth you using textbooks
and perhaps even other websites such as www.cellsalive.com to look at actual images of different types of cells and
their organelles.

Nucleus

Contains DNA
DNA arranged into long thin threads known as chromosomes
In most cells the chromosomes are arranged in homologous pairs
Surrounded by nuclear envelope
This has pores to allow communication between the nucleus and cytoplasm

Plasma Membrane

Sea of phospholipids - arranged as a bilayer

Intrinsic and extrinsic proteins float within the phospholipids
Selectively permeable barrier - controls movement of substances between the internal and external
environments

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Microvilli

Adaptation of cells to increase surface area for absorption or secretion

Found on epithelium of the small intestine

Lysosomes

Formed by the golgi apparatus

Contain digestive enzymes - proteases and lipases
Important to protect the cell from the effect of these enzymes before they are released at the cell surface
membrane or into a phagocytic vesicle

Mitochondria

1µm in diameter and 7µm in length

Mostly protein, but also contains some lipid, DNA and RNA
Power house of the cell
Energy is stored in high energy phosphate bonds of ATP
Mitochondria convert energy from the breakdown of glucose into adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Responsible for aerobic respiration
Metabolic activity of a cell is related to the number of cristae (larger surface area) and mitochondria
Cells with a high metabolic activity (e.g. heart muscle) have many well developed mitochondria

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Ribosomes

20-30nm in size
Small organelles often attached to the ER but also found in the cytoplasm
Large (protein) and small (rRNA) subunits form the functional ribosome
o Subunits bind with mRNA in the cytoplasm
o This starts translation of mRNA for protein synthesis (assembly of amino acids into proteins)
Free ribosomes make proteins used in the cytoplasm. Responsible for proteins that
o go into solution in cytoplasm or
o form important cytoplasmic, structural elements
Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) are made in nucleus of cell

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Rough ER
o Have ribosomes attached to the cytosolic side of their membrane
o Found in cells that are making proteins for export (enzymes, hormones, structural proteins,
antibodies)
o Thus, involved in protein synthesis
o Modifies proteins by the addition of carbohydrates, removal of signal sequences
o Phospholipid synthesis and assembly of polypeptides
Smooth ER
o Have no ribosomes attached and often appear more tubular than the rough ER
o Necessary for steroid synthesis, metabolism and detoxification, lipid synthesis
o Numerous in the liver

Golgi Apparatus

Stack of flattened sacs surrounded by membrane

Receives protein-filled vesicles from the rough ER (fuse with Golgi membrane)
Uses enzymes to modify these proteins (e.g. add a sugar chain, making glycoprotein)
Adds directions for destination of protein package - vesicles that leave Golgi apparatus move to different
locations in cell or proceed to plasma membrane for secretion
Involved in processing, packaging, and secretion
Other vesicles that leave Golgi apparatus are lysosomes

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Techniques used in Cell Biology

Microscopy
o Magnification → increases the size of an object
o Resolution/resolving power → ability to distinguish between adjacent points
Calculating magnification
o X = size of picture (measure the size of the diagram in the question)
o Y = size of object in real life (often given in exam question)
o Make sure Y has the same unit as X!
 If X = mm and Y = μm
 Convert mm to μm = X * 1000
o Magnification = Xμm / Yμm

Feature Optical microscope Electron microscope

Radiation Light Electrons
Magnification 400x (max1500) ≈500 000x
Resolution 2µm 1nm / 0,001µm
Electrons have a small wavelength
Thus, higher resolution
Vacuum in microscope Absent Present
Specimen is - Alive or dead - Dead (vacuum!)
- Stained
Transmission microscope:
Electrons pass through internal
structure of specimen

Scanning microscope:
Beams of electrons are reflected
off specimens surface. Allows a
three dimensional view

Cell Fractionation
To study the function of individual organelles large numbers of isolated organelles need to be obtained. Cell
fractionation is used to gather these organelles.

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It is worth looking on the internet or in your text books for a step by step diagram of the process to use alongside
this explanation.

The tissue from which the organelles are to be harvested from is firstly placed in a COLD, ISOTONIC,
BUFFERED solution
o The solution is cold to minimise enzyme activity
o The solution is isotonic to prevent organelle damage due to osmotic water gain or loss
o The solution is buffered to maintain a constant pH
The solution containing the cells is then HOMOGENISED in a blender to release organelles from the cells.
After homogenising, the fluid is known as the HOMOGENATE, it is now FILTERED to remove any large pieces
of cell debris
The filtered homogenate is then centrifuged in an ultracentrifuge at progressively greater speeds in order to
separate the different components. When spun in the centrifuge at a low speed, the largest organelle - the
nucleus will be forced to the bottom of the tube and form a pellet.
The SUPERNATANT (fluid above the pellet) now contains cell components too small to sediment at this
speed. This fluid is centrifuged at a higher speed to form another pellet which will contain organelles such as
mitochondria
The supernatant can then again be centrifuged at an even higher speed to separate out even smaller
organelles
Once the organelle that is to be studied has been extracted from the homogenate it can be resuspended in
distilled water to make it easier to use in experiments

Plasma Membranes

Lipids

Easily dissolved in organic solvents but not in water

Triglycerides (fats and oils)
o Also called triacylglycerides (TAG)

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o Consists of 3 fatty acids linked by ester bonds to glycerol

 Require 3 condensation reactions (but are not polymers!)
 Glycerol contains 3 -OH groups
 One fatty acid contains a -COOH group
o Excess energy available from food is stored as TAG
o Can be broken down to yield energy when needed
o Contain twice as many energy stored per unit of weight as carbohydrates
Saturated fatty acids
o -COOH group without double bonds in the carbohydrate chain
o May cause blockage of arteries which can lead to strokes and heart attacks
o High melting point / solid at room temperature (fats) / typical animal fats
Unsaturated fatty acids
o -COOH group with double bonds in the carbohydrate chain
o Low melting point / liquid at room temperature (oils)
o Found in plants
Phospholipids
o Found in cell membrane
o Formed by replacing one fatty acids in a triglyceride with a phosphate group
o Phosphate is polar / hydrophilic / does mix with H2O
o Fatty acid tails remain non-polar / hydrophobic / insoluble, does not mix with H2O

Fluid-Mosaic Model

Membranes consist of a phospholipid bilayer studded with proteins, polysaccharides, lipids

The lipid bilayer is semipermeable - H2O and some small, uncharged, molecules (O2, CO2) can pass through
Phospholipids have two parts
o "Head": hydrophilic → attracts and mixes with H2O
o Two "fatty acid tails": hydrophobic

Diffusion

Uses energy from moving particles (kinetic energy)

Substances move down their conc. gradient until the conc. are in equilibrium
Fick's law → rate of diffusion across an exchange surfaces (e.g. membrane, epithelium) depends on
o Surface area across within diffusion occurs (larger)
o Thickness of surface (thinner)

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o Difference in conc. gradient (larger)

o (surface area * difference in conc.) / thickness of surface
Microvilli
o Extensions of the plasma membrane
o They increase the surface area of the membrane
o Accelerate the rate of diffusion
Temperature increases rate of diffusion due to increasing K.E. (kinetic energy)

Facillitated Diffusion

Transmembrane proteins form a water-filled ion channel

o Allows the passage of ions (Ca2+, Na+, Cl-) down their conc. Gradient
o NB: this is a passive process → no ATP required
o Some channels use a gate to regulate the flow of ions
o Selective permeability → not all molecules can pass through selective channels
Transport mechanism
o Carrier protein binds to substrate (specific molecule)
o Molecule changes shape
o Release of the diffusing molecule (product) at the other side of the membrane

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Example
o If you want to move a muscle, a nerve impulse is sent to this muscle
o The nerve impulse triggers the release of a neurotransmitter
o Neurotransmitter binds to a specific transmembrane protein
o The protein opens channels that allow the passage of Na+ across the membrane
o In this specific case, this causes muscle contraction
o These Na+ channels can also be opened by a change in voltage

Osmosis

Special term used for the diffusion of water through a differentially permeable cell membrane
Water is polar and able to pass through the lipid bilayer
Transmembrane proteins that form hydrophilic channels accelerate osmosis, but water is still able to get
through membrane without them
Osmosis generates pressure called osmotic pressure
o Water moves down its conc. gradient
o When pressure is equal on both sites net flow ceases (equilibrium)
o The pressure is said to be hydrostatic (water-stopping)

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Water Potential

Measurement of ability or tendency of water molecules to move

Water potential of distilled water is 0, other solutions have a negative water potential
Hypotonic: solution with a lower conc. of solute / gains water by osmosis
o Solution is more dilute
o Cells placed in a solution which is hypotonic will grow as water moves in
o Red blood cells will swell and burst if it is in a hypotonic solution
o Plant cells are unable to burst due to their strong cellulose wall
Hypertonic: solution with a higher conc. of solutes / loses water by osmosis
o Cells will shrink in hypertonic solutions (eg red blood cells)
Isotonic: solutions being compared have equal conc. of solutes
o Cells which are in an isotonic solution will not change their shape
o The extracellular fluid of the body is an isotonic solution
Molecules collide with membrane / creates pressure, water potential
More free water molecules, greater water potential, less negative
Solute molecules attract water molecules which form a "shell" around them
o water molecules can no longer move freely
o less "free water" which lowers water potential, more negative

Active Transport

Movement of solute against the conc. gradient, from low to high conc.
Involves materials which will not move directly through the bilayer

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Molecules bind to specific carrier proteins / intrinsic proteins

Involves ATP by cells (mitochondria) / respiration
o Direct active transport - transporters use hydrolysis to drive active transport
o Indirect active transport - transporters use energy already stored in gradient of a directly-pumped
ion
Bilayer protein transports a solute molecule by undergoing a change in shape (induced fit)
Occurs in ion uptake by a plant root; glucose uptake by gut cells

The Absorption of Glucose from the Small Intestine

The chemical digestion of carbohydrates results in the production of monosaccharides such as glucose. These need
to be absorbed by the small intestine and passed into the bloodstream for use by the body. The process of diffusion
alone would not result in all of the glucose present in the small intestine being absorbed as an equilibrium would be
reached and any remaining glucose would pass out of the body in the faeces. Our digestive systems have evolved to
absorb all of the glucose produced.

Glucose is therefore absorbed by the small intestine using an active process. It is considered an active process
because ATP is required for it to happen. However it uses the ATP indirectly as it is the movement of sodium ions
which actually powers the movement of glucose into the cells. It is also an example of CO-TRANSPORT because two
molecules (glucose AND sodium) are involved.

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1. Sodium ions are actively transported out of the epithelial cell into the blood by the sodium potassium
ATPase. This protein pump is present in the membrane of all eukaryotic cells.
2. Sodium ions are now at a lower concentration in the epithelial cell than in the lumen of the small intestine.
3. Sodium ions now diffuse down their concentration gradient through a co-transport protein present in the
plasma membrane of the epithelial cell. The energy released as the sodium ions move down their
concentration gradient allows glucose molecules to pass through the co-transporter too despite the
epithelial cell having a higher concentration of glucose than the lumen of the small intestine.
4. The glucose now passes into the blood via facilitated diffusion.

Cholera

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Prokaryotic Organisms - Bacteria

Bacteria are prokaryotes

o Nucleus (5µm)
 Contains chromosomes (genes made of DNA which control cell activities)
 Separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear envelope
 The envelope is made of a double membrane containing small holes
 These small holes are called nuclear pores (100nm)
 Nuclear pores allow the transport of proteins into the nucleus
o Undergo asexually reproduction by binary fission / 2 identical daughter cells
Classification
o Most bacteria require oxygen to survive: aerobic bacteria
o Bacteria that are growing in the absence of oxygen: anaerobic bacteria
Grow best at optimum conditions (human body)
o Constant temperature
o Neutral pH
o Constant supply of food, H2O, O2
o Mechanism removing waste
Only a small number are pathogens. Pathogens cause disease by:
o Damaging our cells; or
o Producing toxins; or
o Directing our immune system against our own cells

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Vibrio Cholera

Produces enterotoxins released from bacteria

o Enters enterocytes (cells lining the surface of the intestine) by endocytosis
o Activates the CFTR protein (cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator)
o Causes secretion of sodium, chloride and bicarbonate ions from enterocytes
o Water follows sodium into the intestinal lumen
Osmotic loss of up to 10L of water per day!
o Results in severe watery diarrhoea of sudden onset
o Dehydration leads to death within hours if untreated
Giving oral sodium would cause more water to be secreted into the intestine, worse!
Giving oral glucose and sodium (oral rehydration therapy)
o Glucose is still absorbed through the intestinal wall
o This is done by a glucose-sodium co-transporter
o Carries one glucose molecule and one sodium ion across the intestine into the blood
o Water always follows sodium
o Diarrhoea is less severe and body becomes rehydrated
Oral rehydration therapy (ORT) also contains potassium and bicarbonate ions
o Prevents electrolyte imbalance

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o Prevents metabolic acidosis

HBIO1

Fluid-Mosaic Model
Membranes consist of a phospholipid bilayer studded with proteins, polysaccharides, lipids
The lipid bilayer is semipermeable - H2O and some small, uncharged, molecules (O2, CO2) can pass through
Phospholipids have two parts
o "Head": hydrophilic → attracts and mixes with H2O
o Two "fatty acid tails": hydrophobic

Passive Transport
Diffusion

Uses energy from moving particles (kinetic energy)

Substances move down their conc. gradient until the conc. are in equilibrium
Fick's law → rate of diffusion across an exchange surfaces (e.g. membrane, epithelium) depends on
o Surface area across within diffusion occurs (larger)
o Thickness of surface (thinner)
o Difference in conc. gradient (larger)
o (surface area * difference in conc.) / thickness of surface
Microvilli
o Extensions of the plasma membrane
o They increase the surface area of the membrane
o Accelerate the rate of diffusion
Temperature increases rate of diffusion due to increasing K.E. (kinetic energy)

Facilitated Diffusion

Transmembrane proteins form a water-filled ion channel

o Allows the passage of ions (Ca2+, Na+, Cl-) down their conc. Gradient
o NB: this is a passive process → no ATP required
o Some channels use a gate to regulate the flow of ions
o Selective permeability → not all molecules can pass through selective channels

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Transport mechanism
o Carrier protein binds to substrate (specific molecule)
o Molecule changes shape
o Release of the diffusing molecule (product) at the other side of the membrane
Example
o If you want to move a muscle, a nerve impulse is sent to this muscle
o The nerve impulse triggers the release of a neurotransmitter
o Neurotransmitter binds to a specific transmembrane protein
o The protein opens channels that allow the passage of Na+ across the membrane
o In this specific case, this causes muscle contraction
o These Na+ channels can also be opened by a change in voltage

Osmosis

Special term used for the diffusion of water through a differentially permeable cell membrane
Water is polar and able to pass through the lipid bilayer
Transmembrane proteins that form hydrophilic channels accelerate osmosis, but water is still able to get
through membrane without them
Osmosis generates pressure called osmotic pressure
o Water moves down its conc. gradient
o When pressure is equal on both sites net flow ceases (equilibrium)
o The pressure is said to be hydrostatic (water-stopping)

Water Potential
Measurement of ability or tendency of water molecules to move
Water potential of distilled water is 0, other solutions have a negative water potential
Hypotonic
o Solution is more dilute / has a lower conc. of solute / gains water by osmosis
o Cells placed in a hypotonic solution will increase in size as water moves in
o For example, red blood cells would swell and burst
o Plant cells are unable to burst as they have a strong cellulose cell wall
Hypertonic
o Solution with a higher conc. of solutes / loses water by osmosis
o Cells will shrink in hypertonic solutions

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Isotonic
o Solutions being compared have equal conc. of solutes
o Cells which are in an isotonic solution will not change their shape
o The extracellular fluid of the body is isotonic
Molecules collide with membrane / creates pressure, water potential
More free water molecules, greater water potential, less negative
Solute molecules attract water molecules which form a "shell" around them
o water molecules can no longer move freely
o less "free water" which lowers water potential, more negative

Active Transport
Movement of solute against the conc. gradient, from low to high conc.
Involves materials which will not move directly through the bilayer
Molecules bind to specific carrier proteins / intrinsic proteins
Involves ATP by cells (mitochondria) / respiration
o Direct active transport - transporters use hydrolysis to drive active transport
o Indirect active transport - transporters use energy already stored in gradient of a directly-pumped
ion
Bilayer protein transports a solute molecule by undergoing a change in shape (induced fit)
Occurs in ion uptake by a plant root; glucose uptake by gut cells

Ribosomes
20-30nm in size
Small organelles often attached to the ER but also found in the cytoplasm
Large (protein) and small (rRNA) subunits form the functional ribosome
o Subunits bind with mRNA in the cytoplasm
o This starts translation of mRNA for protein synthesis (assembly of amino acids into proteins)
Free ribosomes make proteins used in the cytoplasm. Responsible for proteins that
o go into solution in cytoplasm or
o form important cytoplasmic, structural elements
Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) are made in nucleus of cell

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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Rough ER
o Have ribosomes attached to the cytosolic side of their membrane
o Found in cells that are making proteins for export (enzymes, hormones, structural proteins,
antibodies)
o Thus, involved in protein synthesis
o Modifies proteins by the addition of carbohydrates, removal of signal sequences
o Phospholipid synthesis and assembly of polypeptides
Smooth ER
o Have no ribosomes attached and often appear more tubular than the rough ER
o Necessary for steroid synthesis, metabolism and detoxification, lipid synthesis
o Numerous in the liver

Golgi Apparatus
Stack of flattened sacs surrounded by membrane
Receives protein-filled vesicles from the rough ER (fuse with Golgi membrane)
Uses enzymes to modify these proteins (e.g. add a sugar chain, making glycoprotein)
Adds directions for destination of protein package - vesicles that leave Golgi apparatus move to different
locations in cell or proceed to plasma membrane for secretion
Involved in processing, packaging, and secretion
Other vesicles that leave Golgi apparatus are lysosomes

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

Substances are transported across plasma membrane in bulk via small vesicles
Endocytosis
o Part of the plasma membrane sinks into the cell
o Forms a vesicle with substances from outside
o Seals back onto the plasma membrane again
o Phagocytosis: endocytosis brings solid material into the cell
o Pinocytosis: endocytosis brings fluid materials into the cell
Exocytosis

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o Vesicle is formed in the cytoplasm // may form from Golgi apparatus

o Moves towards plasma membrane and fuses with plasma membrane
o Contents are pushed outside cell
o Insulin is secreted from cells in this way

Mitochondria
1µm in diameter and 7µm in length
Mostly protein, but also contains some lipid, DNA and RNA
Power house of the cell
Energy is stored in high energy phosphate bonds of ATP
Mitochondria convert energy from the breakdown of glucose into adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Responsible for aerobic respiration
Metabolic activity of a cell is related to the number of cristae (larger surface area) and mitochondria
Cells with a high metabolic activity (e.g. heart muscle) have many well developed mitochondria

Cystic Fibrosis

Caused by a mutation of the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Regulator (CFTR) gene

o Covered in Unit 2 Section 3.2.1
CFTR is a plasma membrane protein
o Normally, it transports chloride ions out of the cell by active transport
o In cystic fibrosis, a mutation alters the tertiary structure of CFTR
o The protein fails to reach plasma membrane
o Accumulation of Cl- and Na+ (attracted by negative Cl-) within the cell
o Secretions are thick as water stays inside the cell due to high internal Na+ (altered water potential)
o NB: water always follows Na+
Lungs
o "Produce less mucus than normal "1
o Lung surface is dehydrated and mucus adheres to airways
o This favours the growth of bacteria causing chronic infection
o White cells engulf bacteria and die (phagocytosis)
o The DNA from dead inflammatory cells (pus) contributes to thick sputum
o Sputum has an increased viscosity and cannot be removed by the ciliary escalator
o Obstructs airways and causes further inflammation

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Pancreas
o Thick digestive juice blocks passage from pancreas into small intestine (duodenum)
o Obstruction may cause chronic inflammation of the pancreas
o Pancreas fails to secrete digestive enzymes
o Food is not broken down and not absorbed
Sweat
o CFTR works differently in the skin
o Normally, chloride are transferred from the sweat into the cell
o Excessive NaCl remains on the skin - sweat taste saltier than normal
o Sweat can be collected and analysed to diagnose CF
Slow growth
o Less efficient energy/fooduptake due to malabsorption
o High energy consumption due to chronic inflammation of the lungs
o To compensate, children require high calorie diet (chocolate, crisps)
Treatment
o Pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) to treat fat malabsorption
o Fat-soluble vitamin supplements (A, E, D, K) to prevent deficiencies
o Inhaled enzyme DNAse breaks down excessive DNA and thin mucus
o Antibiotics to treat lung infections (frequent use causes antibiotics resistance)

References

1) Henke MO, Renner A, Huber RM, Seeds MC, Rubin BK. MUC5AC and MUC5B Mucins Are Decreased in
Cystic Fibrosis Airway Secretions. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2004 Jul;31(1):86-91. Epub 2004 Feb 26

Lung structure

Nose
o Air is filtered in nostrils with small hairs
o Air is moistened and warmed by nasal cavities
o Mucus traps foreign particles while cilia propels particles towards the throat
Air passes into the pharynx → larynx → trachea
o The epiglottis is found within the larynx
o Breathing: epiglottis projects upwards → larynx is open
o Swallowing: larynx pulled up / epiglottis flaps back and blocks larynx / prevents food from entering
airway

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Trachea
o Contains C-shaped cartilage rings / prevents collapse of tube
o Divides into 2 tubes with smaller diameter called bronchi
o Bronchus is supported with ciliated epithelia to prevent microorganisms
o Right bronchus is bigger than the left one → common site for inhaled foreign bodies
Bronchi further divide into bronchioles
o Their diameter can be controlled by smooth muscles
o Form alveoli (100µm in diameter)

Fick’s law

Rate of diffusion is proportional to (surface area x conc. difference) / distance

Applies to exchange of food, waste, gases, and heat with surroundings
Large organisms
o Have a small surface area : volume ratio
o Decreases the rate of diffusion
o Large animals loose less heat than small animals
o Don't require a high metabolism to maintain body temperature
o Feed only once
Small organisms
o Lose heat very readily
o Need a high metabolism to maintain body temp
o Must feed continuously
More detail in Unit 2 Section 3.2.4
[exam] Efficient gas exchange requires:
o Large surface area
o Large concentration gradient (low O2 on one side, high O2 on the other site of the membrane)
o Short diffusion pathway (thickness of membrane molecules must travel to diffuse across)

Alveolar Gas Exchange

Greater partial pressure of O2 in alveolar air / more O2 dissolves in blood (Henry's Law)
Two types of alveoli cells
Type I cells
o Composed of endothelium - layer of two thin cells
o This allows diffusion of gases (short diffusion pathway) down their conc. gradients

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o O2diffuses from air to blood; CO2diffuses from blood to air

Type II cells
o Secrete surfactant that keep alveoli constantly moist
o Allows oxygen to dissolveand to diffuse through the cells into the blood
o In the blood, it is taken up by haemoglobin
Alveoli contain phagocytes to kill bacteria that have not been trapped by mucus
Ventilation
o Flow of air in and out of alveoli
o Maintains large concentration gradient

Ventilation

Tidal volume, VT, volume of air inhaled and exhaled in a normal single breath (≈0.5 L)
Functional residual capacity, FRC, volume remaining in lungs after exhalation of tidal volume (≈2.5 L)
Expiratory reserve volume, ER, volume of a maximal exhalation (≈1.5 L)
Residual volume, RV, volume remaining in lung after maximal exhalation (≈1L)
Inspiratory reserve volume, IR, additional volume that can be inhaled after inhalation of tidal volume
Vital capacity, VC, maximum volume of exhalation after lungs are maximally filled
o Best clinical indicator of breathing
Minute ventilation is the overall flow of air into lungs (analogous to cardiac output)
o Minute Ventilation = Tidal Volume x Respiratory Rate
o (0.5 litre/breath * 10 breaths/min = 5 litres per minute)
"Dead space" - not all O2 available in air is available to alveoli
o Fresh air mixes with exhaled air during inspiration
o Alveolar ventilation takes dead space into account
o Alveolar ventilation = (Tidal Volume - Dead Space) x Respiratory Rate
o (350 ml x 10 breaths per minute = 3500 ml or 3.5 litres)

Measurements of Ventilation

A spirometer is used to measure expired breath

Restrictive disorders, such as pulmonary fibrosis, reduce compliance and vital capacity
Four measures are called respiratory volumes
o Tidal volume
o Inspiratory reserve volume
o Expiratory reserve volume

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o Residual volume
Others, called respiratory capacities, are calculated by adding 2 or more of the respiratory volumes

What are enzymes?

All enzymes are globular proteins → spherical in shape (Fig 1)

Control biochemical reactions in cells
They have the suffix "-ase"
Intracellular enzymes are found inside the cell
Extracellular enzymes act outside the cell (e.g. digestive enzymes)
Enzymes are catalysts → speed up chemical reactions (Fig 2, Fig 3)
o Reduce activation energy required to start a reaction between molecules
o Substrates (reactants) are converted into products
o Reaction may not take place in absence of enzymes (each enzyme has a specific catalytic action)

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o Enzymes catalyse a reaction at max. rate at an optimum state

Lock and key theory

o Only one substrate (key) can fit into the enzyme's active site (lock)
o Both structures have a unique shape
Induced fit theory (Fig 4)
o Substrate binds to the enzyme's active site
 The shape of the active site changes and moves the substrate closer to the enzyme
 Amino acids are moulded into a precise form

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 Enzyme wraps around substrate to distort it

o This lowers the activation energy
o An enzyme-substrate complex forms → fast reaction
o E + S → ES → P + E
Enzyme is not used up in the reaction (unlike substrates)

Fig4

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Fig1

Enzyme Activity

Changes in pH
o Affect attraction between substrate and enzyme
o Ionic bonds can break and change shape → enzyme is denatured
o Charges on amino acids can change → ES complex cannot form
o Optimum pH (enzymes work best)
 pH 7 for intracellular enzymes
 Acidic range (pH 1-6) in the stomach for digestive enzymes (pepsin)
 Alkaline range (pH 8-14) in oral cavities (amylase)

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o pH measures the conc. of hydrogen ions → higher conc. will give a lower pH
Enzyme conc
o Proportional to rate of reaction, provided other conditions are constant
o Straight line
Substrate conc. (Fig 5)
o Proportional to rate of reaction until there are more substrates than enzymes present
o Rate of reaction increases
 Substrate binds to active site, but more enzymes are available
 Rate increases if more substrate is added
o Eventually, curve becomes constant (no increased rate)
 Substrates occupy all active sites (all enzymes)
 Adding more substrate won't yield more product, as no more active sites are available

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Increased Temperature
o Increases speed of molecular movement → chances of molecular collisions → more ES complexes
o At 0-42°C rate of reaction is proportional to temp
o Enzymes have optimum temp. for their action (usually 37°C in humans)
o Above ≈42°C, enzyme is denatured due to heavy vibration that breaks -H bonds
o Shape is changed → active site can't be used anymore
Decreased Temperature
o Enzymes become less and less active, due to reductions in speed of molecular movement
o Below freezing point
 Inactivated, not denatured
 Regain their function when returning to normal temperature
o Thermophilic: heat-loving
o Hyperthermophilic: organisms are not able to grow below +70°C
o Psychrophiles: cold-loving

Enzymes - Heroes and Villains

Analytical reagents

Made up of 2 enzymes (glucose oxidase and peroxidise) and a colourless hydrogen-donor fixed on a strip
o The strip is dipped into a test solution (urine)
o Colour develops which indicates that glucose is present
o This method is used by diabetics to monitor their blood glucose levels
o In healthy people, the urine contains NO glucose
Glucose oxidase
o Highly sensitive to low conc. of glucose
o Highly specific because it only reacts with one specific substrate (glucose)
o Catalyses the conversion of glucose to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
Peroxidase
o Catalyzes reaction between colourless hydrogen-donor molecule and H2O2
o A coloured molecule is formed

Alpha1-antitrypsin

Function
o White blood cells (neutrophils) in the lung help to prevent infections
o They also release elastase and protease (trypsin)
o Those enzymes break down/digest ct. and proteins inside the lungs and damage it
o NB: Trypsin is also found in the digestive system and digests food!
o The anti-protease alpha1-antitrypsin protects the lungs from elastase and protease
Alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency

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o Genetic disease that causes emphysema

o Trypsin is no longer inhibited and damages the lungs
o Walls of alveoli are damaged and surface area for gas exchange is reduced
o Patients can be treated by infusing alpha1-antitrypsin
Smoking
o Increases the number of neutrophils in the lungs (more trypsin is secreted into the lungs)
o ALSO inactivates alpha1-antitrypsin
o This creates an imbalance between proteases (trypsin) and anti-proteases (α1-antitrypsin)
o Same lung damage as in α1-antitrypsin deficiency but much slower

Lactose intolerance

Lactase splits lactose (milk sugar) into β-glucose and galactose

Lactose intolerant person lacks lactase → lactose is neither digested nor absorbed
High levels of soluble lactose remain in small intestine
Supports large populations of bacteria / ferment lactose producing gas / causing abdominal discomfort
Water potential becomes more negative / H2O moves into small intestine / not reabsorbed / diarrhoea
Adults rarely produce lactase / gene is switched off in adulthood

Pancreatitis

Pancreas is found below the stomach

Produces digestive enzymes (amylase, lipase, trypsin that break down starch, lipids, proteins, respectively)
Acute (sudden onset)
o Reversible inflammation of a previously normal pancreas
o Caused by gallstones, alcohol, scorpion bite, trauma
o Inappropriate activation of enzymes
 Trypsin becomes active before released from the pancreas
 Pancreas is made of proteins
 Trypsin is active and digests/hydrolyses proteins
 Cell wall breaks down, amylase and lipase escape into the blood
o Diagnosis
 Amylase and lipase remain elevated in blood for 3 days
Chronic (gradual onset)
o Inflammation is caused by cystic fibrosis or long-term alcohol intake
o Pancreas gradually loses its ability to produce digestive enzymes

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o Food is not digested, hence not absorbed (malabsorption)

o Diagnosis
 Amylase and lipase in blood normal
 Low levels of faecal elastase
 Too much fat in faeces → fat passes through gut without being digested and absorbed
Pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT)
o Required for life in patients with irreversible pancreatic damage
 Chronic pancreatitis
 Cystic fibrosis
o Tablet contains digestive enzymes (normally produced by pancreas)
o Degradation of enzymes/proteins by stomach acid prevented by
 Coating tablet with protective layer
 Taking extra tablet that inhibits acid secretion

Reaction to Foreign Material

Antigen

Usually a protein (but polysaccharides, nucleic acid and lipids also act as antigens)
Self-antigen
o Only found on the host's own cells and does not trigger an immune response
o As these are proteins, their structure depends on the amino acid sequence
o The gene for this sequence is highly polymorphic, having several alleles at each loci
o There is great genetic variability between individuals
o Thus, antigen is different in other people → injection would cause an immune response
o There is only 25% chance that siblings will possess an identical antigen (transplant will not be
rejected)
Non-self-antigen
o Found on cells entering the body (e.g. bacteria, viruses, another person's cell)
o Can also be displayed by cancer cells
o May cause an immune response

Antibody (Immunoglobin Protein)

Secreted by B-lymphocytes and produced in response to a specific (foreign) non-self antigen

B-lymphocyte's receptor site matches the non-self-antigen
Each antibody is produced by one type of B-lymphocyte for only one type of antigen

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Has a Y-shape
o The two ends of the Y are called the Fab fragments
o The other end is called the Fc fragment
o Fab fragments are responsible for the antigen-binding properties
o Fc fragment triggers the immune response
B cells divide and form memory cells and antibody-secreting plasma cells
Glossary
o Agglutination makes pathogens clump together
o Antitoxins neutralise toxins produced by bacteria
o Lysis digests bacterial membrane, killing the bacterium (phagocytosis)
o Opsonisation coats pathogen in protein that identifies them as foreign cells

Phagocytosis

White cells (phagocytes) contain digestive enzymes within lysosomes

o Neutrophils primarily engulf bacteria
o Macrophages engulf larger particles; including old and infected red blood cells
Found in blood, lymph systems and tissues
o Squeeze through gaps in the walls of venules to enter tissues
o This allows them to move faster to tissues infected with pathogens
Mechanism
o Phagocytes are attracted by chemotaxis
o Opsonisation by antibodies
 Bacteria becomes coated with antibody
 As a result, binding between bacteria and phagocytes is improved
o Phagocytes form pseudopodia around the particle
o This positions the particle into a phagocytic vacuole (also called phagosome)
o Lysosome fuses with the phagosome
o Intracellular killing by digestive enzymes from the lysosome
o Pus is formed at the site of infection if no extensive vasculature is present

Types of Immune Response

Lymphocytes undergo maturating before birth, producing different types of lymphocytes

Humoral response - B lymphocytes
o Produce and release antibodies into blood plasma

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o Produce antibodies from B plasma cells

o Direct recognition of foreign antigen
Cellular response - T lymphocytes
o Bind to antigen carrying cells and destroy them and/or activate the humoral response
o Recognize foreign antigens displayed on the surface of normal body cells
Primary response produces memory cells which remain in the circulation
Secondary response new invasion by same antigen at a lower state. Immediate recognition and distraction
by memory cells - faster and larger response usually prevents harm

B-Lymphocytes: Humoral Response

Production of antibodies in response to antigens found on pathogens not entering cells (bacteria)
Each B-lymphocyte (B cell) recognizes one specific antigen
Primary response
o Antigen binds to specific Fab fragment of B cell
 This produces a short and weak response
 T helper cells are required to trigger the true potential of B cells
o Once activated, the B cell grow and produce many clone cells
o Clone cells have the same Fab fragment that recognizes the same antigen
o Most differentiate into plasma cells
 Secrete large amounts of antibodies
 Bind to antigens and mark them for destruction
o Some differentiate into memory cells
Secondary response
o Exposure of same antigen causes activation of memory cells
o They immediately recognize the antigen
o Antibodies are produced more rapidly and in larger amounts

T-Lymphocytes: Cell-Mediated Response

Pathogens that quickly enter cells are more difficult to remove (viruses, tuberculosis)
Infected cell is directly destroyed / no antibodies involved
This is done by binding to the self and non-self antigen
o Prevents destruction of harmless cells
o Self antigen is a MHC (Major Histocompability Complex) protein present on almost all body cells

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o Non-self antigen (from viruses, bacterium, cancer, foreign cell, parasite) is processed and displayed
on the surface of the infected cell
Primary response
o Macrophage
 Engulfs the pathogen and processes its foreign antigen
 Non-self antigen is transported to the plasma membrane surface of the macrophage
 Now called an antigen presenting cell (APC)
o T Helper cells (Th cells)
 Recognize foreign antigen on APC
 Activates cytotoxic T cells and B cells to destroy the infected cell
o T killer cells (cytotoxic T cells)
 Must recognize self and non-self antigen to attach to infected cell
 Directly kill pathogen by injecting proteases into the infected cell
 Detach to search for more foreign cells
o T-Suppressor cells switch off the T and B cell responses when infection clears
Secondary response
o Some T cells differentiate into T-memory cells
o Remain in the circulation and respond quickly when same pathogen enters body again
HIV destroys T-helper cells
o Other immune cells are not activated
o Humoral response cannot be launched without Th cells / require co-stimulation of Th cells
o No immune response in patients with AIDS

Immunity and Vaccines

Vaccination is an artificial active immunity

Types
o Live attenuated: organism is alive but has been modified/weakened so that it is not harmful
 MMR (measles, mumps, rubella) - vaccine does NOT cause autism!
 BCG for tuberculosis
o Inactivated: dead pathogen but antigen is still recognised and an immune response triggered
 Pertussis (whooping cough)
 Poliomyelitis
o Toxoid: vaccine contains a toxin
 Diphtheria

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 Tetanus
o Subunit: contains purified antigen that is genetically engineered rather than whole organism
 Haemophilus influenza b - causes epiglottitis, meningitis
 Meningococcal C - causes serious septicaemia, meningitis
 Pneumoccocal - causes meningitis which results in permanent disabilities in >30%!
Vaccine may cause swelling, mild fever, and malaise
NEVER give live vaccines to children with an impaired immune system!
NEVER give vaccines if a child is ill (has a fever)

Active (Antibodies made by the human immune Passive (Given-Antibodies, short term
system, long term acting due to memory cells) acting)
Natural - Response to disease - Acquired antibodies
- Rejecting transplant (via placenta, breast milk)
Artificial Vaccination - Injection of antibodies from an artificial
(immunisation) (Injection of the antigen in a weakened form) source, e.g. anti venom against snake biter
Differences - Antibody in response to antigen - Antibodies provided
- Production of memory cells - No memory cells
- Long lasting - Short lasting

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Monoclonal Antibodies (Magic Bullets)

Hybridoma
o B cells are fused with tumour cells in the lab
o Divide rapidly to form a clone of identical cells
o Specific monoclonal antibodies are continuously produced and useful as
 Tumour markers (antigens not present on non-cancer cells / attach to cancer cells only)
 Anti-cancer drugs attached to monoclonal antibodies - deliver drug directly to cancer cells,
fewer side effects
Uses of monoclonal antibodies
o Monoclonal antibody is an antibody that is of just one type
o Used to target the treatment of cancer cells or to screen (AIDS) in contaminated blood
o Antibody direct enzyme prodrug therapy techniques (ADEPT)
 Monoclonal antibodies are tagged with an enzyme that converts the prodrug (inactive drug)
to an active form that kills cells (i.e. is cytotoxic)
 The prodrug is injected in high conc
 Attached to a monoclonal antibody, enzyme activates the drug and kills only cancer cells
o In immunoassays, they can be labelled (radioactively) making them easy to detect
o In the enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA) technique, they are immobilised on an inert base
and a test solution is passed over them
 Target antigen combines with immobilised monoclonal antibodies
 Second antibody attaches with an enzyme and binds to the monoclonal antibodies
 and to the target antigen as well
 Substrate is added which is converted to a coloured product by the added enzyme
 Conc. of colour tells us the amount of antigens present in the test solution
o Used to detect drugs in urine of athletics or in home pregnancy tests (where an antigen in human
chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) is secreted by the placenta)
o Transplanted organs have non-self-antigens triggering antibodies to attack the organ, leading to its
rejecting
 T-Lymphocytes are needed for B-lymphocytes to function
 Monoclonal antibodies against T-lymphocytes can be used to prevent B-lymphocytes from
functioning, thus blocking the rejection of transplanted organs
o [EXAM] Helping to diagnose between two pathogens because
 Antigens are on cell-surface membrane
 Monoclonal antibody reacts with specific antigen only

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 Thus, detects presence of special bacteria because of a different antigen on another,

different bacteria

Bacteria and Viruses

Both, bacteria and viruses, are called microbes

Infectious or communicable diseases are caused by pathogens
o Gain entry, colonise tissues, resist defences, damage host tissues
Microscopy
o Magnification → increases the size of an object
o Resolution/resolving power → ability to distinguish between adjacent points
Calculating magnification
o X = size of picture (measure the size of the diagram in the question)
o Y = size of object in real life (often given in exam question)
o Make sure Y has the same unit as X!
 If X = mm and Y = μm
 Convert mm to μm = X * 1000
o Magnification = Xμm / Yμm

Feature Optical microscope Electron microscope

Radiation Light Electrons
Magnification 400x (max1500) ≈500 000x
Resolution 2µm 1nm / 0,001µm
Electrons have a small wavelength
Thus, higher resolution
Vacuum in microscope Absent Present
Specimen is - Alive or dead - Dead (vacuum!)
- Stained
Transmission microscope:
Electrons pass through internal
structure of specimen

Scanning microscope:
Beams of electrons are reflected

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off specimens surface. Allows a

three dimensional view

Bacteria

Grow best at optimum conditions (human body)

o Constant temperature
o Neutral pH
o Constant supply of food, H2O, O2
o Mechanism removing waste
Classification
o Most bacteria require oxygen to survive: aerobic bacteria
o Bacteria that are growing in the absence of oxygen: anaerobic bacteria
Bacteria are prokaryotes
o Nucleus (5µm)
 Contains chromosomes (genes made of DNA which control cell activities)
 Separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear envelope
 The envelope is made of a double membrane containing small holes
 These small holes are called nuclear pores (100nm)
 Nuclear pores allow the transport of proteins into the nucleus
o Undergo asexually reproduction by binary fission / 2 identical daughter cells
Only a small number are pathogens. Pathogens cause disease by:
o Damaging our cells; or
o Producing toxins; or
o Directing our immune system against our own cells

Salmonella

Damage host cells

Found in eggs and poultry
Causes disease if food is expired and/or undercooked
Organism is taken up by epithelial cells in the intestine
o Severity depends on ability to invade host cell
o Some people are more susceptible than others
o Ligand on pathogen must fit onto receptor proteins on host
o Structure of receptor protein depends on an individual’s genetic coding

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Host creates a ruffled surface

o Invaded cells detach from intestinal wall, creating inflamed lesions
o Secretion of large amounts of watery fluid into the lumen of the gut
o This causes watery diarrhoea
Other symptoms: vomiting, abdominal pain
Management
o High fluid intake
o Often self-limiting, don’t require treatment
o Severe cases, take stool culture and use antibiotics

Vibrio Cholera

Produces enterotoxins released from bacteria

o Enters enterocytes (cells lining the surface of the intestine) by endocytosis
o Activates the CFTR protein (cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator)
o Causes secretion of sodium, chloride and bicarbonate ions from enterocytes
o Water follows sodium into the intestinal lumen
Osmotic loss of up to 10L of water per day!
o Results in severe watery diarrhoea of sudden onset
o Dehydration leads to death within hours if untreated
Giving oral sodium would cause more water to be secreted into the intestine, worse!
Giving oral glucose and sodium (oral rehydration therapy)
o Glucose is still absorbed through the intestinal wall
o This is done by a glucose-sodium co-transporter
o Carries one glucose molecule and one sodium ion across the intestine into the blood
o Water always follows sodium
o Diarrhoea is less severe and body becomes rehydrated
Oral rehydration therapy (ORT) also contains potassium and bicarbonate ions
o Prevents electrolyte imbalance
o Prevents metabolic acidosis

Tuberculosis (TB)

Cause an attack by the body's own immune system

Symptoms
o Weight loss

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o Night sweats
o Cough
o Rash
Transmitted by coughing and sneezing
Body tries to destroy the invading bacteria in the lungs
But the inflammation causes damage to the surrounding cells
Lesions may become hard or spongy, leaving "holes" in the lungs
Treated with a cocktail of antibiotics for 6 month

Ability to Cause Disease

Depends on
o Location - what tissue is colonised
o Infectivity - how easily a bacterium can enter the host cell
o Invasiveness - how easily a bacterium or its toxin spreads within the body
o Pathogenicity - how a bacterium causes disease

Antibiotics

Produced as natural secretions by bacterial or fungal cells

o Bacteria and fungi are secondary metabolites (produce antibiotics during a late stage of their life
cycle)
o Antibiotics inhibit growth of natural competitors
o Gives antibiotic-secreting population an advantage in colonising it
Antibiotics harm pathogenic bacteria by
o Bacteriostatic antibiotics that are slowing down their growth rate
o Bactericidal antibiotics that kill pathogenic bacteria (in correct concentration)
Narrow-spectrum antibiotics (e.g. penicillin) are only effective on a few pathogens
Wide-spectrum antibiotics (e.g. chloramphenicol) are effective on many pathogens
Prevent formation of bacterial cell wall
o Bacteria occupy a solution with a more negative water potential than their own cytoplasm
o Without the cell wall, bacteria are exposed to this hostile environment
o As a result, bacteria will swell, burst and die
o Revision: Water Potential from Unit 1 Section 3-1-3(b)
Prevent formation of bacterial proteins
o By inhibiting DNA transcription or mRNA translation

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o Bacteria are unable to synthesise proteins → affects the metabolism of bacteria

NOTE: Antibiotics do not affect viruses
o Viruses have no cellular structure (such as a cell wall)
o Viruses use the host to reproduce and synthesize proteins

Viruses

Transmitted via
o Sexual contact
o Placenta (infected woman passing it to her baby)
o Receiving blood from an infected person (IV drug abuse)

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

Structure
o Retrovirus: core contains reverse transcriptase and RNA (2 single strands)
o Core is surrounded by a protective coat of protein called capsid
o Capsid is covered by a lipid membrane (acquired when HIV leaves cell after replication)
o This lipid membrane has antigens and glycoproteins on its surface
o Those projections recognize receptors on T-lymphocytes
AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)
o All T-helper cells infected and destroyed
o Without T-helper cells, no immune response
o People highly susceptible to infections and cancer
HIV can change its surface proteins and evade the immune system / vaccination is difficult

Cycle of Infection

HIV enters body from HIV +ve persons via body fluids such as blood or semen
Viral glycoprotein attaches to receptors on cell membrane of T-helper cells
HIV enters cell by endocytosis, releasing its RNA and reserve transcriptase into the cytoplasm
Reverse transcriptase copies viral RNA strand
This forms a double stranded viral DNA in the nucleus of T-helper cell / now called "provirus"
Viral DNA is integrated into the host DNA / host cell replicates with provirus
Latency period (variable period of time) → infection of more cells, but no symptoms
Outbreak
o Host DNA is transcribed to make new viral RNA

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o Proteins necessary for capsid and envelope are synthesised by infected host cell
New viruses assembled with RNA and proteins leave the cell by exocytosis
Viral envelope is constructed from cell membrane of host cell

Nucleic Acids - The Key to Life

Nucleic acids carry the genetic code that determines the order of amino acids in proteins
Genetic material stores information, can be replicated, and undergoes mutations
Differ from proteins as it has phosphorus and NO sulphur
Made up of several chains of nucleotides
DNA and RNA are types of nucleic acids

Nucleotide

Sugar-phosphate backbone (ensures stability of the molecule)

o Pentose sugar
 Deoxyribose in DNA
 Ribose in RNA
o Phosphate group
Organic bases
o Purines (double rings of C and N - bigger)
 Adenine
 Guanine
o Pyrimidines (single ring of C and N - smaller)
 Thymine in DNA only
 Uracil in RNA only
 Cytosine

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Made up of 2 separate chains of nucleotides hold together by base pairing

o Connected by weak hydrogen bonds
o Can easily be opened for replication
o Adenine-Thymine has 2 H-bonds
o Cytosine-Guanine has 3 H-bonds
DNA normally twist into a helix (coil) / forms a double helix

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o Makes the molecule compact (store a lot in small space)

o Protects from damage as base pairs are facing inwards
Both chains of DNA are
o Directional → according to the attachment between sugars and phosphate group
o Antiparallel → essential for gene coding and replication

Semi-Conservative Replication of DNA

Semi-conservative replication: each DNA strand acts as a template for the formation of a new strand
Happens during interphase S of the cell cycle
Unwinding
o Enzyme DNA helicase separates 2 strands of DNA by breaking hydrogen bonds
o Strands are separated a little at a time (not all at once!)
o This creates a replication fork which moves along the strand
Free DNA molecules join up to exposed bases by complementary base pairing
o Adenine with Thymine (A=T 2-H bonding)
o Cytosine with Guanine (CΞG 3-H bonding)
For the new 5' to 3' strand
o Enzyme DNA polymerase catalyses the joining of the separate nucleotides
o New strand is completed "all in one go"
For the 3' to 5' strand
o DNA polymerase produces short sections of strand
o These sections have to be joined by DNA ligase to make the completed new strand
o Specific base pairing ensures that two identical copies of the original DNA have been formed

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Ribose instead of deoxyribose

Single chain (shorter than DNA)
o Can pass through nucleus into cytoplasm
Base difference
o Uracil instead of thymine
o Adenine, guanine, and cytosine are the same
Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the code from DNA that will be translated into an amino acid sequence
Transfer RNA (tRNA) transfers amino acids to their correct position on the mRNA strand

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Genetic Code

DNA codes for assembly of amino acids / forms a polypeptide chain (proteins - enzymes)
The code is read in a sequence of three bases called
o Triplets on DNA (e.g. CAC TCA)
o Codons on mRNA (e.g. GUG AGU)
o Anticodons on tRNA (e.g. CAC UCA) - must be complementary to the codon of mRNA
Each triplet codes for one amino acid
Single amino acid may have up to 6 different triplets for it due to the redundancy of the code / some amino
acids are coded by more than one codon (degenerate code)
Same triplet code will give the same amino acid in all organisms (universal code)
We have 64 possible combinations of the 4 bases in triplets, 43
No base of one triplet contributes to part of the code next to it (non-overlapping)
Few triplets code for START and STOP sequences for polypeptide chain formation
o START: AUG
o STOP: UAA, UAG, UGA

DNA and Inheritance

Cell metabolism: reactions inside cells

Metabolic pathway: sequence of chemical reactions
Alleles: different forms of the same gene
Gene: length of DNA that carries the code for a protein (enzyme)
o Enzyme effect the cell's metabolism
o Visible changes are described with the phenotype
o The phenotype is influenced by the metabolic pathway
Therefore
o DNA controls enzyme production
o Enzymes control metabolic pathways
o Metabolic pathways influence the phenotype of an organism

Alleles and Genes

Humans have 46 chromosomes

o 22 of them are paired up as homologous chromosomes
o Females have an additional homologous pair of sex chromosomes (XX)

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o Males have an X and Y sex chromosome

Pair of homologous chromosomes
o One of the pair is inherited from the mother, one from the father
o Gene is a small section of DNA that codes for a specific characteristic
 Hair colour,
 Eye colour, ...
o Found on both pairs of chromosomes at the same locus (position)
o A gene can have different alleles (forms)
 Brown eyes, blue eyes, ...
 Black hair, brown hair, ...
o This influences the phenotype
Multiple alleles
o Human ABO blood group is controlled by the gene called immunoglobulin I
o The immunoglobulin gene has 3 alleles IA, IB, I0
o These alleles code for antigen A, B, neither A/B, respectively
o Only 2 alleles can be present → IAIB is codominant, I0 is recessive

Genes Control Phenotype

Mutation

Change in one or more nucleotide bases in the DNA

Change in the genotype (may be inherited)
Deletion: reading frame shifts
Substitution: one base replaced by another
Duplication: repetition of part of the sequence
Addition: addition of extra base

Cystic Fibrosis

Revision from Unit 1 Section 3.1.3(c)

Autosomal recessive disorder
Mutation of the CFTR gene on chromosome 7
Deletion of 3 bases / allele is missing 3 nucleotides
Those nucleotides code for the amino acid phenylalanine
Phenylalanine is missing from the CFTR protein
Faulty CFTR protein cannot control the opening of chloride channels in the cell membrane

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Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Autosomal recessive disorder

Gene mutation in DNA/gene coding for the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase
Phenylalanine hydroxylase is not produced
Amino acid phenylalanine cannot be converted to the amino acid tyrosine
Tyrosine
o Necessary to produce the pigment melanin
o Patients are fair-haired, fair skinned and blue eyed (phenotype)
Phenylalanine
o Accumulates in the blood and causes irreversible brain damage
o Found in most food that contains proteins
o Treated by avoiding food that contains phenylalanine (diet low in protein)
o Levels in blood are regularly measured by GP
All babies are screened shortly after birth to prevent learning difficulties

Normal:

Defect (PKU):

These notes have been written by Ian Daniels.

Please note: this page is under construction and the notes shown here are for preview!!!

3.5.1 Human impacts on evolution

Evolution:

Changes allele frequency in population.

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Individuals show variation.

Phenotypic variation due to:
o Genetic Factors,
o Environmental Factors,
o Combination of both.
Competition results in differential survival and reproduction.
Selection acts on populations.
Organisms with a selective advantage:
o more likely to survive
o reproduce
o pass on genes to next generation.
Selection may change allele and phenotype frequencies.
Populations reproducing in isolation can result in the formation of new species.
o Allopatric Speciation:
 Geographically separated sister species are now so different - no interbreeding is possible.
o Sympatric Speciation:
 Genetic variation occurring in same geographical location.
Human activities have, and continue, to alter environment of many organisms.
o Changes selection pressures
o May effect evolution of species.

3.5.2 People change communities

Ecosystems and the stability of populations

Introduction of plant/animal species to different countries

Changes stability of native species:
o populations
o communities
o ecosystems.
ECOSYSTEMS include:
o living organisms
o physical factors
o chemical factors
POPULATION = All organisms of one species in particular habitat

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o Populations of different species form COMMUNITIES.

COMMUNITY: found in one particular habitat
o based on Dynamic Feeding Relationships
Species occupy particular NICHE within habitat.
Governed by:
o adaptation to food availability
o and/or prevailing abiotic conditions.
Ecosystem supports certain size population of any single species.
Influencing factors:
o Abiotic Factors
o inter-organism interactions
o inter-organism competition
o predation
NOTE: Be able to evaluate evidence and make balanced judgements between meeting human demands and
the need to conserve the environment.

Winners and Losers

Domesticated/introduced plants/animals affect ecosystems by competing with native species.

o Examples:
o domestic cats
o grey squirrels
o Japanese knotweed
Growth of the urban environment has increased habitat and niches for:
o foxes
o rats
o pigeons
o and others

GM Organisms

Environmental Impact Assessment.

o Impact of large-scale introduction of GM organisms
o Eg. Soya and Maize.

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3.5.3 Humans’ health can be affected when they change their

environment
Diet, Crops, Food Allergies

Our diet has changed.

Vegetable oil seen large increase in demand.
Linked to increase in range of allergies.
o Nut allergy.
o Hay fever
Allergic responses produce illness.
Allergens = antigens that produce abnormal immune response.
Hypersensitivity:
o Allergic Reactions involving Histamine production:
 Hay fever
 Food allergies
 Allergic asthma
 Hives
o B cells produce antibody (IgE) in presence of allergen.
o IgE binds to Mast Cells.
o Mast Cells produce histamine when exposed to the allergen.
o Histamine leads to symptoms of allergy.
Anaphylaxis = Sudden, Acute reaction to allergen.
Can result in:
o oedema (inflammation) in airways
o large, sudden fall in blood pressure.
Treated with adrenaline.
Use:
o skin test for possible allergies
o antihistamines

Air pollution and Respiratory illnesses

Claims of links between air pollution and respiratory illnesses, Eg:

o Asthma

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o bronchitis

Water Pollution and illness

Polluted water can lead to illness.

Beaches and coliform standards:
o Coliform bacteria and faecal streptococci = pollution indicators
o Blue Flag Beaches meet water quality standards.
Cryptosporidium:
o single celled parasite.
o Causes cryptosporidiosis.
o Oocyst = resistant form
o Present in infected faeces (human and animal)
o Oocyst infects new host.
o Pollution of waterways from:
 Infected farm animal slurry → rivers
 Sewage discharge → rivers

3.5.4 Human activities can damage ecosystems and create

new ones
Succession

Ecosystems are dynamic systems.

Communities move from: Colonisation → Climax
Known as Succession.
Communities change with time, due to interaction between:
o Species
o Environment.
Certain species may change their environment -
o result may be more beneficial for other species!

Local Wildlife

Human activities may produce 'bare' areas of land and water.

Wasteland = unmanaged land, vegetation in early stages of succession.

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o Includes corridor habitat, eg. railway/roadside embankments.

Brownfield sites = sites previously developed for human use.
o Can be reclaimed
o Provide habitats for flora and fauna threatened by urbanisation/intensive agriculture
Ecosystems range greatly in size.
Increase area by 10 - doubles number of species.
Important to enhance biodiversity in urban environment.
Corridor habitats allow movement of plants/animals between habitats.
NOTE: Be able to describe techniques to measure biotic/abiotic factors in an ecosystem.

Waste Disposal

Should be environmentally sustainable.

BPEO = Best Practical Environmental Option.
The waste hierarchy:
o Prevented/Reduced at source
o Re-used
o Re-cycled (used as raw material)
o Or (if not pos) use as substitute for non-renewable energy source
o Only landfill if none of above possible.
Microorganisms decompose organic remains.
Anaerobic bacteria produce methane.
Collect from landfill sites to use as a fuel.
Polluter Pays Principle:
o Polluter pays for direct/indirect environmental consequences.

3.5.5 Plants can reduce the impact of the use of fossil fuels on
climate change
Carbon Footprint:
o Measure of greenhouse gasses produced by human activities.
o Units of kilograms of CO2 produced per year.
NOTE: Be able to describe how:
o primary /secondary contributions are calculated
o to reduce household contributions

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o to off-set CO2 emissions.

Climate Change

Burning of fossil fuels → production of greenhouse gasses.

Changing climate: UK is getting warmer.
Affecting distribution of plants and animals
NOTE: be able to describe effects of climate change on:
o Natural range of species
o breeding seasons
o availability of food
Plants can reduce the impact of fossil fuels on climate change.
They remove CO2 from the atmosphere via Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the major route energy enters ecosystems
Energy transferred through trophic levels of food chains/food webs
and is dissipated.
Energy transfer used to produce ATP and reduced NADP
o in light-dependant stage of photosynthesis
ATP and reduced NADP used in light independent stage
incorporation of CO2 → produces sugars.
ATP synthesis associated with electron transfer chains -
located in the chloroplasts.
Therefore: tree planting used to off-set CO2 emissions.
Carbon is sequestered in bio-mass of trees.
Biofuels reduce use of fossil fuels.
Renewable energy sources.
o Biomass from fast-growing plants = fuel to burn
o Vegetable oils = diesel substitute
o Ethanol from fermented plants = petrol substitute/additive.
Large scale production of plants needed.
Impacts environmental
Reduces food available for human consumption.

Respiration → CO2 → Atmosphere

ATP = source of energy for biological processes.

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All cells/organisms respire

In respiration:
o Glycolysis occurs in cytoplasm,
o is anaerobic.
o Remaining steps occur in mitochondria.
o Associated with electron transfer chain,
o in membranes of mitochondria.
o Oxygen = the final electron acceptor.
o CO2 = waste product.

3.5.6 People and their microorganisms

The Human Ecosystem

Human body supports populations of bacteria and fungi.

These microorganisms:
o carry out extracellular digestion of biological molecules
o absorb products of digestion
o use these in their own metabolism.

The ecology of the skin

The skin supports communities of microorganisms, including:

Staphylococci
Micrococci
Corynebacterium
Fungi, eg. yeast.
Can cause spots/blemishes, number of skin conditions.
Acne vulgaris caused by Propionibacterium acnes
growing in/near sebaceous glands in the skin.
Antibiotics/antiseptics can control populations.

The ecology of the gut

The human gut supports populations of bacterial species,

form a bacterial community.

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Human actions (eg. antibiotics) can change dynamic of community,

may adversely affect functioning of the gut.

Antibacterial Resistance

Humans have introduced large amounts of antibacterial agents into environment.

This selective pressure → evolution of resistant microbes.
Eg. MRSA
Originally MRSA meant methylin resistant staphylococcus aureus -
now means multiply resistant!

Genetic Code

DNA codes for assembly of amino acids / forms a polypeptide chain (proteins - enzymes)
The code is read in a sequence of three bases called
o Triplets on DNA (e.g. CAC TCA)
o Codons on mRNA (e.g. GUG AGU)
o Anticodons on tRNA (e.g. CAC UCA) - must be complementary to the codon of mRNA
Each triplet codes for one amino acid
Single amino acid may have up to 6 different triplets for it due to the redundancy of the code / some amino
acids are coded by more than one codon (degenerate code)
Same triplet code will give the same amino acid in all organisms (universal code)
We have 64 possible combinations of the 4 bases in triplets, 43
No base of one triplet contributes to part of the code next to it (non-overlapping)
Few triplets code for START and STOP sequences for polypeptide chain formation
o START: AUG
o STOP: UAA, UAG, UGA

Protein Synthesis
Transcription: DNA to mRNA

DNA in nucleus unzips - bonds break

Single template strand of DNA used for mRNA (triplet on DNA = codon for amino acid on mRNA)
Enzyme RNA polymerase joins nucleotides together
Free RNA nucleotides are assembled according to the DNA triplets (A-U / C-G / T-A)

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mRNA bases are equivalent to the non-template DNA strand

Start and stop codons are included
Introns (Non-coding) and exons (coding) DNA sequences are present in the primary mRNA transcript.
Introns are removed before the mRNA is translated so that exons are only present in the mature mRNA
transcript
[EXAM] Total number of bases in the DNA sense strand and total number of bases in the mRNA are different
mRNA moves into cytoplasm and becomes associated with ribosomes

Translation: mRNA to Protein via tRNA

Translation is the synthesis of a polypeptide chain from amino acids by using codon sequences on mRNA

tRNA with anticodon carries amino acid to mRNA associated with ribosome
"Anticodon-codon" complementary base pairing
Peptide chain is transferred from resident tRNA to incoming tRNA
tRNA departs and will soon pick up another amino acid

Requirement for Translation

Pool of amino acids / building blocks from which the polypeptides are constructed
ATP and enzymes are needed
Complementary bases that are hydrogen-bonded to one another
Messenger RNA (mRNA): carries the code from the DNA that will be translated into an amino acid sequence
Transfer RNA (tRNA): transfer amino acids to their correct position on mRNA strand
Ribosomes: provide the environment for tRNA attachment and amino acid linkage

Regulation of Transcription

Testosterone
o Steroid hormones are lipid soluble → easily diffuse across cell membrane into cytoplasm
o Binds to testosterone receptor found in cytoplasm of target cells
o Can now enter the cell nucleus
o Testosterone-Receptor complex binds to chromatin
o Activates mRNA transcription
Acetylation
o Acetyl group added to histone protein
o Allows binding of RNA polymerase to DNA
o Stimulates transcription
Methylation

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o DNA methylation inhibits transcription

o See 3-4-2 Epigenetic Imprinting

DNA and Cancer

Tumours

Benign - does not spread from its origin (only increasing in size)
Malignant - this is cancer
o Spread throughout the body invading other tissues and destroying them
o Cells can break off from the primary malignant tumour
o They can travel/spread via the lymph system
o Cause secondary tumours at other places (metastasis)
o Hard to find and difficult to remove (all of) them

Genes and Cancer

Tumour suppressor genes

o Reduce normal activity by inhibiting cell division
o Initiate cell death (apoptosis) if the cell’s DNA is damaged (due to mutations)
o Mutation of this gene can cause a loss of its function
o This will result in tumours
Proto-Oncogenes
o Control cell division
o Turn into oncogenes if they mutate and become overactive
o RAS oncogenes
 G-proteins are found on plasma membranes and enable cells to respond to growth factors
 They are normally activated by enzymes found within the cell (GTPase)
 Mutation of the RAS gene causes the production of GTPase deficient G-proteins
 The mutated G-proteins remain active for longer causing tumours
o Myc oncogenes
 Myc gene produces a protein needed for normal cell division
 Common mutation switches the myc proto-oncogene from chromosome 8 to 14
 There, it acts as an oncogene / abnormal cell division / tumour
 When both ras and myc oncogenes present together, malignant cells result

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Methylation
o Many methyl groups prevents gene transcription
o Prevents transcription of tumour suppressor genes
o Affected by the environment
 Heavy metals
 Pesticides
 Smoking

Oestrogen and Breast Cancer

Most breast cancers contain oestrogen receptors

o Oestrogen binds to receptors in cytoplasm
o Stimulates cell division and cancer grows
Tamoxifen
o Oestrogen antagonist → blocks oestrogen receptors
o Prevents cell division but does not kill cells

Enzymes control and rate of reactions in cells

Reactions in cells is referred to as cell metabolism

A sequence of chemical reactions is called a metabolic pathway
DNA controls enzyme production
o Enzymes control metabolic pathways
o Metabolic pathways influence the phenotype of an organism
Function of enzymes
o Break down of toxic products (build up could cause damage)
o Production of a new product (melanin for pigmentation)

Inhibition

Slow down rate of reaction of enzyme when necessary (e.g. when temp is too high)
Molecule present in highest conc. is most likely to form an ES-complex
Competitive Inhibitors
o Compete with substrate for active site
o Shape similar to substrates / prevents access when bonded
o Can slow down a metabolic pathway
Non-competitive Inhibitors

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o Chemical does not have to resemble the substrate

o Binds to enzyme other than at active site
o This changes the enzyme's active site and prevents access to it
Irreversible Inhibition
o Chemical permanently binds to the enzyme or massively denatures the enzyme
o Nerve gas permanently blocks pathways involved in nerve message transmission, resulting in death
o Penicillin, the first of "wonder drug" antibiotics, permanently blocks pathways certain bacteria use to
assemble their cell wall component (peptidoglycan)

End-product inhibition

Metabolic reactions are multi-stepped, each controlled by a single enzyme

End-products accumulate within the cell and stop the reaction when sufficient product is made
This is achieved by non-competitive inhibition by the end-product
The enzyme early in the reaction pathway is inhibited by the end-product

Recombinant DNA

DNA probe
o Used to locate genes
o Single-stranded DNA that is complementary to a specific gene
o Labeled with radioisotope or fluorescent dye
o Allows location of probe when it binds to genes
Gene isolation
o 2 possible mechanisms: restriction enzymes or reverse transcriptase
o Restriction enzymes
 Endonucleases cut DNA at specific recognition sites by hydrolysis
 Hydrogen bonds break
 Leaving sticky ends
o Reverse transcriptase
 Taken from a retrovirus
 Catalyses the formation of single-stranded DNA from mRNA
Polymerase chain reaction
o Produces larger quantities of DNA
o Hydrogen bonds of double-stranded DNA are broken by applying heat
o Primers are added to mark the START and END of the gene to be copied

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o Nucleotides and DNA polymerase are added

o Enzyme attaches nucleotides to single stranded DNA
o Produces two double-stranded DNA molecules
o Procedure is repeated until enough DNA is produced
Transfer of recombinant DNA
o Vector is a gene carrier → carries a human gene into the cell of a bacterium or yeast
o Plasmid
 Circular strand of DNA found in bacteria
 Useful vector to make human protein from bacteria
o Plasmid DNA is cut by using restriction enzymes
o Recombinant gene is inserted into plasmid by DNA ligase
o Plasmid is introduced into bacteria that do not contain any plasmids
Genetic markers
o Only 1% of bacteria take up the engineered plasmid
o Identify by using antibiotic resistance as a genetic marker
o Gene for antibiotic resistance is added next to the recombinant gene in the plasmid
o Antibiotic is added to culture → only genetically modified bacteria survive

Production of Human Insulin

Isolate human gene for insulin by using cytoplasmic mRNA (no introns)
Reverse transcriptase produces DNA from mRNA
DNA produced is given "sticky ends"
Insert into bacterial plasmid
o Cell wall is dissolved using enzymes
o Centrifuge separates bacterial chromosome ring from plasmids
o Cut open the plasmid with restriction enzymes
Mix plasmid and DNA and join them with DNA ligase
Add antibiotic resistance gene next to insulin gene in plasmid
Add antibiotic to culture
Grow transformed cells using industrial fermenters
Isolate and purify human protein made by these cells

Genetically modified organisms

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Selective breeding

Takes longer than genetic engineering

Involves sexual reproduction (non-specific)
o Offspring have new combination of alleles
o May develop an unwanted characteristic
o More susceptible to disease, more aggressive
Genetic engineering involves the transfer of one specific gene

Moral and ethical issues

Transgenic bacteria or viruses may mutate and may become pathogenic

Genetically modified crops could "escape"
o Forms a genetically modified population in the environment
o Genetic modification may involve the resistance to herbicides
o Escaped crops may become "superweeds" that are difficult to kill and control
Transgenic organisms could upset the balance of nature
o Population of transgenic salmon have been produced in which individuals grow rapidly
o These transgenic fish could compete for food with other fish species
Genetically engineered food
o May cause unknown disease in humans in the long-term

Genome Project

Nucleotide base sequences of human DNA has been determined

o Not all DNA codes for proteins
 Non-coding DNA
 Regulatory genes
 Telomeres are repetitive sequences of DNA
Next task is to determine the proteome
o Collection of all human proteins
o Done by studying the genome of simpler organisms
Sequences DNA allows
o Production of vaccine against Plasmodium (malaria)
 Compare genome of many plasmodium parasites
 Identify genes which code for antigens

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 Done by looking at genes that have a wide range of variation across parasites
 Variation is caused by natural selection
 Indicates that these genes are most likely to be susceptible to the immune system
 Can be used as targets for vaccines
o Identification of predisposition to cancer
o New treatments

Homeostasis Provides a Constant Internal Environment and Independence from

Fluctuating External Conditions

Features that influence internal environment have a set level → norm

Any changes from the norm is called deviation
Negative feedback / caused by deviation from norm / change results in return to norm
External environment is changing → experienced by body
o Homeostatic system even out variations experienced by body
 Liver can store or release glucose
o Blood is kept at a constant, ideal state
 Glucose conc. of 80mg cm-3
o Tissue fluid surrounds working cell with constant ideal conditions
 Optimum glucose for respiration

Negative Feedback Tends to Restore Systems to their Original Level

Homeostasis is achieved by a negative feedback and involves

o Change in level of an internal factor (change from norm level)
o Detected by receptors / impulse send to hypothalamus
o Activates effectors / stimulates corrective mechanism
o Level of factor returns to norm
Factors in blood and tissue fluid must be kept constant:
o Temp and pH
 Change affects rate of enzyme-controlled/biochemical reactions
 Extreme changes denatures proteins
 Humans maintain constant core body temp between 36-37.8°C
 Body temp refers to core body temp → limbs may be cooler than 37°C
o Water potential / avoids osmotic problems → cellular disruption
o Conc of ions (Na, K, Ca)

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Hypothermia
Mechanisms Involved in Heat Production, Conversation, and Heat Loss.
The Role of the Hypothalamus and the Autonomic Nervous System in Temperature Control

Blood flows through receptors in the hypothalamus

Deviation causes the autonomic nervous system to initiate an appropriate response

DEFICIENCY/DROP IN CORE BODY TEMP BY DECREASING HEAT LOSS/INCREASING HEAT PRODUCTION

Receptors in hypothalamus detect increase in core temp/temp of blood

Heat conversation centre stimulated
VASOCONSTRICTION of arterioles
Arterioles leading to capillaries in the skin narrow
SHUNT VESSELS DILATE
Less blood flows to skin surface / less heat is lost by RADIATION
Hair raising / greater insulation / humans have less dense hair \ no effect
Shivering / rapid contraction and relaxation of muscles / heat produced by RESPIRATION
Adrenaline INCREASES METABOLIC RATE of cells //Mammals in cold climates can increase secretion of
thyroxine / hormone increases metabolic rate on a more permanent basis
VOLUNTARY CENTRE: put on clothes / seek warmer areas / warm drink

EXCESS/RISE IN CORE BODY TEMP BY INCREASING HEAT LOSS/REDUCING HEAT PRODUCTION

Receptors in hypothalamus detect increase in core temp/temp of blood

Heat loss centre stimulated
VASODILATION of arterioles
Arterioles leading to capillaries in the skin dilate (expand)
SHUNT VESSELS CONSTRICT
More blood flows to skin surface (capillaries) / heat loss by RADIATION
Heat loss by EVAPORATION of sweat / by using energy
o High(er) rate of sweating leads to a low(er) skin temp
VOLUNTARY CENTRE: remove clothing / seek cooler area / cold drink

IMG 7-16-11

The Role of Temperature Receptors in the Skin

Hypothalamus detects temp fluctuation inside the body/internal environment

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Skin receptors detect temp changes in external environment

Information is sent by nerves to voluntary centres of the brain
o Voluntary activities (jogging, moving into a shade) are initiated
o Changes behaviour of human

The Structure and Role of the Skin in Temp Regulation

Surface area is very large and in direct contact to external environment

Skin is divided into two layers: outer epidermis and inner dermis
MALPIGHIAN layer is the boundary between these two layers
o Cells of this layer divide repeatedly by mitosis
o Older cells are pushed towards the surface/EPIDERMIS
o Cytoplasm of old cells becomes full of granules / cells die
o Cells become converted into scales of keratin (waterproof)
DERMIS is thicker than epidermis and contains
o Nerve endings (temp receptors)
o Blood vessels held together by connective tissue
Beneath dermis is a region which contains some subcutaneous fat
o Adipose tissue (fat storage tissue) provides vital insulations in humans

Hypothermia

Body temp falls dangerously below normal

o Heat energy is lost from body more rapidly than it can be produced
Brain is affected first → person becomes clumsy and mentally sluggish
As body temp falls, metabolic rate falls as well
Makes body temp fall even further, causing a POSITIVE FEEDBACK
o Temp is taken further away from the norm
Death when core body temp is below ≈25°C / by ventricular fibrillation / normal beating of the
heart is replaced by uncoordinated tremors
Most at risk are (1) babies and (2) elderly
o (1) High surface area:volume ratio, undeveloped temp regulation mechanisms
o (2) Detoriated thermoregulatory mechanisms
Deliberate hypothermia is sometimes used in surgical operations on heart
o Patient is cooled by
 Circulating blood through a cooling machine

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 Placing ice packs in contact with the body

o Reduces metabolic rate / O2 demand by brain + other vital tissues is lowered
o Heart can be stopped without any risks of the patient suffering brain damage through lack of O2
o Tissues may be permanently damaged if patient is cooled to long

Diabetes
The Factors which Influence Blood Glucose Concentration

Digestion of carbohydrates in diet

o Digestion → polysaccharide → glucose
o Fluctuation of glucose blood level depend on amount + type of carbohydrate eaten
Breakdown of glycogen
o Excess glucose → glycogen → glucose
o Storage polysaccharide made from excess glucose by glycogenesis
o Glycogen is abundant in liver + muscles
Conversion of non-carbohydrates to glucose by gluconeogenesis
Oxidation of glucose by respiration
o Glucose → ATP → energy
o Rate of respiration varies for different activities
o This affects glucose uptake from blood into cells
Brain is unable to store carbohydrates
o Lack of glucose in blood → no respiratory substrate → insufficient energy for brain
o Short period of time already causes brain to malfunction
Normal glucose level in blood ≈90mg per 100cm2
o After a meal it rarely exceeds 150mg per 100cm2

Role of Hormones in Activating Enzymes Involved in Interconversion of Glucose and Glycogen

The Role of Insulin and Glucagon in Controlling Blood Glucose
The Pancreas

Endocrine role is to produce hormones

Contains islets of Langerhans → sensitive to blood glucose conc
Islet cells contain
o α-cells → secrete glucagon and β-cells → secrete insulin
o capillaries into which hormones are secreted
o delta cells → produce hormone somatostatin → inhibits secretion of glucagon

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Insulin mainly affects muscles, liver, adipose tissue

Exocrine role is to produce digestive enzymes
Active trypsin damages pancreas / digests proteins that make up pancreas / amylase leaks into blood from
damaged tissues / amylase conc in blood higher

High Blood Glucose Concentration

Detected by β-cells in islet of Langerhans (receptor) → secrete insulin

Increase in insulin secretion (corrective mechanism → effectors bring about a return to norm)
o Speeds up rate of glucose uptake by cells from blood
 Glucose enters cells by facilitated diffusion via glucose carrier proteins
 Cells have vesicles with extra carrier molecules present in their cytoplasm
 Insulin binds to receptor in plasma membrane
 Chemical signal → vesicles move towards plasma membrane
 Vesicle fuses with membrane → increases glucose carrier proteins
o Activates enzymes / Converts glucose to glycogen / Promotes fat synthesis

Low Blood Glucose Concentration

Detected by α-cells in islets of Langerhans → secrete glucagon

Increase in glucagon secretion
o Hormone activates enzymes in the liver → convert glycogen to glucose
o Stimulates formation of glucose form other substances such as amino acids
Glucose passes out of cells into blood, raising blood glucose conc until norm is reached

Diabetes and its Control with Insulin and Manipulation of Carbohydrate Intake

Diabetes mellitus → inability of control of blood glucose level

High levels of blood glucose because
o Pancreas becomes diseased → fails to secrete insulin
o Target cells lose responsiveness to insulin
Kidney is unable to reabsorb back into blood all the glucose filtered into its tubules
o Glucose secreted into urine
o Craving for sweet food and persistent thirst
DIAGNOSTIC: glucose tolerance test
o Patient swallows glucose solution
o Blood glucose level measured at regular intervals

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Two Types of Diabetes Mellitus

Type I → insulin dependant/juvenile-onset

o Occurs in childhood
o Autoimmune reaction → immune system attacks and destroys own cells
o Destroys β-cells in islet of Langerhans → unable to produce insulin
o TREATMENT: insulin given must match glucose intake and expenditure
 Overdose causes hypoglycaemia (to much glucose withdrawn from blood)
 Diabetics need to manage their diet and levels of exercise
 Need to monitor blood glucose conc
Type II → insulin independent/late-onset
o Occurs late in life, more common than type I
o Causes by gradual loss in responsiveness of cells to insulin
o TREATMENT: regulated diet
 Sugar intake must balance with amount of exercises taken
Glycogen levels are lower
o Little insulin / no glucose to glycogen
o Insulin receptors no longer functional / less glucose taken up by cells
Glycogen is an effective storage molecule
o Insoluble → no osmotic effect
o Large → cannot diffuse out of cell
o Branched → easy to break down / hydrolyse to glucose
o Compact → large amount of glucose stored in small space

Insulin Patches

Insulin → peptide chains → digested if swallowed by peptidase → had to be injected

Treat skin area with ultrasound → disrupts underlying fat tissues
o Insulin is not soluble in fat
o Disrupting tissues allows movement through skin
Apply patch containing insulin to that area

Variation in the next generation

Discontinuous variation

IMG 5-14-2

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Limited number of distinct phenotypes / categories (eg ABO blood groups)

Strong genetic factor controlled by alleles on one gene
Frequency histogram has separate bars
Unaffected by the environment

Continuous variation

Continuous range of values / class intervals (eg human height)

Alleles on many genes located on different chromosomes / polygenic inheritance
Frequency histogram is a smooth (normal distribution) curve
Phenotype is affected by environmental factors
o Lower skin temperature activates a gene for pigment production
o Diet affects individual's size and health. Malnourishment results in shorter height
o Thus, genes + environment → phenotype (continuous variation)

Normal distribution about the mean

Mode (most frequent) = median (mid) = mean (average value)

Bell-shaped/ even distributions of values above and below mean
Standard error (SE)
o True mean of SE is ±1.96
o In a number of samples each sample will have its own mean
o Standard error measures how much the value of a sample mean is likely to vary
o The greater the standard error, the greater the variation of the mean
Standard deviation (σ)
o Measure of the spread of results about the mean of a normal distribution curve
o Thinner bell-shape / smaller standard deviation / less variation
o Same pattern with bigger bell-shape

Where variation comes from

Gene mutation

Produces new alleles

Addition: at least one base is added during DNA replication
Deletion: at least one base is not copied (frameshift)
Substitution: at least one base is copied wrongly
Interferes with normal base pairing (A-T;C-G)

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Degenerate code: different triplets can code for same amino acids

Meiosis

Causes new combination of alleles

Crossing over
o During prophase I
o At synapsis, non-sister chromatids of homologous pairs cross over at chiasmata
o Homologous chromatids (corresponding pieces of genetic material) break and exchange equivalent
segments between maternal and paternal chromatids
Independent assortment
o From the equator
 Homologous chromosomes pulled to opposite poles at random (anaphase I)
 Chromatids pulled to opposite poles at random (anaphase II)
o 223 different combinations possible in 4 haploid cells where 23 is the number of chromosomes
Fertilization
o Random fusion of gametes
o Genetic difference amongst the zygote
o New combinations of alleles

Twin Studies

Phenotype depends on genes and environment

Twins are
o Monozygotic (identical) → one zygote develops into 2 embryos
 Very high concordance
 Have identical DNA but phenotype is not exactly the same
 Different environment in womb and in later life
 Causes different genes to switch on and off
o Dizygotic (non-identical) → two zygotes
 High concordance as they are related (many genes similar)
Concordance and discordance
o Helps to find out whether a disease has a genetic cause
o Useful to compare identical and non-identical twins
o High concordance
 Identical twins only → not influenced by environment (eg blood group)

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 Identical and non-identical twins → environmental factor likely (eg virus)

o Low concordance
 Requires strong environmental factor
o Best results with
 Identical twins living together → same environment
 Non-identical twins with same sex → sex affects height and body mass

Epigenetic Imprinting

Expression of certain genes by one allele depending on which parent it comes from
DNA methylation
o Occurs during gametogenesis
o Methyl groups are added to cytosine bases of certain genes (imprinting)
o Modifies DNA structure rather than base sequence (epigenetic)
o Methyl groups inhibit transcription (genes are switched off)
Methylation is reversible
o Old imprints are removed and re-formed during gametogenesis
o New sperm → imprinted gene is re-tagged as paternal
o New oocyte → imprinted gene is re-tagged as maternal
o Therefore, father passes on chromosome imprinted as "paternal" → his daughter passes on same
chromosome imprinted as "maternal"
There are <1% of imprinted genes on autosomal chromosomes

Prader-Willi Syndrome (PWS)

Characteristics
o Obesity
o Short stature
o Learning difficulties
o Small testes
Caused by the deletion of imprinted genes on chromosome 15
o Imprinting prevents expression of maternal genes
o Maternal allele for the gene is methylated
o This inhibits transcription of the defective gene and PWS cannot develop
o Therefore, defective gene only causes PWS when inherited from the father

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Genetic Counselling and Mendelian Inheritance

Terms

Phenotype: observable characteristic or trait (appearance, behaviour) expressed by genotype

Genotype: makeup of alleles (AA or Aa or aa)
Dominant: allele always expressed (Aa)
Recessive: allele expressed if both copies are identical (aa)
Genes are expressed simultaneously by two alleles
o One allele from each homologous chromosome
o Homozygous: two identical alleles (AA or aa)
o Heterozygous: different alleles (Aa)

Monohybrid Inheritance

Inheritance of a single characteristic

o Controlled by different alleles of the same gene
Autosomal recessive
o Example: Cystic Fibrosis, Phenylketonuria
 Normal allele is dominant
 To develop the disease, two abnormal alleles are required (homozygous)
 Carriers carry an abnormal allele but are not affected (heterozygous)
o Both parents are heterozygous carriers (Aa + Aa)
 25% unaffected (AA)
 50% carrier (Aa)
 25% affected (aa)
o Affected (aa) + unaffected (AA)
 All offspring will be carriers
o Affected (aa) + Carrier (Aa)
 50% carriers and 50% affected
Autosomal dominant
o Examples: Huntington's
 Abnormal allele is dominant
 To develop the disease, only one abnormal allele is required
 No unaffected carriers possible
o Aa + aa → 50:50
o Aa + Aa → 3:1 (75% affected and 25% unaffected)

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Codominance

Example: Sickle-cell anaemia

o Mutation in β-globin chain of haemoglobin
o This forms haemoglobin S (HbS)
o Red blood cells become sickle shaped in low oxygen levels
 Reduces their flexibility
 Cannot deform to pass through capillaries
 May get stuck in small blood vessels
 Causes organ damage and ischaemia
o Abnormal red cells are destroyed by the spleen → anaemia
Heterozygous allele is neither dominant nor recessive
o Both alleles are expressed to determine phenotype
o Normal allele still produces 50% of normal haemoglobin (no symptoms)
o People are carriers and have a sickle-cell trait
Malaria
o Sickle-cell anaemia is more common in Africa due to malaria
o Those with sickle-cell trait are more resistant to malaria
o Red cells start to sickle when infected by malaria and rupture
o Malaria plasmodium is unable to reproduce in red cells
Inheritance
o Sickle-cell anaemia (SS) + Sickle-cell trait (AS)
 50% carriers (AS)
 50% affected (SS)
o Both parents have sickle-cell trait (AS)
 25% unaffected (AA)
 50% carrier (AS)
 25% affected (SS)

Multiple Alleles

ABO blood group is controlled by the immunoglobulin gene I

o There are 3 alleles IA, IB, and I0 for that gene
o These alleles code for antigens A, B and neither A/B, respectively
Only 2 alleles can be present in a diploid cell
o IAIB is co-dominant

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o I0 is recessive

Rhesus Blood Groups

Rhesus (Rh) positive

o Presence of antigen D on red cells
o Allele is dominant
Rh negative mother AND Rh positive baby
o First pregnancy
 Red cells CANNOT cross the placenta
 But mixing of blood does occur when giving birth
 Mother develops antibodies to antigen D (sensitisation)
o Second pregnancy
 Antibodies CAN cross the placenta
 Attack baby's red blood cells
 Causes haemolytic disease of the newborn (anaemia + jaundice, stillbirth)
Prevention
o Rh negative + not sensitized → give anti-D injection
o Anti-D destroys Rh positive cells before antibodies develop
o Given during pregnancy and after birth

Chi-Squared Test (x2)

Observed Expected value

o IMG
o degree of freedom = n - 1
Shows if differences between sets of data are significant or not
Null hypothesis states that there are no significant differences between sets of data
Small value / probability higher than the level of significance 0.05/5%
o Little difference between observed and expected value
o Likely to be extremes of the same population
o Null hypothesis accepted
Large value / probability is less than the level of significance 0.05/5%
o Significant difference between observed and expected data
o Likely to be two distinct populations
o Null hypothesis rejected

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Genetic Counselling

Genetic screening
o Detect whether person is a carrier for an inherited disease
o Done by searching extracted DNA for the base-sequence of the gene
Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
o Small sample of the placenta
o Performed after 10wks of pregnancy
o Thin needle through wall of abdomen or through vagina and opening of womb
Amniocentesis
o Small sample of amniotic fluid (fluid that surrounds foetus in womb)
o Performed between 15-22wks
o Passing needle through abdomen and womb
o Amniotic fluid is drawn out through a syringe
o Cells in fluid are cultured and DNA is extracted
Karyotyping
o Arrangement of chromosomes into homologous pairs
o Detect abnormal chromosomes (not genes)
Embryo screening
o Only allowed for severe genetic diseases
o Embryos are cultured using IVF
o Single cell is taken with a pipette and its DNA extracted
o (-) Produces many embryos which are not used
o (-) Long-term side effects for the embryo used are not known

Sex-linked Inheritance

Inheritance of sex in humans

o Females are homogametic sex (X: or XX)
o Males are heterogametic sex (XY) / Y chromosome is shorter
o Involves whole chromosomes instead of individual genes
Phenotypic characteristic is inherited on X, not on Y chromosome
o Characteristic is more common in males → females can be heterozygous (XAXB)
o Sex linked characteristic is never passed from father to son
Example: Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD)
o Faulty gene prevents production of dystrophin

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o The protein is normally found in muscles and holds cells together

o Lack of dystrophin causes progressive muscle weakness
o Muscle is eventually replaced by fat and connective tissue
X-linked recessive
o Normal allele is dominant (X)
o Female carrier (Xx) + Unaffected male (YX)
 Offspring phenotype and genotype
 25% affected son (Yx)
 25% unaffected son (YX)
 25% female carrier (Xx)
 25% unaffected daughter (XX)
 Therefore
 50% affected male
 50% female carrier
 Only males can be affected
 All daughters of affected male will be carrier
 All sons of affected male are unaffected
o Female carrier (Xx) + Affected male (Yx)
 25% healthy son, female carrier, affected son and affected daughter
o Female unaffected (XX) + Affected male (Yx)
 50% healthy (YX) and 50% carrier (Xx)
 No male to male transmission
 Females are always carriers

Pedigrees

Interpretation
o Autosomal dominant: vertical transmission of disease
o Autosomal recessive: horizontal transmission
o X-linked recessive: no male-male transmission
o X-linked dominant: affected males have unaffected sons!
X-linked vs Recessive
o Sex linked: only seen in males, not in females
o Recessive: unaffected parents

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Patterns of Human Growth

Growth rate

GROWTH RATE = (SIZE AT TIME 2 - SIZE AT TIME 1) / (TIME 2 - TIME 1)

Highest in the first year
Constant and low during childhood
Girls and boys have similar height until 10yrs → growth spurt occurs
o Growth spurt is later but larger in boys
o Therefore, boys are taller than girls at 14yrs
Growth stops by the age of 18

Relatives growth rate of organs

Different parts of the body grow at different rates

Head and brain develop first
o 90% of its adult size at 5yrs
o Before growth of bones and muscles in limbs → change in body proportion
Reproductive system develops latest
o Remains below 20% until puberty
o Extended childhood (link to 3-2-4(a))
Curve of the whole body is similar to an absolute growth graph as height is an indicator of body size

Puberty

Triggered by the release of gonadotrophin releasing factor (GnRF)

o GnRF is released from the hypothalamus
o Travels to the pituitary gland where it releases gonadotrophins
 Luteinising hormone (LH) - also called interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH) in males
 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
o FSH and LH travel in blood to gonads (→ovaries or testes)
o There, they cause the release of sex hormones
 Testosterone in males
 Oestrogen + progesterone in females
Release of GnRF in females
o Improved diet
 Females grow faster and reach stage of maturity at younger age

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 Age of menarche (→first period) is earlier than it was in the 19th century
 Relates to changes in female's muscle:fat ratio
o Menstrual cycle in females relates to the proportion of fat to muscle
 Girls with low body fat tend to have a later menarche
 Anorexia nervosa → body loses fat → periods stop
 Female athletes who have a high muscle:fat ratio often have irregular periods
Sex hormones
o Trigger development of reproductive organs
o Trigger development of 2° sexual characteristics
 Increased activity of sweat and sebaceous glands (blocked sebaceous glands cause acne)
 Growth of pubic and axillary hair
o Testosterone
 Expands shoulders (growth of cartilage in thorax and pectoral girdle)
 Causes growth of muscles
o Oestrogen
 Expands the hips (growth of cartilage in pelvis)
 Causes an accumulation of fat

Table: Summary of hormones in puberty

Name of Hormone Site of Release Actions

Gonadotrophins Anterior pituitary gland
(situated under brain)
- FSH - Development of follicles
- Secretion of oestrogen by follicle cells in ovaries
- LH (females) - Triggers ovulation
- Forms corpus luteum
- Thickens uterus lining
- Produces milk in breasts
- LH (males) - Secretion of testosterone by testes
- Spermatogenesis in testes
Oestrogen Ovaries - Growth of 2° sexual characteristics
- Thickening of uterus lining
Progesterone Corpus luteum - Growth of breasts
- Increases blood supply to uterus lining

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Testosterone Testes - Growth of 2° sexual characteristics

- Sperm production

Effects and Diseases of Ageing

Decline in physiological functions

BMR
o Number of cells decreases during ageing → lowers BMR
o BMR decreases by ≈ 5% every 10yrs above the age of 55
o 10-20yrs → rapid decrease associated with adolescent growth spurt
o 20-35yrs → no change as body same size / same level of activity
o 30-70yrs → slow decrease associated with loss of muscles / gain of fat / reduced activity
Cardiac output (CO) = stroke volume (SV) x heart rate (HR)
o CO decreases even though HR does not decline
o Due to cardiac muscle fibres weaken (mainly left ventricle)
o Decreases SV of ventricles / volume of blood pumped per beat/cycle
Nerve conduction velocity
o Cells in peripheral nervous system and brain decline
 Neurones (nerve cells) are lost and cannot divide
 Effect of cell loss depends on cells location
 Brain loses ≈25% of cells that control muscle coordination but hardly any that control speech
o Nerve conduction is slowed by
 Loss of myelin: no saltatory conduction / impulses cannot jump from node to node /
impulses must pass through greater amount of membrane
 Increased width of synapses: longer needed for diffusion/movement/greater distance to
receptors/further to stimulate post-synaptic membrane/further diffusion distance of
transmitter (across synapse)
 Slower synaptic transmission: presynaptic neurones produce less neurotransmitter
Female reproductive capacity → MENOPAUSE (45-55yrs)
o Ovaries gradually become insensitive to FSH / secretion of oestrogen becomes less / ovulation
becomes less / menstrual cycle becomes less / vagina walls become thinner / woman is infertile
when oestrogen secretion stops
o Levels of gonadotrophins (FSH, LH) rise to a peak after menopause
 At menopause, oestrogen no longer secreted
 FSH and LH no longer inhibited by negative feedback
o SYMPTOMS: due to loss of oestrogen

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 Intense sweating / uncomfortable warmth / psychological problems

 Increase risk of osteoporosis (loss of bone tissue) and heart diseases
o TREATMENT: Hormone replacement therapy (HRT)
 Postmenstrual woman take in small doses of oestrogen and progesterone
 As tablets (orally) or apply implants beneath skin (skin patches)

Alzheimer's disease

Most common type of dementia

o Progressive decline of cognitive function (thinking, memory, orientation)
Causes
o Development of
 Amyloid plaques between neurones
 Tangles (→twisted fibres) inside neurones
o Leads to the destruction of cerebral cortex
o Lack of acetylcholine (ACh) in nerve synapses
Symptoms
o Memory loss (recent memory is lost first)
o Decline in language (cannot find the right word)
o Confusion
o Change of mood and behaviour (depression, anxiety, aggression)´
Risk factors
o Age (more common >65yrs)
o Genetics (family history)
o Whiplash and head injuries (boxers)
o Cardiovascular (smoking, alcohol, obesity, hypertension, cholesterol, no exercise)
No cure available - but drugs that ↑ACh in the brain are used in SEVERE dementia to delay progression
True diagnosis only possible after death
o Piece of brain tissue must be looked at under the microscope to identify tangles and plaque

Cancer

Damage to DNA is more likely in the elderly

o Longer exposure to environmental risk factors
o Accumulation of mutations
Evaluate whether screening should be offered

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o Think of
 ?false positives
 ?anxiety
o Very slowly growing cancers
 ?more likely to die from other causes
 ?surgery to remove cancer causes more damage than doing nothing
o Young age
 ?less common
 ?harder to detect tumour
 ?cost effective
Risk factors
o Genetic (family history)
o Environment (alcohol, smoking, hormones from contraception, radiation)

Structure of Skeletal Muscle

Skeletal muscle is joined to bone by inelastic tendons

o Muscle contraction / pulls on tendons / bone moves
Each muscle is made of bundles of muscle fibres surrounded by connective tissue
An individual muscle fibre
o Has many nuclei → muscle fibre develops from fusion of many cells
o Sarcoplasm (cytoplasm) filled by parallel myofibrils
o Sarcolemma (surface membrane) forms deep tubes (T tubules) into the sarcoplasm along its length
o Network of membranes called sarcoplasmic reticulum (ER)

The Sliding-Filament Theory

Striations in Skeletal Muscle

Actin filament / thinner than myosin → lighter striations

Myosin filament / thicker than actin filament → darker striation
Distance between 2 adjacent Z lines: sarcomere / actin filament is attached to Z lines and extended into
sarcomeres on either side
Striation of actin alone → I band
Striation of myosin alone → H zone
Length of myosin → A band
Central thickening of each myosin filament → M line

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Actin and Myosin Filaments

Actin filament: 2 actin strands twisted around each other

o Troponin-tropomyosin-actin complex blocks binding site for myosin
Myosin filament: bundles of myosin molecules
o Bundle of myosin tails form a central stalk
o Globular heads attach to specific sites on actin filaments
o Myosin heads contain ATPase that hydrolyses ATP

Neuromuscular Junction

Synapse between motor neurone and muscle fibre

\ skeletal muscle fibres are stimulated by motor neurones
IMPULSE REACHES NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION

1. Influx of Ca2+ / synaptic vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane

2. Release of acetylcholine (ACh) into synaptic cleft by exocytosis
3. Neurotransmitter diffuses across cleft
4. Binds with receptors on motor end plate (→postsynaptic membrane of muscle fibre)
5. Depolarises sarcolemma
6. Threshold stimulates wave of depolarisation along muscle fibre
7. Changes permeability of sarcoplasmic reticulum to Ca2+
8. Ca2+ move into sarcoplasm / causes contraction of myofibril

Role of ATP and phosphocreatine

Stimulation Of Muscle Fibres By The Nervous System

CONTRACTION → myosin heads attach to actin binding sites / form temporary cross bridges / bridges
rapidly break and reform / new cross bridges form further along actin filament / causing shortening of each
sarcomere
WHEN STIMULATION STOPS → Ca2+actively taken up by sarcoplasmic reticulum / myosin head detaches
from actin / cross bridges reform / muscle relaxes
NO ATP AVAILABLE → cross bridges cannot detach / muscle becomes stiff / unable to relax / extreme form:
rigor mortis / occurs after death

Cycle Of Events During Contraction Of A Myofibril

Ca2+ ions enter sarcoplasm during wave of depolarisation

Bind to troponin / changes shape of protein / removes block of tropomyosin / exposes actin binding sites

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ATP binds to myosin / stimulates ATPase / RELEASES ENERGY

Allows myosin heads to form cross bridges with actin
Allows POWER STROKE: myosin head changes angle / pulls on actin filaments
o Width of I band, H zone decrease → filaments overlap increases
o Z lines move closer together → length of sarcomere decreases
o No change to A band → lengths of filaments stay constant
Allows Ca2+ ions to be pumped back in by active transport
New ATP binds to myosin / allows detachment from actin
Myosin head changes to original position (cross bridges reform)
Next attachment to actin filament and power stroke can occur
o Ca2+ and ATP required for cycle to continue

Energy In Active Muscle Cells

Breakdown of phosphocreatine / releases PI + energy / attach to ADP / forms ATP

o PHOSPHOCREATINE + ADP → CREATINE + ATP
o ATP is used faster than it can be supplied by respiration
o Phosphocreatine allows regeneration of ATP without respiration
Thus, Muscle cells continue exercise until slower pathways synthesis ATP
o Breakdown of glycogen in muscle cells / aerobic respiration of glucose
o Aerobic respiration of glucose, fatty acids from bloodstream / fatty acids last longer
Prolonged exercise / not enough O2 for aerobic respiration
o Anaerobic respiration continues
o Lactate may cause cramps

Muscles As Effectors

Motor neurones stimulate glands and muscles into action

Respond to a stimulus → are effectors

Structure, location and general properties of slow and fast skeletal muscle fibres
Feature Fast muscle Slow muscle
FUNCTIONAL - Rapid, powerful movements - Slow movement
- Role in body - Short-lasting - Long-lasting
STRUCTURAL
- Diameter of fibres - Large - Small

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- Capillaries - Few - Many

- Sarcoplasmic reticulum - High - Low
- Mitochondria - Few - Many (ETC, Krebs cycle)
MECHANICAL
- Speed of contraction - Fast - Slow
- Rate of pumping Ca2+ - High - Slower
BIOCHEMICAL
- ATPase activity - High, split ATP quickly - Low, split ATP slowly
- Respiration - Anaerobic - Aerobic
- Glycogen content - High - Low
- Myoglobin content - Low - High
- Resistance to fatigue - Low - High
LOCATION Arms and legs Back and neck
(running and throwing) (postural muscles)
Slow muscles contain myoglobin in sarcoplasm → appears bright red

Flight or Fight - anger or fear

Nervous System

Central nervous system (CNS)

o Brain
o Spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system
o Motor
 Autonomic nervous system (involuntary)
 Parasympathetic (cholinergic → acetylcholine) - inhibition/relaxation
 Sympathetic (adrenergic → noradrenaline) - excitation/stress
 Somatic nervous system (voluntary)
o Sensory

Autonomic nervous system

Effect on target organ Parasympathetic (ACh) Sympathetic (NA)
Iris of eyes Constricts pupil Dilates pupil
Bronchioles Bronchoconstriction Bronchodilation (↑air flow)

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Blood vessels

Vascular smooth muscle Vasoconstriction

Arterioles supplying skin and gut Vasoconstriction (require less blood)

Arterioles supplying muscles Vasodilation

Coronary arteries Vasoconstriction

Heart ↓heart rate ↑heart rate

Salivary glands ↑secretion ↓secretion
Gut ↑peristalsis ↓peristalsis
Sweat glands No effect ↑sweat production
Hypothalamus

Receives information from cerebral cortex

Passes on impulses to sympathetic nerve fibres
Sympathetic nerves synapse with target organ
Release noradrenaline (NA) into synaptic cleft

Adrenal medulla

Located just above the kidneys

Innervated by sympathetic nerves
Stimulation causes the release of adrenaline (ADR) into blood

Role of Hormones

Steroid hormones
o Lipid soluble
 Diffuse though plasma membrane and bind to receptors in cytoplasm
 Regulate transcription
o Cortisol → stress hormone, turns protein and fat into glucose
o Testosterone and oestrogen
Protein hormones
o Bind to plasma membrane
 Causes cascade of signals
 Activates enzymes within the cell

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o Adrenaline (released from adrenal glands)

 Increases sensitivity of nervous system
 Stimulates release of cortisol
 Stimulates glycogenolysis in liver and muscles
 Note: ADR is a hormone while NA acts as a hormone and neurotransmitter
o Insulin
Hormone vs Nervous System
o Hormones
 Produce delayed and prolonged responses
 Travel throughout the body and produce widespread effects
 May cause permanent and irreversible effects
o Nervous System
 Instant response
 Usually act locally
 Temporary and reversible effects

Detecting light - the eye

Table: Structure and function of the eye
Conjunctiva Protection of cornea
Sclera - Protection
- Attachment for eye muscles
Cornea Refracts (→focuses) and allows passage of light
Choroid Pigment prevents light reflection within the eyeball by absorbing light
Ciliary body - Accommodation
- Secretion of humour
Iris Regulates passage of light
Lens Refracts light
Retina Contains light receptors
Fovea Contains only cone cells
Blind spot Optic nerve (sensory nerve fibres) leave the eyeball
Humour Maintains shape of the eyeball
Transmissive and refractive properties of the eye

Light/photons travel through transparent media in a light ray

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o Rays reflect at a predictable angle when they strike an object

o Rays passing through mediums of different density refract (change angle)
Accommodation → focus of rays from near/distant objects by changing shape of lens
Light rays form an image in the retina [EXAM]
o Refraction / by lens or cornea / shape of lens changes

o DISTANT ACCOMMODATION
NEAR ACCOMMODATION
CILIARY MUSCLES CONTRACT RELAX
TENSION IN SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS REDUCED INCREASED
SHAPE OF LENS FAT, ROUNDED THIN, FLAT
RESULT LIGHT BENDS LIGHT BENDS LESS
FOCUSES DIVERGING LIGHT RAYS PARALLEL LIGHT RAYS
Rod and cone cells

Retina contains 4 layers → synapse between them

o Cone and rod cells (light-sensitive receptor)
 Inner segment → nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, synaptic region
 Outer segment → membranous disks containing pigments
o Bipolar neurones (relay neurone)
o Ganglion cells (sensory neurones)
o Axon of ganglion cells → optical nerve
 Send impulses to the brain
Light passes through neurones before it strikes the retina
There are no cone and rod cells where the optic nerves pass through the retina; this point is called the blind
spot

Table: Features of rod cells and cone cells

ROD CELLS CONE CELLS

FEATURE

Number in retina More Fewer

Distribution - Evenly throughout the retina Present in the fovea
- Absent from the fovea

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- Only type of light receptor at the periphery of the

retina
Shape of outer Rod shaped Cone shaped
segment
Sensitivity to Dim light Bright light
Visual acuity Poorly resolved images Well-resolved images
Light-sensitive - Only rhodopsin - Iodopsin
pigments - Monochromic vision - Sensitive to blue, green, blue light
- Trichromatic vision (combination)
Synapse with relay Several rod cells synapse with same relay cell Each cone cell synapses with just one
cells relay cell

Table: Absorption of light by rhodopsin creates a generator potential in rod cells

In light (rod cell)

In the dark (rod cell)

Opsin + Cis-Retinal → Rhodopsin Rhodopsin → Opsin + Trans-Retinal

Causes sodium channels to open Causes sodium channels to close
Membrane depolarised Membrane hyperpolarised
Neurotransmitter released into inhibitory No neurotransmitter released into inhibitory synapse
synapse [rod → bipolar cell]
Bipolar neurone hyperpolarised → no impulse Bipolar neurone depolarised → AP
No neurotransmitter released into excitatory Neurotransmitter released into excitatory synapse
synapse [bipolar → ganglion cell]
No action potential Action potential along ganglion neurone
Resynthesis of rhodopsin

TRANS-RETINAL + OPSIN → RHODOPSIN ATP → ADP + PI

Mitochondria in inner segment synthesis ATP
Slow reaction compared to rhodopsin breakdown by light
Bright light into dim light conditions → poor vision until rhodopsin is resynthesised
Retinal is a derivative of vitamin A

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Connection Between Sensory Cells and The Neurone of the Optic Nerve

Rod cells are working in dim light conditions

o Several rod cells synapse with one relay cell → retinal convergence
o Impulse by summation, thus, rod cells collectively cause generator potential
o Poor visual acuity but high sensitivity to dim light
Cone cells are working in bright light
o Each cone cell synapses with each individual relay cell
o Several impulses pass along the optic nerve to the brain
o High visual acuity (ability of the brain to resolve images)

Perceiving - the brain

Visual pathway
o Binocular vision
 Overlap of visual fields of both eyes
 Right visual field focuses on left retina and vice versa
o Impulses from rod and cone cells travel within optic nerve
o Arrive at optic chiasma
 Half of the fibres cross over to the other side
 Right brain processes the left visual field of both eyes and vice versa
o Impulses continue in the optic tract and pass to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)
o From there, impulses pass to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe
Binocular vision allows the judgment of distances
Top-down process
o Perception depends on content of the image and is processed
o Knowledge, expectations, or thoughts influence perception
o Evidence from visual illusions
o Constructivism
Bottom-up process
o Perception from physical characteristic of stimulus
o Only information received from eye is used for perception
o Realism

Drugs

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Monoamine neurotransmitters

Examples
o Catecholamines - dopamine (DA), noradrenaline (NA), adrenaline (ADR)
o Serotonin (5-HT)
o Histamine
Dopamine
o Stimulates the limbic system
o Limbic system is the reward system - it controls emotion, motivation, appetite
o Many drugs can affect the limbic system by the release of dopamine
Cocaine (stimulant)
o Inhibits re-uptake of dopamine from presynaptic neurones
o Dopamine remains in synaptic cleft
o Continues to stimulate postsynaptic neurones
o Stimulates sympathetic (vasoconstriction, euphoria, …) and limbic system
LSD (hallucinogen)
o 5-HT receptor agonist (mainly subtype 2a)
 Stimulation causes hallucinations
o Dopamine agonist

THC receptor

Marijuana/Cannabis bind to cannabis (THC) receptors

THC receptors prevents the release of inhibitory neurotransmitters
Lack of inhibitory neurotransmitters causes the release of dopamine

ACh receptor

Nicotine is an agonist at the acetylcholine (ACh) receptor

Stimulates sympathetic nervous system
o Increases heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate
o Increases reaction time
o Increases energy levels
Releases dopamine

Neurones and nerve impulses

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Sensory and motor neurones

Sensory neurone
o Activated by sensory input
o Dendrites form a long dendron (impulse towards cell body)
o Cell body is found in root cell ganglion
o Axon carries impulses away from cell body
Motor neurone
o Dendrites extend from the cell body (no dendron)
o Axon carries impulses away from cell body
o Innervates muscles
Myelinated axon is surrounded by Schwann cells (myelin sheath)
o Increases speed of conduction

Resting Potential

MEMBRANE IS POLARISED: inside of axon is more -ve than outside

A resting potential of -70mV is maintained by
o Negatively charged proteins/large anions inside axon
o Membrane more permeable to K+ than to Na+ / K+ ions move out faster than Na+ ions diffuse in
o Sodium/potassium pump / Na+ ions pumped out faster than K+ ions pumped in
Electrochemical gradient determines movement of ions
o K+ cannot move down its conc. gradient
o Build up of positive Na+ outside membrane repels K+
Imbalance of negative ions causes potential difference/voltage
o Cl- cannot move down its conc gradient
o Negatively charged proteins in cytoplasm repel Cl-

Action Potential

Stimulus reaches threshold

Voltage-regulated sodium channels open / influx of Na+ / down electrochemical gradient / +ve feedback
Depolarisation / inside becomes +ve / membrane potential reverses
o //Depolarisation opens sodium channels in adjacent membrane
Potassium channels open (slower than Na+ gates) / diffusion of K+ ions out of neurone
Repolarisation
Sodium channels close

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Hyperpolarisation due to overshoot in movement of K+out of the cell

o //Membrane potential is lower than resting potential
o //Interior of the cell becomes -ve \ membrane is more permeable to K+ ions than to Na+ ions
Sodium-potassium pump restores RESTING POTENTIAL
[GRAPH] Highest positive membrane potential is the action potential

All-or-nothing nature

Once action potential starts, it travels to a synapse

Stimulus must cause sufficient movement of Na+ and K+ to depolarise the membrane and
cause an action potential
Threshold stimulus → impulse that causes an action potential
o Stimulus transmits an impulse at a constant and max strength
o Transmission is independent of any intensity of the stimulus
o High frequency of impulses / more amount of sodium entry / more ATP
Subthreshold stimulus → stimulus weaker than a threshold stimulus
Summation → series of subthreshold stimuli cumulate to cause an action potential

Refractory Period

Represents a time during which the membrane cannot be depolarised again

o During repolarisation and hyperpolarisation
o Membrane is impermeable to Na+ ions / sodium ion channels closed
o Sodium ions cannot enter axon
o K+ ions move out as membrane is more permeable to K+ ions
o Membrane becomes more negative than resting potential
Nerve impulses can only travel in one direction
o Action potential can only depolarise the membrane in front
o Membrane behind is recovering from refractory period (previous action potential)
Limits frequency with which neurones can transmit impulses

Speed of Conductance

Impulses travel faster in myelinated neurones → SALTATORY CONDUCTION

o Schwann cells prevent diffusion of ions
o Flow of current between adjacent nodes of Ranvier
o Thus, depolarisation only at nodes of Ranvier

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o Action potential jumps from node to node

Temp affects speed of conduction of impulses
o Higher temp increases rate of diffusion of ions
Impulses faster in an axon with larger diameter
o Small cells / large surface area:volume ratio / ion leakage weakens membrane
o Myelin stops ion leakage \ diameter only important for unmyelinated neurones

Synapses - where neurones communicate

Structure

Synaptic cleft (gap) of 20μm separates two neurones at a synapse (junction of 2 neurones)
o Presynaptic membrane is at the end of a neurone
o Postsynaptic membrane is at the next neurone in the chain
Synaptic knob of a presynaptic neurone contains
o Neurotransmitters in small vesicles
o Mitochondria to produce ATP needed for neurotransmitter synthesis
Neuromuscular junction
o Presynaptic neurone connects with muscle
o Postsynaptic membrane is called the motor end plate

Synaptic Transmission
Unidirectional

Neurotransmitter always travels from pre- to postsynaptic membrane

Thus, flow in one direction only, action potential only in postsynaptic neurone

Summation

Several presynaptic neurones release neurotransmitter

Cumulative effect reaches a threshold to depolarise postsynaptic membrane
E.g. rod cells when they synapse with relay neurones in the retina
Spatial summation
o Several impulses arrive at one neurone via several synapses
o Cause sufficient depolarisation / open sufficient sodium ion channels
o For threshold to be reached
Temporal summation
o Several impulses arrive at same neurone via same synapse

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o Threshold → action potential

Inhibition

More inhibitory postsynaptic potentials IPSPs than excitatory postsynaptic potentials EPSPs
Reduces membrane potential / makes more negative
Hyperpolarisation of postsynaptic membrane
Cancels effect of action potential when several synapses

Mechanisms of Transmission

Nerve impulse reaches synaptic knob/presynaptic membrane/neurone

Depolarisation opens Ca2+ gates / calcium ions enter
Ca2+ causes vesicles containing neurotransmitter to fuse with membrane
Release of neurotransmitter / into synaptic cleft / by exocytosis
Diffuse across synaptic cleft
Neurotransmitter binds to specific receptors in postsynaptic membrane
Sodium channels open / sodium ions enter
o Depolarisation of postsynaptic membrane
o Threshold causes an action potential along postsynaptic neurone
Neurotransmitter are quickly removed from the postsynaptic membrane
o Diffuse out of the synaptic cleft
o Taken up by presynaptic membrane by endocytosis
o Enzymes break down neurotransmitters into inactive substances

Effect of Drugs

Postsynaptic membrane
o Act as agonists → bind to and stimulate receptors
o Act as antagonists → blocks receptors and prevent binding of neurotransmitter
Stimulate release of neurotransmitters from presynaptic membrane
Inhibit destruction of neurotransmitter in synaptic cleft

Menstrual Cycle
Follicular stage [days 1-13]

Pituitary gland secretes follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

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FSH travels in blood to ovary

Stimulates development (division) of follicle cells surrounding the oocyte
Developing follicle cells secrete oestrogen
o Stimulates proliferation of endometrium and its blood supply
o Inhibits further secretion of FSH by negative feedback
o Stimulates pituitary gland to secrete luteinising hormone (LH)
LH causes ovulation

Ovulation [day 14]

Mature ovarian follicle bursts and releases a 2° oocyte (NOT an ovum)

o Happens once a month, menstrual cycle ≈28days
o Each ovary alternatively releases a 2° oocyte every ≈56days (→56/2)
LH forms the corpus luteum from ruptured follicle

Luteal phase [days 15-28]

Corpus luteum secretes progesterone

Progesterone is responsible for
o Proliferation of endometrium and its blood supply
o Development of nutrient fluid glands in uterus lining
o Inhibition of LSH and LH
Corpus luteum degenerates (due to inhibition of LH)

Menstruation [days 1-5]

Also called menses, period, menstrual bleeding

Sign that not pregnant
Shedding of the endometrium due to low levels of progesterone and oestrogen
FSH is not inhibited anymore → cycle starts again

Hormones
Maintaining Pregnancy

Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin (hCG)

o Secreted by trophoblast and developing placenta
o Prevents disintegration of corpus luteum (for 3mo)

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o Thereby, maintains high levels of progesterone

o Basis for pregnancy test → hCG can be detected in urine
o Peak in bloodstream after 2mo followed by a slow decline
Progesterone
o Secreted by
 Corpus luteum for the first 3mo
 Placenta after 3mo (because the corpus luteum degenerates)
o Prevents menstruation and maintains endometrium
o Thickens cervical mucus → impermeable to sperm
o Prepares uterus for implantation

Initiating Labour

Remember: oestrogen ↑contraction while progesterone ↓contraction of uterus

During labour, oestrogen:progesterone ratio increases
o Progesterone falls
o Oestrogen rises
 Sensitises the uterus (muscle) to oxytocin
 Releases relaxin which softens the pelvis
Pressure of fetus against cervix stimulates stretch receptors by positive feedback
o Hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to secrete oxytocin
o Oxytocin causes contraction of uterus
o The higher the pressure, the more oxytocin released, the stronger the contractions

Milk production

Progesterone inhibits prolactin

At birth, progesterone levels fall → prolactin levels increase
Breastfeeding promotes production of milk by positive feedback
o Nerve impulses travel to hypothalamus
o Stimulates pituitary gland to secrete oxytocin and prolactin
o The more milk is removed, the more hormones are secreted
Oxytocin
o Stimulates contraction of milk ducts → squeezes milk out
Prolactin
o Stimulates milk production

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o Inhibits secretion of FSH and LH → prevents ovulation → less likely to conceive

Contraception
Hormones

99% effective (<1:100 women will get pregnant in a year)

Progestogen-only pill
o Thickens cervical mucus → reduces sperm motility
o Inhibits LH production → may prevent ovulation (depends on dose)
Combined pill (oestrogen + progestogen)
o Oestrogen inhibits FSH production → prevents follicular development
o Taken for 21 days - withdrawal bleed for the last 7 days
o Reduce risk of ovarian and endometrial cancer
o Higher risk of thrombosis in smokers
Long-acting progestogen can be given for up to 3mo by injection
Morning-after pill
o Contains high doses of progestogen
o Works for up to 72h after intercourse - works best within 12h

IUD

99% effective
Small plastic and copper device
Inserted into uterus for up to 10yrs
Mechanism
o Stimulates release of prostaglandins by endometrium
o Copper kills sperm
Risk of ectopic pregnancy (ovulation not inhibited) and infection
May cause heavy periods

Barrier

Condoms
o Male condom - 98% effective and protect from STDs
o Female condom - 95% effective and may protect from STDs
Cap with spermicide
o 92-6% effective

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o Latex silicon cap is used with spermicide, is put into vagina to cover cervix
o Must be specifically fitted to make sure it is the right size
o May protect against some STDs and cancer of the cervix
o After intercourse, it should be left in place for 6-8h
o Not used if a woman had toxic shock syndrome (infection due to tampon)

Causes of Infertility

Low sperm count

o Varicocele → dilated veins in scrotum
o Blockage of vasa deferentia
o Sexually transmitted infections (STDs)
o Hormone dysfunction
o Diabetes
Blocked oviducts
o STDs

In vitro fertilisation (IVF)

FSH is injected in woman to stimulate development of several follicles

Just before ovulation, oocytes are collected from the ovary and matured
Fertilisation
o Collected sperm is added to the collected oocyte
o Nucleus of sperm is micro-injected into the oocyte (intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection)
o Fertilisation outside the body in a flat glass dish
Culture to the 8-16 cell stage
Maximum of three are transferred back into the uterus
Advantage: possible to screen embryos for genetic defects LINK WITH 3-4-2

Reproductive System
Male

Testes in the scrotal sac (→extension of abdominal cavity)

o Constant temp (body temp - 2°C) is maintained by
 Heat exchange in arteries and veins
 Semi-external position

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 Muscles in scrotal sac → move testes up/down against warmer abdomen

o If testes don't descent during development → infertility
Tubular system
o 1) Seminiferous tubules
o 2) Vasa efferentia
o 3) Epididymis
o 4) Vas deferens
o 5) Urethra → carries fluids from the urinary and reproductive system
Function
o Seminiferous tubules are found within testes and produce sperm (gametogenesis)
 Heads of sperm are embedded in Sertoil cells
 Prevent destruction of sperm by immune system → sperm and body cells are
genetically different!
 Provide nutrients
 Tails are projected into fluid-filled lumen
o Interstitial cells are found between seminiferous tubules and produce testosterone
o Epididymis is where sperm acquire the ability to swim and are stored
o Prostate secretes alkaline fluid → neutralizes acidity of vaginal tract (which would kill sperm)
o Seminal vesicles secrete fructose → main energy source for sperm
Semen
o 5% sperm
o 70% secretions from seminal vesicles
o 25% secretions from prostate gland
Sperm that are not discharged are degenerated, absorbed, lost via urine

Female

Ovaries in the abdominal cavity produce gametes + sex hormones

o Follicle development
 Follicle = follicle cells surrounding an oocyte (→developing egg/immature ovum)
 At birth, each ovary contains 2 million follicles
 Remain in suspension until puberty → at puberty, only 400 000 remain
 From puberty to menopause, only 400 will be released
 Every month, 20 follicles develop BUT only one follicle ruptures
o Corpus luteum

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 Ruptured follicle develops into corpus luteum

 Pregnant → inhibits next menstrual cycle
 Not pregnant → degenerates and next menstrual cycle starts
Fallopian tube (or oviduct)
o Connects ovaries with uterus
o Lined with ciliated epithelium (→motility)
o Usually, this is the place of fertilization

Summary

Sperm are ejaculated outside the cervix

o Semen is alkaline → neutralizes acidic pH of the vagina
o Cervical mucus is thin and watery during ovulation → allows sperm to swim into uterus
o Contraction of uterus helps sperm to move into the fallopian tubes
Ovulation
o Follicle ruptures and releases a 2° oocyte into the fallopian tube
o Sperm enters 2° oocyte
o 2° oocyte completes meiosis II to form a haploid ovum
o Within minutes, sperm and ovum nuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote (this is fertilisation!)
o Zygote moves along the fallopian tube and develops into a blastocyst
o Moves into uterus where it implants into the endometrium

Figure 49. Author: Mike Jones

Gametogenesis

Formation of gametes
o Spermatogenesis → sperm

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o Oogenesis → ova
Stages
o 1) Multiplication of diploid cells by MITOSIS
 Epithelium of seminiferous tubules multiplies
 Epithelium inside ovary of female fetus multiplies
o 2) GROWTH of daughter cells from mitotic divisions
o 3) MATURATION of haploid daughter cells into gametes (eggs, sperm)
 Primary oocyte/spermatocyte divide by MEIOSIS producing haploid cells (46→23)
Gametogenesis differs in females
o Primary oocytes form before birth
o Cell division in meiosis is unequal → produces 1 ovum and smaller polar bodies (no function)
o Meiosis is suspended at
 Prophase I → resumed after puberty
 Metaphase II → resumed after ovulation

Copulation and Fertilisation

Structure

Sperm
o Head
 Acrosome (enlarged lysosome → digestive enzymes → penetrate egg)
 Haploid nucleus (n)
o Middle → mitochondria produces ATP for tail movement
o Tail → Flagellum for movement
Oocyte
o 0.1mm (100μm) in diameter. Sperm's head is only 2.5μm across
o Haploid nucleus is surrounded by cytoplasm
o Yolk droplets contain proteins and lipids
o Plasma membrane is surrounded by a jelly coat made of glycoproteins

Capacitation

Occurs after ejaculation in the female reproductive tract

Destabilisation of acrosomal membrane
Achieved by removal of cholesterol and glycoproteins from the membrane
Membrane becomes more permeable to Ca2+

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Allows acrosome reaction

Acrosome Reaction

Contact of jelly coat and sperm triggers Ca2+ to enter acrosome

Acrosome bursts and releases enzymes
Enzymes help to digest and penetrate jelly coat
Sperm nucleus enters oocyte, tail and middle piece remain outside
Cortical reaction blocks entry of more sperm
2° oocyte undergoes second division of meiosis → produces ovum + second polar body
Nuclei (ovum + sperm) fuse forming a zygote

Implantation

Zygote undergoes cleavage as it moves along the fallopian tube

o Cells divide by mitosis to form a morula
o Moves along the fallopian tube by cilia and peristalsis
Morula develops into a blastocyst
o Trophoblast → outer cell layer
o Inner cell mass → well become the embryo
o Fluid filled cavity → protection (absorbs shocks, resists compression)
Trophoblast forms microvilli
o Secrete enzymes which digest the endometrium
o Provide large surface area for absorption
Blastocyst becomes buried within endometrium
Microvilli are replaced by placenta

Placenta
Structure

Umbilical cord connects placenta with fetus

o 2 umbilical arteries → deoxygenated blood from fetal aorta to placenta
o 1 umbilical vein → oxygenated blood from placenta to fetal vena cava
FICK'S LAW: (surface area x difference in conc)/thickness of surface is proportional to rate of diffusion
Large surface area
o Microvilli grow into endometrium

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o Each villi contains a network of fetal capillaries

o Surrounded by thin pool of maternal blood
Max difference in concentration
o Fetal Hb has a greater affinity for oxygen than adult Hb
o Countercurrent flow
 Flow of maternal and fetal blood in opposite direction
 Uterine artery to umbilical vein
 Maintains gradient / prevents concs from reaching an equilibrium
Short diffusion path
o Fetal and maternal blood supply is separated by a thin membrane made of 3 layers
 Capillary endothelium
 Thin layer of connective tissue
 Epithelium covering villi
o Exchange surface is only one cell thick
o Maternal and fetal blood never mixes
 Maternal blood may be genetically different from fetal blood

Function

Exchange of substances between maternal and fetal blood

o O2 and waste products (urea, CO2) cross placenta by diffusion
o Glucose enters fetal blood by facilitated diffusion
o Amino acids enter fetal blood by active transport
 Placenta contains many mitochondria
o Maternal antibodies are taken into villi by pinocytosis
 Infant has temporary immunity to same diseases as its mother after birth
Secretes hCG → maintains pregnancy

Birth

Dilation of the cervix

o Fetus lies with its head down against the stretched cervix
o Weak contraction of uterus every 30min / increase in strength and frequency
o Caused by oxytocin released by pituitary gland
Expulsion (also birth or parturition)
o Contractions of mother's abdominal muscles

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o Umbilical cord shuts down, isolating baby from mother

o Rises CO2 content of the blood / stimulates baby's first breath
Delivery of placenta (30 min after birth)

Lactation

Advantages
o Milk is bacteria free/ contains antibodies
o Contains essential nutrients → Ca2+ for bone growth
Disadvantages
o NO fibre/iron → give solid food after 6mo

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